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org/EF Review

Progress and Outlook of Supercritical CO2−Heavy Oil Viscosity

Reduction Technology: A Minireview
Jiatong Tan, Zehong Wang,* Siding Chen, and Haili Hu

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ABSTRACT: Under the guidance of the carbon peaking and

carbon neutrality strategies, the recovery, emission reduction, and
effective utilization of industrial CO2 are particularly important.
Supercritical CO2 viscosity reduction technology effectively
improves the flowability and reduces the energy consumption of
heavy oil pipeline transportation. This work reviews the
experimental research on supercritical CO2 viscosity reductions
of heavy oil, summarizes the viscosity reduction mechanisms and
main influencing factors, describes the research achievements
regarding theoretical parameters such as the solubility and viscosity
of supercritical CO2 and the density and viscosity of live oil,
introduces engineering applications of supercritical CO2 in the oil
and gas field, analyses the problems involved in corrosion, stability,
and solids deposition of crude oil containing dissolved CO2, and presents the current challenges and perspectives. The main future
research directions of this technology involve the mechanism of supercritical CO2 viscosity reduction, ensuring the stability of
supercritical CO2 and crude oil mixtures during pipeline transportation, designing and establishing oilfield surface engineering
facilities for supercritical CO2 viscosity reduction technology, and improving the protection strategies for CO2 corrosion. This work
can provide a reference for the application of supercritical CO2 in heavy oil development and pipeline transportation.

1. INTRODUCTION
The critical phenomena were first reported by Cagniard in
1822.1 In the 1950s, supercritical CO2 was initially used for
crude oil recovery enhancement. In recent years, carbon capture,
utilization, and storage (CCUS), energy reduction and efficiency
improvement, and emission reduction process innovations have
become important with the promotion of global emission
reductions. The use of supercritical CO2 to reduce the viscosity
of heavy oil has been increasingly investigated.
At pressures above 7.3773 MPa and temperatures above
30.9780 °C, CO2 becomes a supercritical fluid2−5 (Figure 1).
The density of supercritical CO2 (scCO2) is close to that of
liquid CO2, the viscosity is similar to that of CO2 gas (Figure 2),
the surface tension is almost zero6,7 (Table 1), and it readily
dissolves nonpolar or low−polarity organic compounds.
Supercritical CO2 interacts with crude oil and reduces its
viscosity and surface tension, expands the volume, extracts the
lighter components, and significantly improves the fluidity of the Figure 1. CO2 pressure−temperature phase diagram.
heavy oil. Common methods for reducing the viscosity of heavy
oil include heating, dilution, emulsification, and upgrading.8 Received: April 20, 2023
However, these methods have several disadvantages. First, Revised: July 23, 2023
heating requires a simple device, but it consumes a great deal of Published: August 9, 2023
energy, leading to significant economic losses. Second, dilution
not only requires a steady supply of light oil but also alters the
properties of the oil. Furthermore, emulsification requires the

© 2023 American Chemical Society https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c01387

