Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner

Equine Reproduction
Clinical Reproductive Anatomy:
- Vulva
o Poor perineal conformation predisposes mares to endometritis
o Vulvar conformation changes with the stage of the estrous cycle
- Vagina
o Urine pooling in the cranial vagina
- Cervix
o Lumen of the uterine body
o Cervix with longitudinal folds
o Cranial portion of the vagina
o Changes in the cervix with the stage of estrous cycle
- Uterus
o During estrus, the endometrial folds become edematous, there is increased uterine contractility and
secretory activity and an upregulation of the uterine defense mechanism
- Uterine tube/ Oviduct
o UTJ: in the mare doesn’t allow unfertilized oocytes through
o Equine embryos produce PGE2 which causes opening of the UTJ
o Oviductal blockage considered as a cause of mare infertility by default after everything else has been
ruled out
- Ovaries
o Mare ovaries are inside out
o Ovulation happens only in the region of the ovulation fossa
o Corpus luteum is non palpable transrectally

Clinical Reproductive Physiology:

- Seasonally polyestrous
- Photoperiod
- Controlled by melatonin
o Increasing daylight= decreased secretion of melatonin
o Removes inhibition of GnRH secretion
o Mares resume cycling
- Prolactin appears to have a role to play in seasonally of mare(stimulated by serotonin, inhibited by dopamine
Theriogenology – Post Midterm
Estrous Cycle Parameters:
- Estrous cycle length= 21 days
- Estrus= variable length (3 to 9 days)
- Diestrus= fairly constant in length
- Ovulation= fairly constant in length(14 to 15
days)
- Spontaneous ovulators
Ovulatory follicle diameter:
- Ranges between 35mm to 60mm
- Varies with the breed
Follicular Dynamics:
- Follicles grow and regress throughout cycle
o Need FSH support up to selection and
LH to ovulate
o LH inhibited by progesterone
- 1 or 2 follicular waves/ cycle
- Usually only one dominant follicle- ovulates
Estrus
- Vulva is relaxed
- Cervix is relaxed and often non palpable
- Uterus is relaxed and edematous
- Large follicles on the ovary and no CL
Diestrus
- Vulva firmly closed
- Cervix is firm and tonic
- Uterus is tonic
- CL on the ovary
Manipulation of Estrus Cycle
Methods used for hastening the onset of breeding season:
- Artificial photoperiod
o Fixed photo period beginning 15 Nov- 1st Dec
o 1 hr exactly 9.5 hrs after sunset
or snus bysunset
o Average lag period of 60-75 days
o Nutrition and ambient temperature also important
o Blue light masks
▪ Recently discovered that low intensity inhibits -
melatonin secretion
▪ Development of equilume mask
- Hormonal
o Hormonal treatment added to the end of the lighting
regimen can advance the 1st ovulation
o Need 25-35mm follicles present before starting Rx.
o P4 alone, P4+estradiol, PGF, hCG, and GnRH agonist,
and dopamine antagonists
- A combination of artificial photoperiod and hormonal
approaches Donneridonetlighting
Guillbeau/ Miner
Sexual receptivity in mares is due to absence of
progesterone rather than due to presence of estrogen:
- Diestrus: not receptive to the stallion
- Estrus: receptive to the stallion
- Anestrus and ovariectomized mares( receptive
to stallion)
Transitional Estrus:
- During spring
- Increasing daylight→ increase GnRH→ increased
FSH→ initiates follicular development
- LH secretion low
Spring Transition:
- Although there is follicular development, the
follicles don’t ovulate
- Therefore, get prolonged heat signs + erratic “
interestrous intervals” during spring with no
ovulation
- Probably require a threshold of estrogen in
order to cause LH surge and ovulation
Autumn Transition:
- Ovary in the process of switching off. Also often
multiple anovulatory follicles
Anestrus:
- During short days
- Period of repro quiescence
- Increased melatonin
- Decreased GnRH, FSH + LH
- Functional ovarian atrophy
- Progesterone
o Effective in late spring transition
o Duration: 14-18 days
o Suppresses estrus- but allows follicles to grow =
stopping Tx → mares should come into estrus
o IM or orally
o Progesterone in oil or Altrenogest
hCG or GnRH agonist
o given in late spring transition when follicles
o Induces ovulation or hastens follicular growth and
ovulation(GnRH)
o One injection
- Dopamine Antagonists
o Sulpiride
o Compete with dopamine
o Remove negative feedback on prolactin
o Induce follicular growth during transition
o 10-35 days after 2 wks of artificial light in jan.
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner
Induction of Ovulation
hCG GnRH Suppression of Estrus
- tradename - GnRH non immunogenic - Inductions
- LH like effect→ ovulation - Products available o Competition horses
- Pre-requisites o Deslorelin o Riding horses
o 35mm follicle o S/C implant - Pharmacological
o Mare should be in estrus - Anticipated response o Daily P4: most
- Anticipated response → Ovulation o Ovulation within 48 hrs effective method
within 36 - 48 hrs - Other effects of GnRH o GnRH agonists-
Other effects o Prolonged interoestrus downregulation
- Anti-hCG antibody formation - May intervals in mares that - Efficacy, practically, side
interfere w/ future response don’t get pregnant due to effects, economics
down regulation of GnRH
receptors
o Remove implant after
ovulation

Mare Breeding Soundness Evaluation

Components if the Mare BSE Indications:
1. ID and signalment - Pre purchase
a. Name and unique ID # - Pre breeding
b. Natural markings, age, breed, color - Infertility/ problem mare

2. History Breeding Term:

a. Career, Disease hx, Medications, Management - Never foaled before
- Generally good chance of conception EXCEPT older
3. General clinical exam maiden mare
a. Nose to tail
b. Body condition Barren mare
c. Cursory exam of all body systems - Hasn’t conceived this breeding season
d. Heritable defects - Reduced fertility