11567 Energy Fuels 2023, 37, 11567−11583
Energy & Fuels
Figure 2. State of CO2 at different temperatures and pressures.
Table 1. Physical Parameters of Supercritical CO2
Name Critical temperature (°C) Critical pressure (MPa)
Supercritical CO2 30.9780 7.3773
addition of emulsifiers and water, which increase the post-
treatment processes and costs. Finally, upgrading, which
involves cracking with heat and catalysts, breaks down large
molecules into smaller ones. However, the long−chain hydro-
carbons present in extra heavy and ultra heavy oils are valuable
raw materials for high−grade lubricants and greases. Therefore,
upgrading affects the economic benefits of the heavy oil
products.9−11
Supercritical CO2 reduction of heavy oil viscosity has
advantages; it is environmentally friendly, cost−effective,
applicable to a wide range of resources, provides sufficient
viscosity reductions, and is readily controlled.12 This method
can recover and utilize CO2 without altering the composition
and properties of the oil. In the petroleum industry, supercritical
CO2 is commonly used as an extractant and displacement agent
and is widely employed to improve heavy oil production
recovery, hydraulic fracturing, and the treatment and processing
of oil sludge and heavy oil deposits (HOD).13
This paper reviews the relevant literature on the use of
supercritical CO2−heavy oil viscosity reductions, as shown in
the flowchart in Figure 3. First, Section 2 introduces recent
experimental studies related to viscosity reductions of super-
critical CO2−heavy oil mixtures. Second, Section 3 summarizes
the viscosity reduction mechanisms of supercritical CO2,
including dilution, extraction, molecular diffusion, and shear
thinning, and systematically analyzes their similarities and
differences. In addition, Section 4 analyzes the main factors
influencing the viscosity reduction of heavy oil by supercritical
CO2, such as the solution gas−oil ratio, temperature, pressure,
and water content. Furthermore, Section 5 introduces the
characteristic parameters of supercritical CO2 viscosity reduc-
tions, including the CO2 solubility and dissolved CO2 crude oil
viscosity. Section 6 outlines the engineering applications of
supercritical CO2 in enhancing oil recovery, improving oil and
gas production, extraction, etc. Section 7 discusses the potential
problems of corrosion and phase stability in heavy oil viscosity
reductions with supercritical CO2. Finally, Section 8 discusses
the current challenges and future research directions for
supercritical CO2−heavy oil viscosity reduction technology.
This review provides insight into the mechanisms, applicable
conditions, protection, optimization, and future research
directions of supercritical CO2 viscosity reduction technology.
pubs.acs.org/EF Review
Density (g/cm3) Viscosity (mPa·s) Molar mass (g·mol−1)
0.15−0.9 0.01−0.09 44.0095
2. SUPERCRITICAL CO2−HEAVY OIL VISCOSITY
REDUCTION EXPERIMENTS
The purpose of the supercritical CO2 viscosity reduction
experiment is to study the interactions between supercritical
CO2 and heavy oil, test the solubility of supercritical CO2 in
heavy oil, and optimize the processing conditions for super-
critical CO2 viscosity reduction.
The main idea of supercritical CO2−heavy oil viscosity
reduction experiments is to store CO2 in a pressure storage tank,
use an autoclave or PVT apparatus to achieve miscibility
between the supercritical CO2 and heavy oil, and determine the
viscosity of the heavy oil containing dissolved CO2 with a
falling−sphere viscometer (Figure 4) or high−pressure flow
loop (Figure 5). In addition, Table 2 provides a review of the
basic information from the published viscosity reduction
experiments involving supercritical CO2 and heavy oil.
According to Table 2, the viscosity reductions arising from the
dissolution of supercritical CO2 in heavy oil can exceed 90%.
Zhang14 and Gao15 used a PVT apparatus and falling−sphere
viscometer to analyze the effects of the dissolved CO2 gas−oil
ratio, temperature, pressure and water content on the viscosity of
the heavy oil. Based on high−pressure flow loop experiments,
Zhou9 and Li et al.16 dynamically simulated the transportation
conditions of heavy oil after dissolving supercritical CO2,
determined the viscosity reductions under different conditions,
and established models for characteristic parameters such as the
volume coefficient of oil−gas mixtures, the viscosity of live heavy
oil and the solution gas−oil ratio during pipeline transportation
of the dissolved CO2−heavy oil mixtures. However, these
models enabled predictions of the viscosity reduction rates and
behaviors of oil and gas mixtures, optimized oilfield develop-
ment plans, and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and generated
economic benefits during oilfield development and production
processes. Liu et al.17 analyzed the effects of different ratios of
supercritical CO2 on the physical and chemical properties of
heavy oil at reservoir temperatures and pressures. Their results
showed that with increasing supercritical CO2 content the total
hydrocarbon content of heavy oil increased, while the contents
of resin and asphaltene decreased.
11568 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c01387
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Energy & Fuels
Figure 3. Flowchart for this review.
3. MECHANISM OF HEAVY OIL VISCOSITY
REDUCTIONS WITH SUPERCRITICAL CO2
As an efficient and environmentally friendly method for heavy
oil treatment, supercritical CO2 viscosity reduction involves
mechanisms such as dilution, extraction, molecular diffusion,
and shear thinning. As an excellent solvent with strong solubility
and high mass transfer efficiency, supercritical CO2 dissolves in
heavy oil through molecular diffusion. In addition, supercritical
CO2 extracts some of the asphaltenes and resins from the
micelles and reduces the micelle size and intermicelle
association, thereby reducing the viscosity of the heavy oil.
3.1. Dilution. A CO2 molecule has a linear O�C�O
molecular structure and is a nonpolar molecule. CO2 is soluble
in crude oil and condensate, as well as in highly polar solvents.19
Supercritical CO2 has a density close to that of a liquid, with high
solubility and low viscosity, while maintaining the high
permeability of a gas, and its surface tension is close to zero,
so it exhibits good mass transfer performance.13,24,25 Super-
pubs.acs.org/EF Review
critical CO2 has both gas and liquid characteristics and quickly
penetrates the microstructure of heavy oil after being dissolved
in it,26 resulting in volume expansion, density reduction and a
significant reduction in the heavy oil viscosity.27−29 However,
the intermolecular forces in the liquid−liquid system comprising
the supercritical CO2−heavy oil mixture are converted into
liquid−gas intermolecular forces after dissolution,12,15,30,31
which reduces the internal friction between the heavy oils and
the viscosity. Therefore, it can be seen that supercritical CO2
effects swelling and dilution while reducing the viscosity of the
heavy oil. It significantly reduces the viscosity of the heavy oil
after complete mixing.21,32−34
The viscosity of heavy oil is significantly decreased with
increasing CO2 saturation.35 The viscosity reduction rate is
related to the pressure, temperature and viscosity of the heavy
oil.36 The experimental results obtained by Rezk et al.37 showed
that supercritical CO2 reduced the viscosity of crude oil by 58%
within 9 h, while CO2 gas reduced the viscosity of crude oil by
25% over the same period. Gao et al.29 conducted an
experimental study on supercritical CO2 huff and puff in tight
conglomerate reservoirs. The results showed that the viscosity
and density of the live oil decreased by 60% and 17%,
respectively, with increases in the mole fraction of supercritical
CO2 from 0 to 49%. Based on the experimental data of Emera et
al.,38 Barclay et al.39 established a model for calculating the
CO2−oil viscosity ratio of live oil (eq 1) and constructed a
relationship diagram showing the CO2−oil viscosity ratio and
the CO2−oil solubility based on experimental data with oil
specific gravities less than 0.9, as shown in Figure 6.
oCO2
/ oi
= 1 + (0.01113T 1.78210)R s (1)
where μoCO2/μoi is the oil viscosity reduction ratio; μoCO2 is the
d d
viscosity of the CO2−saturated oil, mPa·s; μoi is the initial oil
viscosity, mPa·s; T is the temperature, °C; and Rs is the CO2
solubility, mol %.
3.2. Extraction. Extraction is the process of transferring
solutes from one solvent to another by utilizing the differences in
the solubilities or distribution coefficients of the solute in the
two immiscible (or slightly miscible) solvents. The complex
micelle structure formed by asphaltene and resin is the primary
source of the high viscosity of heavy oil. Therefore, one of the
methods used to reduce the viscosity of heavy oil is
decomposition of the complex micelle structure. CO2 is highly
lipophilic in the supercritical state, and the solubilities of
different solutes vary greatly. They are significantly affected by
the polarity, boiling point, and molecular weight of the solute
and can enable selective extraction of the different compounds
in heavy oil.40
Zou et al.41 performed an assessment of heavy oil components
and analyzed the sizes of asphaltene micelles before and after
dissolution of supercritical CO2 and found that the dissolution
of supercritical CO2 in heavy oil partially extracted the micelles
and asphaltene,42 reduced the micelle sizes and intermicelle
associations (Figure 7), split the heavy components, such as
micelles and asphaltene, into discontinuous phases, reduced
their influence on the viscosity of the whole system, and thus
lowered the viscosity of the heavy oil. In addition, the CO2−
water mixture formed carbonic acid, which is slightly acidic, and
carbonic acid can precipitate asphaltenes upon contact with
crude oil.19 Macroscopically, larger amounts of dissolved
supercritical CO2 provide greater reductions in the viscosity of
the heavy oil.43,44
11569 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c01387
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Energy & Fuels
Figure 4. Supercritical CO2 heavy oil viscosity reduction experimental device�PVT apparatus.15 Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2014
CNKI.
Figure 5. Supercritical CO2 heavy oil viscosity reduction experimental device�flow loop.16 Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2013, Science
Technology and Engineering.
3.3. Molecular Diffusion. Based on molecular dynamics
simulations,45,46 it has been determined that CO2 dissolves in
crude oil via molecular diffusion, which increases the
intermolecular distances within the crude oil and hence reduces
its viscosity, and molecular diffusion is affected by the
temperature, pressure, crude oil viscosity, solute concentration,
and other factors. Figure 8 illustrates the process of liquid CO2
diffusion into the oil phase.
Li47 analyzed the diffusion law for supercritical CO2 in heavy
oil with molecular dynamics simulations. Supercritical CO2
exhibits high compressibility and a large intermolecular free
space, and the activity of supercritical CO2 increases with an
increase in temperature and pressure. The number of super-
critical CO2 molecules entering the heavy oil aggregates
increases, which improves the solubility of supercritical CO2
and enhances the diffusion and transportation of the heavy oil
components in supercritical CO2. The speed of diffusion can be
determined from the diffusion coefficient (D), which is the mass
or number of moles of a substance that diffuses vertically
through a unit area per unit time and a unit concentration
gradient along the diffusion direction. Additionally, Wei et al.48
pubs.acs.org/EF Review
used the pressure drop method to determine the diffusion
coefficient of supercritical CO2 in heavy oil with a viscosity of
591 mPa·s at 25 °C and established a method for calculating the
diffusion concentration field. Their results showed that the
diffusion coefficient of supercritical CO2 in crude oil was on the
order of 1 × 10−8 m2/s. The diffusion coefficient increased with
increasing initial injection pressure and temperature, reached a
maximum at the critical temperature point, and decreased with
increasing crude oil viscosity. The diffusion rate decreased with a
decreasing CO2 concentration gradient.
3.4. Shear Thinning. The dissolution of supercritical CO2
leads to the formation of asphaltene particles in heavy oil,50−52
which causes the supercritical CO2−heavy oil mixture to exhibit
shear−thinning.53 Supercritical CO2−heavy oil mixtures are
pseudoplastic fluids, and the extent of shear thinning increases
with increasing CO2 solubility. The solubility of CO2 in heavy oil
increases with an increase in pressure, which strengthens the
interactions between CO2 and the crude oil molecules and
decreases the apparent viscosity of the CO2−heavy oil mixture
with increasing pressure. Experiments by Sun et al.53 showed
that the viscosity of heavy oil decreases when no CO2 is injected
11570 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c01387
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Energy & Fuels pubs.acs.org/EF Review