4. Specific reproductive exam Assessment of uterine edema score:

a. Perineal conformation - Grade 0-3
i. Normal - Too much edema or edema during diestrus can be a
1. Upright vulva sign of endometritis
2. Good apposition of vulva lips
3. More than 2/3rds to ¾ of the vulvar Assessment of Intraluminal fluid:
length below the base of the pelvis - Free intraluminal fluid
ii. Gaping of the vulvar lips and horizontal tipping o Pregnancy
of the vulva predisposes mares to pneumo- o Endometritis
vagina & fecal contamination ▪ Post breeding
iii. Perineal body ▪ Infectious endometritis
b. Transrectal palpation and US o Pyometra
c. Evaluation of the vestibulo-vaginal junction
d. Vaginal exam Endometrial cysts: Don'tmove
e. Endometrial cytology and bacterial culture - May be single or multiple
f. Endometrial biopsy - Range in size
g. Special test - Often irregular in shape
i. Hysteroscopy - Confused w/ early preg.
ii. Hormone profile - Note down their location and size
iii. Karyotyping
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner
U/S of the Ovaries
- Size
- Structures present
o Follicles, CL, CH
- Abnormalities: hemorrhage anovulatory follicles, ovarian hematoma, tumors

Evaluation of the vestibulo-vaginal junction:

- Windsucker test
o Gently pull vulva lips apart- should see pink curtain and not the
vagina
o Mares w/ incompetent vestibulo-vaginal junction, sound of air
rushing in once you part the vulvar lips

Vaginal Exam
- Clean the perineum 1st!!!! Clean enough to eat your breakfast on!!
- Vaginoscopy
o Exam the external os of cervix
o Examine the vagina, vestibulo-vaginal junction and the vestibule
- Dynamic changes in the cervix w/ the stage of estrous cycle
o Position, Appearance, Size

Manual/digital exam of the cervix

- Very important in post partum mares or mares w/ Hx of infertility
- Need to check integrity and patency
- Best done during diestrus → Cervix should be tightly closed during diestrus

Endometrial Cytology and Culture: Interpretation of cytology and culture results

- Proper perineal preparation is important - Cytology: classified as normal or endometritis based
- Sterile long sleeved gloves on the presence of inflammatory cells
- Double guarded endometrial swabs are better - Use 10 high power(40x) field
o Swab 1- for culture and sensitivity - Greater then 1 Neu per hpf indicates endometritis
o Swab 2- smear for cytology - Positive cytology and negative culture in a mare
- Can also do a low volume uterine lavage indicates most likely a non infectious endometritis
- Negative cytology and positive culture indicates most
Endometrial biopsy: likely contamination of the swab
- Barren mares
- Site: base of the uterine horn Blood Tests: Special Test- Hysteroscopy:
- Endometrial grading system according to Kenney - Hormone - Intraluminal
and Doig profiles(GCT panel) foreign bodies
o Cat. 1: 80-10% chance of carrying foal to - Karyotyping - Ablation of the
term - Infectious disease endometrial cysts
o Cat 2a: 50 to 80%
o Cat 2b: 10 to 50%
o Cat 3: <10%

Mare Breeding Management

Thoroughbred horses:
- Natural mating/ live cover only
- One cover per estrous cycle
- Uterine culture before breeding
- Caslick’s surgery after breeding,
required
- Check for venereal diseases
Standardbred Horses
- AI using chilled or frozen semen,
no or limited embryo transfer
- Check for equine viral arteritis
- Mares have a longer racing career
- Less emphasis on early breeding
Warmblood, Quarter and Arabian
Horses
- All types of breeding including
embryo transfer
- Mares enter the broodmare band
at much more advanced age
- Likely more subfertility problems
due to advance age
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner

Natural Service/Live cover Programs

- Only method approved for thoroughbreds to obtains a registered foal - Natural service/ liver
- Used in small operations for other breeds cover
o Pasture breeding
Live cover w/o vet intervention o Hand breeding
- Miniature horses, ponies, heavy breeds - Artificial insemination
- Mares are teased daily or every other day o Fresh semen
- When the mare is in good heat, she covered o Chilled/ cooled
o Mare is covered semen
o 2 days later she is teased again o Frozen semen
o Mare is still in heat, she is covered again Teasing Scores 0-4
- 16-18 days after the end of the estrous period, the mare is teased again - 0: not interested
- Mare doesn’t return to estrus, a vet is called upon to confirm the pregnancy - 1: passive
- 2: interested
Liver cover with vet assistance - 3: very interested
- Thoroughbred horses - 4 : winking, squatting
- Goal is to limit the # of breedings w/ the most efficient outcome
- Normal covering rhythm for a stallion: 3 to 5 times per week
- Fresh semen is fertile for at least 48 hrs
- Breed once based on est. time of ovulation
Induce ovulation by hCG or GnRH at time of breeding

Required for hCG/GnRH to desired effect

- Estrous behavior
- Uterine edema
- Follicle Size> 35mm and >30 mm for GnRH

hCG GnRH
- LH like action - Stimulates LH secretion
- Required follicle size >35mm - Follicle > 30mm
- Large, antigenic molecule - Small non antigenic molecule
- Average interval to ovulation is 36 hrs - Average interval to ovulation is 42 hrs
- Reduced efficacy may be seen after - Seems to work better in older mares
replaced use over many cycles

Natural service/ live cover- hygiene:

- Washing w/ warm, clean water and a mild soap
- Rinse and dry to remove all residues

Stallion has a stallion ejaculated?

- Flagging of the tail
- Palpation of urethral pulsation the base of penis
during ejaculation

- Hygienic breeding practices

- Semen deposited in the uterine body
- Arm withdrawn slowly to avoid getting air in
vagina
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner

AI w/ fresh semen:
- Semen collected on the farm
- Semen extended to make multiple insemination doses, each containing at least 500 million progressively
motile and morphologically normal spermatozoa
- Using hygienic breeding practices, the semen is deposited in the uterine body
- hCG or GnRH for ovulation inductions

AI w/ chilled semen:
- Chilled semen is fertile for up to 24 hrs after insemination
- Goal: inseminate as close as possible before ovulation
- To ensure timely ovulation, give ovulation inducing agent
o @ the time of ordering semen
o Half way between ordering semen and arrival
o At the time of insemination
- Mare is monitored using a combo of teasing and transrectal exam
- Stallion is collected- often @ a site remote from where mare is standing
- Semen examined for volume, concentration, motility, and morphology
- Insemination dose: 500 million progressively motile
- Semen is extened, placed in special container and shipped to the mare side
- Maintain the semen at 4 degrees C temp