PVT apparatus, falling−sphere

PVT apparatus, falling−sphere

PVT apparatus, falling−sphere

PVT apparatus, falling−sphere

PVT apparatus, falling−sphere

PVT apparatus, falling−sphere

PVT apparatus, falling−sphere

PVT apparatus, falling−sphere

Experimental equipment

Autoclave, flow loop

Autoclave, flow loop
viscometer

viscometer

viscometer

viscometer

viscometer

viscometer

viscometer

viscometer
Viscosity reduction rate

0−99.64

0−99.03

99.7
19.18−99.99

19.18−99.01

−
83.40−95.5
>90

>95

−
(%)
Water content

Figure 6. Variation in the viscosity reduction rate with the CO2−oil

solubility at different temperatures.39 Reproduced with permission.
0−50

0−50

0−50

12
0
0

0−50

0
(%)

Copyright 2016 Springer.

Temperature

60−120

60−120

60−120

60

60−120
60−90
60−90

40−100

65

56
(°C)
10−20

13

12.5−13.5

10−20
8−18
8−14
2−12.49

10−16

10.8−15.5

0−14
Pressure
(MPa)
Sulfur

0.94

0.94

0.78
0.78

1.59
(%)

−
5.50−5.92
Asphaltene (%)
Table 2. Supercritical CO2−Heavy Oil Viscosity Reduction Experiments

Figure 7. Interaction of supercritical CO2 with crude oil.30 Reproduced

10.69

10.69

3.56
10.29

0.94

0.67

11.25

with permission. Copyright 2018, Oilfield Chemistry.

14−20

independent of shear; when the saturation pressure of the CO2

injection reached 2.0 MPa, the apparent viscosity of the
Colloid (%)

35.1−35.6

supercritical CO2−heavy oil mixture decreased with increasing

47.85

47.85

41.96

47.85

32.00

29.58

shear rate; if CO2 was dissolved in the heavy oil under

39.2
45

32

continuous pressure, the apparent viscosity was more sensitive

to the shear strength and decreased more significantly with
1.03−1.09

increasing shear rate (Figure 9).