Artificial insemination w/ frozen semen

- Frozen thawed semen if fertile in the mare for 12 hrs or less!!!!
- After ovulation, the oocyte is fertilizable for 6 to 12 hrs
- Goal: inseminate between less than 12 hrs before ovulation to less than 12 hrs after ovulation
o Ideal 4 to 6hrs of ovulation

AI w/ Frozen semen METHOD 1 AI w/ frozen semen METHOD 2

- Less frequent exams until follicle reaches > 35mm
and the if given hCG/GnRH
- Starting 12hrs hCG injection, examine every 6 hrs
until ovulation has occurred
- After ovulation by deep intrauterine insemination
- May need to examine during the night
- Only one insemination used
- Time consuming
- Administer hCG between 8 am and 12 noon
- Inseminate next day( day 1) at 30 hrs after hCG,
between 2pm and 6 pm
- Inseminate again on day 2, 18 hrs after 1st
insemination, between 8 am and 12 noon

Post Breeding Management

- Uterine lavage w/ normal saline or LRS solution 6 to 12 hrs after breeding
- Oxytocin every 4 to 6 hrs
- Caslick’s surgery
- Persistent breeding induced endometritis is a major cause of mare infertility and impaired physical
clearance of the dead spermatozoa and inflammatory products appears to the main underlying mechanism.
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner

Pregnancy in Mares
Post breeding management
- Pregnancy Dx day 14 after ovulation

Early pregnancy events:

- Fertilization occurs in the oviduct
o Embryo remains in the oviducts for +/- 6 days
- Embryo migrates into the uterus
o Maternal recognition of pregnancy
▪ Embryo remains round and mobile- comes
into contact with all parts of endometrium
- Equine embryo develops a tough glycoprotein capsule after
entry into the uterus
o Capsule is lost around day 22
- Embryo is mobile until D16 after ovulation
- Embryo secretes Prostaglandins
- Uterus has a high tone

Fixation of the Embryo

- Fixation at Day 16
- Fixation is at the base of the uterine horn

Maintenance of Pregnancy is a bit complicated in horses:

- Primary CL initially- up to day 35
o Endometrial cups developing
▪ Disappear by day 120
▪ Will continue to present even if fetus is
gone
o Trophoblastic cells of fetal origin that burrow into
endometrium of the mare
o Secrete eCG known as PMSG
▪ Resurgence of primary CL
▪ Development of 2nd CL’s
- The get resurgence of primary CL and development of
secondary CL’s- up to about Day 150
- Then feto placental unit take over at about Day 120
- From day 150 to 220 the fetal gonads are bigger than the
mares gonads
- Fetal gonads pump out DHEA which is converted by the
Chorionic surface has a velvety appearance due
placenta to various estrogens
to presence of microcotyledons
- Fetal adrenal produces other progestogens of pregnancy in
Allantoic surface is purplish white and smooth
the mare

Umbilical Cord:
- Contents:
o 2 umbilical arteries
o 1 umbilical vein
o Urachus
- Normal length 36-38cm
- Too short or too long considered abnormal
- Too much twisting can result in abortion
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner
Normal gestation length= 335-342 days
- <300 days = abortion
- 300-320 days = premature and non-viable without care
- >360 day = prolonged gestation
o May be pathological due to fescue toxicity
Normal lesions/ non lesion lesions
- Avillous areas that are considered normal
o Cervical star
▪ Normal for the surface of the placenta up against the cervix to be devoid of microcotyledons
o Chorioallantoic pouches
▪ Areas of the chorioallantois opposite the endometrial cups in the uterus
o Insertion of the umbilical cors
o Tiny area in the region opposite the tip of the uterine horn
o Folds adjacent to large allantoic vessels
- Allantoic pouches
- Hippomane
- Yolk sac remnant

Pregnancy Diagnosis
Methods of Pregnancy diagnosis in horses
- Ultrasound
- Transrectal palpation
- Hormonal assays
DDx: endometrial cysts
- Cysts are not mobile!!
- Pregnancy grows much faster:
reexamine after few days
- Cysts don’t have heartbeats
- Cysts may not perfectly spherical
- Keeping a record of the sizes and
locations of cysts during pre-breeding
exam can be very helpful!!
Ultrasound
- Day 12
- First pregnancy check usually performed on day 14
- Embryo gets fixed on Day 16
- Remains perfectly round until after fixation
Transabdominal U/S:
- After 4months of preg
- Assess fetal heart rate, fetal movements, and thickness of uterus
- Fetal HR 82-136bpm
- FHR <50bpm or hypermobility
- CTUP values higher than normal values indicate placentitis

Day 21 – Day 25- Day 30- Day 40- Day 50-60:

ID Embryo Proper fetal heartbeat Yin yang; embryo in embryo moves to embryo moves to the
visible the center of the top of bottom of the
embryotic vesicle embryonic vesicle embryonic vesicle
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner

Rectal Palpation for Pregnancy Diagnosis

Day 15-18: increased cervical and uterine tone

Day 20-25: ventral bulge at the base of the
uterine horn

DDx:
- Urinary bladder
- Pyometra
- Distended large intestine
- Foreign body
- Gestational problem: mummification,
maceration, hydrop

Progesterone

Test from day 16 to Day 90 post ovulation

- Limited value for pregnancy diagnosis
o High progesterone could also
be due to persistent CL from
other causes
o Diestrus ovulations occurs in
some mares, resulting in
prolonged diestrus periods
- More value for Dx of non pregnant or
mares at risk of early pregnancy loss
o Very low progesterone: the endometrial W eCG/ PMSG
mare is very unlikely to be
- Test between day 45-100 after ovulation
pregnant
- False negatives
o Low progesterone<2 to 4
o Before day 45
ng/mL: increased risk for early
o After day 100
pregnancy loss
- False positives
o Pregnancy loss after day 35 (cup formation)
Regumate when do you take off?
Day 40 to 45 if the blood progesterone levels
are sufficient at that time Estrone Sulphate
- Day 120-150, when the fetoplacental
unit take over - Between day 100 after ovulation to 2 wks before foaling
- Some prefer to keep them on until - Very reliable test
210 days at which time the - Good indicator of fetal viability and placental function
progesterone levels are complete - Low values indicative of fetal distress/ placentitis
baseline
- Must take them off Regumate by 310
days
- Weaning off gradually rather than
sudden stoppage of Tx is
recommended
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner

Pregnancy Loss - Early Embryonic Death:

- Before day 45 of pregnancy
- Abortion after day 45 of pregnancy
- Before day 15 no change in cyclicity
- Between Day 15 and Day 35: prolonged luteal phase
- After day 35: persistence of the endometrial cups and eCG secretions; no normal cycles/ ovulation until they
regress
Causes: embyvon
- Hormonal: progesterone deficiency 105
- Uterine:
o Insufficient uterine involution postpartum
o Inflammation
o Fibrosis
- Age related:
- Oocytes quality
- Body condition; nutrition

Endotoxemia can cause embryonic loss

- Remember the systemic inflammation of any kind
- Endotoxemia, will result in RGF2alpha release, which will cause luteolysis and terminate the pregnancy

Pregnancy Loss - Abortion:

Equine Herpes Virus Transmission
EHV1: - Aerosolized secretions from infected horses
- Respiratory illness - Direct and indirect contact w/ nasal secretions
in young horses - Contact w/ aborted fetuses, fetal fluids and placentae= High viral load
- Abortion in Establish latent infection in the majority of horses
pregnant mares - No clinical signs
- Myelo- - Stressed may be reactivation of virus with virus shedding
encephalopathy Clinical signs:
in adult horses - Paired serology
EHV4: respiratory - Placenta: minimal lesions- virus isolation
illness Fetus: multifocal hepatic necrosis
EHV3: coital Outbreak Control:
exanthema - Apply DISH- disinfect; isolate; submit samples and hygiene
- Transmitted - Aborting mares: ISOLATE
venereally - Exposed mares: keep together until they foal
- Environmental contamination
o Disinfect
o Keep brood mares away from comminated area
Prevention:
- Immunity is short term
- Provides protection on farm level
- Pregnant mares at 5,7,9 months of gestation
- Herd management
- Hygiene

Equine Viral Arteritis Equine Viral Arteritis: Diagnosis

- Endemic in Europe - EVA is fragile at room
- Outbreaks infrequent temp., but stable when
- Majority of infections subclinical or inapparent frozen. Samples should
- Transmission
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner
o Aerosols from acutely infected horses be frozen and shipped
o Venereal from carrier stallions with freezers packs
o Via chilled semen - Virus isolation: whole
o Indirect from fomites blood
o Heat sensitive but able to persist at freezing temps - Serology: samples at
interval of 3-4 wks
Transmission
- Mares, geldings, and immature colts rapidly rid themselves of Prevention:
the disease and develop immunity - Vaccination annually
- Only stallions develop a carrier status - Currently is not possible
o Testosterone dependent to differentiate
o Virus survives in ampulla vaccinated from natural
o Variable duration infection
- Vx stallions or previously exposed stallions will not become - Stallions are screened
carriers when exposed to the virus serologically before
primary vaccination
Clinical Signs: - Certification of non-
- Majority of cases are subclinical or inapparent carrier state
- Urticaria; edema of limbs, ventrum, periorbital, scrotum - Vx at least 21 days before
- Abortion- associated with storms of abortions breeding

Aborted fetus signs

- No typical symptoms
- Vasculitis in the uterus
- Autolysis can be seen
- Pulmonary edema and liver edema

Pregnancy Loss - Placentitis:

- Always of infectious origin
Strepzoo epidemic l
- Route of infection:
o Ascending through vagina
o Hematogenous- salmonella abortus equi and
leptospira
o Activation of a nidus of bacteria present in the
uterus
- Bacterial placentitis: streptococcus equi subsp.
Zooepidemicus, E. coli, klebsiella pneumoniae
- Fungi and yeasts: aspergillus fumingatus, other mucur
species and rarely yeast such as candida
- Thickened and discolored placenta, especially around
the region of the cervical star
Pathogenesis:
- Ascending bacterial organisms
o Invades the chorioallantois
o Cause increase expression of
proinflammatory cytokines in placenta
o Results in PGE and PGF2alpha release
o Causes an inflammatory cascade and
increase in uterine contractility
o Premature delivery
Nocardioform placentitis:
- Located in lowest part of placenta
- Typical mucoid area

Predisposing Factors: Fungal Placentitis:

- Poor perineal conformation - Hematogenous spread
- Barriers - Lesions located in the different parts of the
o Vulva placenta
o Vestibulovaginal junction - Slow development/ fetus also affected/
o Cervix emaciated
- Allows air, urine, and fecal contamination and
ascending infection
Theriogenology – Post Midterm
Early Dx of placentitis
- No illness, fever or discomfort
- Premature development of the mammary gland, milk
production and milk let down
- Vulvar discharge in some cases
Thickness of the “inflamed” placenta
- 99% of placentitis cases are ascending
- Area of the placenta closest to cervix undergoes
inflammatory changes: thickening, edema,
detachment from the endometrium
- use US to measure the thickness of the placenta
- CTUP
Pregnancy Loss – Non-Infectious:
Twinning
Twins
- Double ovulation occurs in 5-20% of all
cycles
- 90% of all twins pregnancies will result in
abortion
- 90% of all twins born will need additional
medical care
- Financial and emotional implications
- Reduced fertility after abortion, dystocia,
and retained placenta
Origin:
- Majority heterozygotic twins
- Double ovulations
- More common in older mares
- Breed predisposition for multiple ovulations
o Thoroughbreds
o Draught horses
- Hormonal manipulations of estrus cycle:
PG& hCG
o Increased ovulation rate and
increased pregnancy rates
Guillbeau/ Miner
Treatment:
- Contain the infection and inflammation as much as
possible to buy time and allow the fetus to reach
maturity and readiness for birth
- Antimicrobials- broad spectrum: TMS
- NSAIDs: reduce inflammation: flunixin
- Progestagens: maintains pregnancy
- Other tx: pentoxifylline, tocolytics, and corticosteroids
- Compromised foal that will likely have septicemia
- Very guarded prognosis
- Prevention: correction of perineal conformation
defects or other defects
- Don’t open the seals in a pregnant mares!!!!
Prevention of Twinning:
- Can be avoided/ managed w/ good management
- Important to note every double ovulation or risk of double
ovulation
- Double ovulation is diagnosed pregnancy diagnosis must be
conducted w/ extra caution to avoid missing a twin pregnancy
Treatment:
- Manual crushing of one embryonic vesicle
o Earlier the better
o Preferably during mobility phase
o High success rate
- Wait for natural twin reduction
- Transvaginal aspiration
- Cranio-cervical dislocation
- Terminate pregnancy and re breed
- Transvaginal aspiration or transabdominal puncture of fetus
Other Consideration during twin reduction:
- Flunixin: before performing reduction
- Buscopan: before performing reduction
- Regumate: begin treatment on the day of reduction
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner
Umbilical Torsion/ Strangulation
- More than 5 to 6 twists w/ pathological lesions
- Difficult to diagnose
- Nothing really cant do anything about it

Male Reproductive Loss Syndrome (MRLS)

- 1st reported in 2001 Clinical Signs: Prevention:
- Catastrophic abortion - Early fetal loss - Removal of black cherry trees
- Thought to be linked - Late term abortions in the vicinity of equine farms
w/ drought & higher o Premature placental separation - Reducing exposure of
than normal o Placental thickening pregnant mares to the
temperatures leading o Explosive deliveries caterpillars
to emergence of large - Other issues
number of Eastern Tent o Pericarditis and uveitis in some
Caterpillars adults horses
Early Pregnancy Loss:
Pathogenesis: - Within 35-100 days breeding
- Unknown - Fetal death followed by expulsion
- Epidemiologically - Cloudy and flocculent fluid around the
linked to the fetus
eastern tent Late Abortion:
caterpillar - Abortion in last trimester
- Linked to the black - Associated with swollen and engorged
cherry tree placenta
- Premature placental separation (red bag)

Abnormal Gestational Conditions

Vulvar Bleeding - Varicose veins located at or just caudal of the vestibulo-vaginal folds
Prepartum - Discrete to obvious dripping of blood
- Not life threatening
- Can start a few days to weeks before foaling
Treatment:
- Do nothing
- Cauterize
- Silver nitrate
- Don’t ligate!!!!
Uterine - Mares most frequent in the last 3 months of gestation
Torsion - Mild, chronic colic but no gastrointestinal abnormalities
- Risk of fetal hypoxia and uterine necrosis
- Verify the orientation of the broad ligaments
o Perform transrectal palpation
o Band across dorsum of uterus
o Direction of band indicates direction of torsion
- Surgical Reposition
o Performed in standing mare
o Flank incision
o Incision on left for couterclockwise rotation
o Lift the uterus up and flip back into the normal position
Verify the broad ligaments to confirm correct position
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner
Fescue - Tall fescue grass infected with an endophyte fungus
Toxicity - Acremonium coenophialum
- Secretes ergot alkaloids
o Dopamine agonists
o Suppresses prolactin
o Causes agalactia
- Causes reproductive problems in mares
o Prolonged gestation
o Oversized fetus and dystocia
o Abortion
o Thickened placenta
o Fetal asphyxiation
o Premature separation of placenta
Prevention:
- Maintain pregnant mares on non fescue pastures
- Dilute the toxin by overseeding pastures w/ palatable legumes
- Kill infected pastures and reseed with endophyte resistant strains of fescue
- Remove mares from fescue pasture during last 90 days of gestation
Treatment:
- Domperidonr
o Continue after foaling if mares are not producing adequate milk
Sulpiride
Hydrops - Hydramnion or hydrallantois
- Occasionally encountered more common in draft horses
- Pathology at the level of the placenta or fetus
- Foal is generally not viable
- Predisposes to rupture of the prepubic tendon or abdominal musculature
Treatment
- Very slowly remove excess fluid with transcervical catheter. Watch for hypovolemic
shock
- Assist with delivery of the festus because the overstretched uterus may have poor
contractility
- The fetus is often non viable

Prepubic - Very painful and life threatening

Tendon - Mammary gland often involved in trauma
Rupture - Permanent lesion that cannot be repaired surgically
- The mare should not be bred again

Abdominal - Not life threating

Herniation: - Can become pregnant again
Ventral Edema - Not painful
- Resolves spontaneously after foaling
- Mild exercising the mare will stimulate circulation and lymph drainage
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner

Parturition and Dystocia

Pre-foaling Preparation
- Introduce mare to foaling environment 4 to 6 weeks
before due date
- Don’t stress mare
- Don’t introduce any new horses to pregnant mare herd
- Pre-foaling vaccinations
- Remove the caslicks if mare has one

Changes during the last month of pregnancy Electrolytes and pH of milk change:
- Vulvar laxity and edema - Na+ decreases
- Vulvar discharge I
progesterone
- K+ increases
- Relaxation of pelvic ligament - Ca+ increases in last 1-3 days
- Udder development - pH decreases
- Waxing of the teats
- Changes in the composition, consistency, and color of mammary secretions

Predict a foal
- Only 1 square shows color change, when <1% chance of foaling in next 12 hrs
- If 4/5 squares show color change, then 80% chance of foaling in next 24 hrs
- Used in combination with other changes

Stages of Normal Parturition

Stage 1 : preparatory stage
- Restless, increase HR and RR
- Frequent urination
- Frequent lying down and
standing up
- Elevation of tail
Stage 2: Expulsion of Fetus
- Start w/ rupture of
allantochorion
- Abdominal and uterine
contractions
- Amniotic sac appears at the
vulva
- Foal is born
- Stage take about 15-20 mins
Stage 3: Expulsion of Placenta
- Normally within 30 mins to 3
hrs
- > 3 hrs retained fetal
membranes
- Certain breeds seem more
predisposed to RFM like draft
breeds

Equine Obstetrics: Induction of parturition:

- Hygiene is very important Can be done but only under strict
o Tail should be wrapped conditions
o Perineal area should be scrubbed w/ water and mild soap
o Lubrication and clean obstetrical equipment - Fetal readiness for birth is
- When to intervene? essential
o No progress within 15-20 mins after rupture of the allantochorion - At least 330 days; relaxed
o Red bag delivery ligaments around tailhead
Obstetric Exam: - Drug of choice: oxytocin
- Determine disposition of the fetus - Increased risk of red bag
o Forelimbs - Increased risk of dystocia
o Hindlimbs - Once the foaling process begins,
o Can you feel head or a tail? you must see it through and stay
- Determine whether it is alive or dead? with the patient until the foal is
o Suckling reflex born
o Corneal reflex
o Withdrawal reflex
- Decide you plan of action..
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner

Fetal Disposition Dystocia: Johne’s Position: Wryneck

- Presentation
- Position
- Posture
Normal: cranial longitudinal
presentation dorso sacral
position extended head,
neck, and forelimbs
- Urgency!! - The shoulders are in a - Very difficult to correct
- Higher occurrence downward/flexed because of the long neck
o Certain breeds position thereby or permanent
o Young mares increasing the total malposture
- Slowly walking with the diameter of the chest - May require foetotomy
mare until the vet - Repel the foal into the
arrives: will help slow uterus by applying
down straining pressure to the chest
- Every 10 mins the and at the same time
chances of recovering a pull the legs in a full
live foal decrease by shoulder extension
10%

Postpartum Issues
Post partum Exam of the mare Normal Postpartum Events
- General PE, transrectal exam, vaginoscopy, palpation - Placenta expelled within 3 hrs
per vaginum - 1st day postpartum: decrease in uterine size, uterus
- Check for tears feels firm on palpation, expulsion of watery, red colored
- Check for bruising fluid

O
- Check for any other fetus - 3-5 days postpartum: lochia= fairly thick, dark red to
- Examine the placenta!! brown secretion; looks like melted chocolate
- 7-9 days postpartum: lochia discharge should have
Examine of the Placenta ended; pregnant horn is slightly larger than non
- Early warning system: may indicate a compromised foal pregnant; close to gross involution.
- Any pieces remaining? Intact? Most common to have - 15 days postpartum: historlogical involution is
tears at tip of pregnant horns complete; normal, non pregnant endometrium
- Signs of placentitis - Foal heat: within 6 to 8 days postpartum with first
- Any stress in utero ovulation on an average around day 10.
- Any abnormal avillous areas
o Twins, Uterine body pregnancy, Placentitis
- Wear gloves
- Weigh the placenta
o +/- 6 kg or 11% foal body weight
o > 8kg edema and inflammation
- Lay the placenta out in a F shape
o Pregnant horn edema at tip
o Non pregnant horn smaller
o Cervical star= portion in contact with cervix and
will be pale
o Inside out with white chorioallantoic surface
uppermost
Check the Amnion:
- Any obvious abnormal
o Meconium staining stress in utero
o Foal may be compromised
o Aspiration of meconium in utero
Check Umbilicus:
- Normalestructures present in umbilical cord
- Measure length of umbilical cord
- Twisting of umbilicus
o 5-6 twists normal
o Excessive result in fetal death
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner

Retained Fetal Membrane(RFM)

- Occurs in 2-10% of all foalings
- RFM quickly becomes an emergency situation
- Exact cause unknown
o High incidence in draft mares dystocia, induced parturition cases,
old multiparous mares
Treatment
- Tie up the RFM to prevent mare from stepping on it
- Oxytocin every 30 mins to 4 hrs → Small boluses
- Large volume uterine lavage → Modified burns technique
- Broad spectrum antibiotics
- NSAIDs
- Foot care
- IV fluids

Perineal Lacerations and Fistulas → Graded according to tissues involves:

- 1st degree: involves primary mucosa and skin of the vulva
- 2nd degree: extends through muscularture of the vulvar sphincter and compromise closure
- 3rd degree: complete disruption of the roof of the vestibulum, floor of the rectum and anus
- Recto vaginal fistula: all layers between

Cervical Laceration: Uterine Tear:

- Dx with speculum and palpation - Connection w/ ABD
- Conservative treatment - Abdominocentesis
- Surgical repair - Conservative treatment
- Final diagnosis by digital palpation when mare is in diestrus - Surgery

Uterine Prolapse:
- Life threatening
- Uncommon
- Mare will often develop signs of shock due to ischaemia and necrosis w/ endotoxaemia
- Rupture of ovarian arteries and rapid death may occur
- Treatment
o Sedate w/ alpha 2 agonists
o Epidural for pain relief
o Elevate prolapse uterus, check for lacerations, clean and replace gently
o Medications: low dose oxytocin, systemic antibiotics, and NSAIDs

Postpartum Hemorrhage: Signs of postpartum bleeding artery rupture:

- Rupture of the uterine arteries - Severe colic c
- More common in older mares - Profuse sweating
- Usually bleeding occurs within the 2 layers of the - Signs of hemorrhagic shock
broad ligament, forming a hematoma - Presence of a large mass dorsolateral of uterus
- Sometimes into the ABD - Sometimes incidental finding at foal heat
- Treatment
i
- Keep the mare quiet, avoid stress
- Control pain
- Blood transfusion if clinical parameters are indicative
- Aminocaproic acid
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner

Female Infertility
Behavioral Anestrus: Seasonal Anestrus:
- On exam mare appears to have - Average mares estrus as early as 6
normal cyclic ovarian activity: to 8 days postpartum
o Ovulation - 1st ovulation occurs on an average
o Typical changes in
uterus, cervix, and O
around 10 days
- Mares that foal early in the year
vagina may revert to anestrus after the
foal heat
Anovulatory follicles:
- Normally during spring or autumn
transition period
- Dominant follicle fails to ovulate
O
and becomes filled with blood
- Exact cause not clear
- May get very large
- Treatment
- PGF2 alpha

Neoplastic Granulosa Cell - Usually unitlateral, slow growing and benign

Tumor - Destroys normal ovarian architecture
- Secretory: estrogen, AMH, testosterone, inhibin
Signs:
- Aggression and stallion like behavior
- Masculine neck muscle development
- Irregular estrous cycles, Anestrus
Diagnosis:
- Transrectal palpation
o One small atrophic ovary and one enormous ovary

0
in most cases
o Ovulation fossa not palpable in most cases
- Transrectal US
o Honeycomb appearance of the ovary
- Hormone assays(GCT panal)
o Increased inhibin, testosterone
o Low progesterone
o High antimullerian hormone
Treatment:
- Surgical removal of affected ovary
Cystadenoma - Neoplasia of superficial epithelium of the ovary
- Enlarged, absence of ovulation fossa
- US spectacular, large number of small cysts
- Contralateral ovary is normal and active
- Very slowly enlarged
- Surgery needed but not urgent
- No metastases
Teratoma - Germinal cell origin
- Not hormonally active
- No effect on ovarian function
- Contralateral ovary is active
- No metastases
- Very rare
- Removal is not needed
Dysgerminoma - Germ cell tumor
- Enlarged, no ovulation fossa
- US: atypical image, massive echogenic structure
- Contralateral ovary is active
- Slow growing
- Surgery required, Possibility of metastases
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner
Non-Neoplastic Periglandular - History
Fibrosis o Usually older mares
o Hx of repeated pregnancy losses between day 35 to 80
- Dx
o Endometrial biopsy
o Degenerative endometrial changes
- Treatment → none
Pyometra - Equivalent of a chronic abscess
- Inability of the cervix to open/ relax
- Endometrium is severely damaged: No PGF release
- History of anestrus- enlarged uterus
Treatment:
- Not systemically ill
- Uterine lavage
- Hysterectomy
Prognosis:
- High likelihood of recurrence
- Take a biopsy!!

Cervical - Hx of dystocia extraction of foal at last foaling

Incompetence - Signs: mare not conceiving after repeat breeding to fertile stallions, endometritis,
pregnancy loss
- Dx: palpation of cervix during diestrus and visual inspection through speculum
- Tx: corrective surgery
Endometritis - Inflammation, presence of inflam cells
in uterine wall and lumen
- Various types:
o Acute post breeding
o Chronic infectious
o Chronic degenerative
- After breeding or insemination
o All mares have an acute
endometritis after breeding
▪ Normal physiological
immunoreaction
▪ Breeding induced
endometritis resolves w/in
12-48hrs in most mares
▪ Inflam. persist in about 10-
15% of the mare, resulting
in low pregnancy rates
- During Estrus
o Cervix is open
o Increased cilial action
o Increased endometrial gland
secretion
o Influx of neutrophils and WBCs
o Increased uterine contractions
o Lymph drainage
- Poor conformation predisposes to
endometritis
- Characteristics: middle aged or aged
mare, pluriparous, pendulous uterus,
and perineal defects
- Dx:
o US: free fluid in the uterus,
excessive uterine edema
o Vulvar discharge
o Cloudy mucus in the vagina
o Cytology and culture
▪ Guarded swab
technique
o Histopathologic changes-
endometrial biopsy
- Tx:
o Minimal contamination
breeding
o Breed once at optimal time
o Uterine lavage with normal
saline or LRS starting 4 to 6
hrs after breeding
o Give oxytocin every 4 hrs
until you see no fluid in the
uterus on U/S
o Intrauterine Abx if needed
Chronic Endometritis
- Opportunistic organism
Theriogenology – Post Midterm
Assisted Reproductive Techniques (ART)
Embryo Transfer
- Indications
o Obtaining foals from performance mares while
they are still competing
o Obtaining multiple foals from the same mare
during a short period
o Obtaining foals from mares with non reproductive
health or MSK problems
o Obtaining foals from mares with reproductive
problems
- Recipient mare management a very important part of the
process
o Permanent ID
o Reproductively sound to carry foal
o Normal udder
o Good health
o Test and Vx for EVA, where indicated
o Ideally 3 to 12 yrs of age
o Good perineal conformation
o Cycling early in the breeding season
- Recipient mare management:
o Need to know the exact day of ovulation
▪ Behavioral changes
▪ Transrectal palpation and US
▪ Day of ovulation is day 0
▪ Next days after ovulation= +1D,+2D
- Recipient Options
o Estrus synch of recipients and donors
▪ Need at least 3 recipient mares
o Have a large herd of recipients and find on that has
ovulated at a similar time to donor
o Ovariectomized, progestogen treated mares
▪ Regumate
▪ Progesterone in oil
Oocyte Transfer
- Indications
o Standard ET is not an option
▪ Problems with cervix, uterus or uterine
tubes that preclude fertilization or result in
embryonic loss before Day 6-7
- Donor and recipient in sync
- Both induced to ovulate with semen from desired
stallion
- Donor mares oocyte transferred via standing flank
laparotomy to oviduct of the recipient
Nuclear Transfer/ Cloning
- Possible but inefficient at present in the horse
- Limited to only a few centers worldwide
o Banned in thoroughbred and quarter horse
- 85,000 to 150,000/ foal
Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer(GIFT)
- Technique of transferring both oocytes and sperm
into the uterine tubes
o Not currently performed commercially
Guillbeau/ Miner
- Donor mare management:
o Confirmation of ovulation and post breeding
uterine lavage
o Check the donor mare after breeding for persistent
breeding indued endometritis
o Oxytocin post breeding, if required
o Donor mares are flushed for collection of embryos
on D7 after ovulation
o During the week between ovulation and flushing
▪ Keep mare as stress free as possible
▪ Older mares, consider altrengest
supplementation daily
- Non surgical transfer of embryos
o Embryo loaded into a straw
o Best results obtained if recipient ovulates 1 day
before to 3 days after the donor has ovulated
o Similar to AI in cattle
▪ Passing embryo transfer gun through
the cervix in to the uterus
▪ Embryo deposited in uterus
▪ Mare often place on altrenogest until
D60 of pregnancy
- Recipient mare management post transfer
o Monitored frequent after until D50
o Look for signs of endometritis and check for CL
o On average 1 foal per 3 inseminations
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection(ICSI)
- Method by which one sperm is picked up using a
micromanipulator microscope and injected into the
oocyte
o Well developed in the horse
- Option for oocytes collected by flank puncture or
transvaginal US(TVA)
- Solution for male factor infertility
- After fertilization of oocyte
o Immediate surgical transfer into the uterine tube
of mare
o Culture for 24 to 48 hrs and then transfer into
uterine tube
o Culture for 7-8 days and then transfer into uterus
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
- Incubating oocytes with sperm for fertilization in vitro
- Spermatozoa are not able to penetrate the zona
pellucida in vitro in the horse
- Therefore IVF is not currently used in horses
Theriogenology – Post Midterm
Stallion Reproduction – General
General Info:
- Smegma beans in the urethral fossa
- Sampling for CEM evaluation
o Urethra: pre and post ejaculation
o Urethral fossa
o Penile shaft
Guillbeau/ Miner
Testicular Thermoregulation:
- Sweat glands on the scrotal surface
- Cremaster muscle
o Brings testes closer or further away from body
- Tunica dartos
o Contracted and wrinkled= decrease surface area
o Relaxed and smooth= increased surface area

Breeding Soundness Evaluation:

- Indications:
o Pre-purchase, Pre breeding, Infertility
- Steps
1. ID
2. Hx → # of mares bred per season, type of mares, per cycle pregnancy rate
3. PE
a. Check for abnormalities that may affect his ability to breed mares or undergo semen collection
4. Exam of the external reproductive organs
a. Palpation of testes Potential hereditary
i. Firm and elastic, symmetrical, freely mobile, correctly oriented, no edema conditions:
ii. Measurement of testicular size cryptorchidism,
5. Internal exam wobblers syndrome
6. Semen collection and evaluation
a. Wash the penis before semen collection
i. Increase sexual stimulation, decrease contamination of sample, makes it easier to look for any lesions
b. Use clean materials
Classification of abnormal sperm:
c. Use clean warm water - Head defects
d. Use teaser, artificial vagina, and take safety precautions - Midpiece defect
i. Open ended model best for hemospermia - Proximal droplet
e. Chemical ejaculation - Distal droplets
i. Tricyclic antidepressants(imipramine PO) - Tail defects
- Loose heads
f. Evaluation
i. Volume, color(ivory or white), consistency, smell, pH(7.2-7.9), concentration(electronic counter),
motility(beware of cold shock keep warm), morphology(ab-axial attachment of the midpiece to the
head), foreign cells
ii. >75% morphologically normal spermatozoa
iii. >50% progressive motile spermatozoa
7. Check for venereal diseases
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner
Equine Male Infertility
Impotentia Coeundi Impotentia Generandi
- Pain - Cryptorchidism
o MSK - Inguinal/ scrotal herniation
- Torsion of the spermatic cord
o Back pain
- Orchitis
- Penile - Scrotal trauma
- Neoplasia - Testicular degeneration
- Habronemiasis - Testicular atrophy
- Coital Exanthema(EHV-3) - Blocked ampulla
- Tear in the pelvic urethra
Penile abnormalities - Paraphimosis: inability of the horse to retract protruded penis into the preputial cavity
- Phimosis: inability of the horse to protrude its penis from the preputial orifice or preputial
ring
- Priapism: persistent erection without sexual stimulation can lead to paraphimosis and penile
paralysis. Avoid Acepro in stallions
Penile Trauma - Laceration during breeding
- Kick from a mare
- Penetrating object from bedding
- Other causes: stallion ring
- Signs: pain, heat, swelling
- Tx: sexual rest until wounds heal, cold water therapy, and NSAIDs
Penile Neoplasia: - Squamous cell carcinoma
- Sarcoid
- Melanoma
- Papilloma
Habronemiasis - Summer sores
- Caused by migration of Habronema larvae
- DD: SCC
- Dx: biopsy
- Tx: fly prevention, sexual rest, systemic and topical anthelmintics
Cryptorchidism - Normally descend between 30 days before to 10 days after birth
- Seen in 5-8% of foals and is most frequently unilateral
- Dx: history, palpation of scrotum and inguinal region, US, transrectal exam, and hormone
assay.
o Basal Testosterone levels
o hCG stimulation test
o Antimullerian hormone(AMH)
Inguinal/ Scrotal - Edema of the scrotum vs. inguinal hernia
Herniation - Palpation and US
- Congenital causes
- Signs: colicky, swollen scrotum, pain, and maybe able to reduce herniated intestine
- Surgical fix
Swollen Scrotum Causes: inguinal hernia, hydrocele, torsion of cord, orchitis, and trauma
Testicular - Usually due to some sort of insult to testes
Degeneration o Hydrocele due to neoplasia
- Testicular degeneration
o Testes become softer and smaller than normal
o Usually unilateral
Testicular torsion - More common in cryptorchid testis
- 180 to 360 torsion
- Ischemic damage
- Swollen and painful
- Dx: palpation and US
- Tx: hemi-orchidectomy if long standing and surgery
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner
Scrotal Trauma - Often occur in combination with trauma to the penis
- Require quick and aggressive treatment to prevent permanent damage to fertility due to
compromised thermogulation
- Dx:
o Clinical signs, US, Centesis
- Tx
o NSAIDs, Abx, hydrotherapy, Hemioorchidectomy to preserve the other testis
- Chronic
o Exposure of body to spermatozoa results in anti sperm antibody formation
o Spermatic granuloma
o Testicular degeneration/ atrophy
o Sub/ infertility
Blocked Ampulla - Usually present at the beginning of the breeding season
- Hx of mares not getting pregnant after covering
- Semen
o Azoospermia/ oligospermia
o Low ALP concentration in the ejaculate
- Treatment
o Repeated semen collection
o PGF2alpha
o Oxytocin
o Manual massage per rectum
o Preventive tx; Continue to collect semen on regular basis
- Spermiostasis
o Initially only few dead spermatozoa in the ejaculate
o When passage is restored, first very high concentration of dead spermatozoa
o May take several days of daily semen collection to resume normal quality
spermatozoa and establish normal DSO.
Tear in Pelvic Urethra - Blood in the ejaculate ( hemospermia)
- No other clinical signs
- Affects fertility, depending on the amount of blood
- Dx
o Appearance of blood in the ejaculate
o Endoscopy
o Usually tear in the pelvic urethra
- Treatment
o Repair lesion surgically, Sexual rest, May recur

Venereal Disease
Viral Dourine
Coital Exanthema (EHV- 3) Trypanosoma equiperdum
- Venereally transmitted and fomites - Reportable in the US
- External genital infection - Signs
o Initially vesicles on external genitalia of o Edematous swelling of genitalia
stallions and mares o Mucopurulent urethral discharge
o Pustules, ulcers, and crusts o 2-10cm urticarial cutaneous plaques
o May cause pain during coitus o Progressive emaciation
o Non infectious once ulcers have healed o Penile paralysis
cause depigmented areas - Dx
o Immunity short lived o Complement fixation test
reinfection o Isolation of trypanosomes from urethral exudate, blood or urticarial
- Treatment → Sexual rest plaques
and hygiene - Treatment
- o Generally impractical
o Euthanasia!!!
Theriogenology – Post Midterm Guillbeau/ Miner

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