(g/cm3)
Density

1.0095

1.0095

0.9693

1.0095

0.9615

0.9762

0.9841
0.950

4. MAIN FACTORS AFFECTING THE VISCOSITY

−

REDUCTIONS OF SUPERCRITICAL CO2−HEAVY OIL

MIXTURES
6167/80 °C

11290/80 °C

31229/80 °C

1767.81/80 °C
11055/50 °C
20000−80000/80 °C

11290/80 °C

160/80 °C

1237.50/65 °C

32095/50 °C
Viscosity (mPa·s)

4.1. Temperature. The viscosity of heavy oil decreases with

increasing temperature, and the viscosity reduction rate of heavy
oil saturated with supercritical CO2 decreases with increasing
temperature,14−16,20,54−58 as shown in Figure 10. Geng et al.56
suggested that this is related to the solubility of supercritical CO2
in the heavy oil. At lower temperatures, the solubility of CO2 in
heavy oil is higher, resulting in a significant reduction in
Tian et al.23
Tao et al.18

Liu et al.17
Author

Li et al.22

viscosity. As the temperature increases, the saturated gas/oil

Zhang et
Zhang14

Wang19

Zhou9

Gao15
al.21

ratio of the heavy oil gradually decreases. When the temperature

Li20

is low, the viscosity reduction effect of dissolved CO2 plays a

dominant role, and the viscosity reduction rate is high; with
No.
1

4
5
6

10

increasing temperature, the heating−induced viscosity reduc-

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Energy & Fuels
Figure 8. Diffusion of liquid CO2 into oil instead of water.49 Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2013, Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Figure 9. Rheological curves for two CO2−heavy oil mixtures at different pressures and 35 °C.53 Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2017
Elsevier.
tion and CO2 dissolution−related viscosity reduction work
together; when the temperature is higher than 100 °C, the gas−
oil ratio of crude oil decreases, and the heating−related viscosity
reduction mechanism dominates.59
4.2. Solution Gas−Oil Ratio. The viscosity reduction rate
of saturated heavy oil containing dissolved supercritical CO2
increases with increases in the solution gas−oil
ratio,9,15,16,20,22,57,60,61 as shown in Figure 11. Supercritical
CO2 is readily soluble in heavy oil. As the solution gas−oil ratio
increases, the contact area between supercritical CO2 and heavy
oil also increases, promoting the dissolution and diffusion of oil
molecules in the heavy oil and thereby reducing the viscosity of
the heavy oil. The intermolecular forces within the heavy oil
change from liquid−liquid intermolecular forces to liquid−gas
intermolecular forces after CO2 dissolution,31 which weakens
them.12,30,62 In addition, CO2 has a destructive effect on micelle
pubs.acs.org/EF Review
formation by asphaltene in the heavy oil,31 which also leads to a
significant decrease in the viscosity of the heavy oil upon CO2
dissolution.
4.3. Pressure. Due to the effect of the gas, the viscosity of
heavy oil does not follow the same trend with pressure before
and after the dissolution of supercritical CO2, as shown in Figure
12. Without CO2 dissolution, the viscosity of the heavy oil
increases with increasing pressure; after CO2 saturation, both
the viscosity of the heavy oil and the viscosity reduction rate
decrease with increasing pressure. In addition, the apparent
viscosities of CO2−heavy oil mixtures decrease exponentially
with increasing pressure53 due to increases in the solution gas−
oil ratio of the crude oil with increasing pressure.9,14,16,20,56−58,60
After dissolution of supercritical CO2 in the heavy oil, CO2
enters the heavy oil molecules and expands the intermolecular
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parameters, it is helpful to understand the mechanism and

regularity of supercritical CO2−heavy oil viscosity reductions. In
addition, the characteristic parameters can be used to evaluate
the viscosity reduction effects of supercritical CO2 in heavy oil
under different conditions, optimize the viscosity reduction
scheme, and determine the best viscosity reduction conditions
and dosages.
5.1. Physical Properties of Supercritical CO2. The
supercritical CO2 density can be calculated with the Peng−
Robinson (P−R) equation of state9,65 (eq 2):
RT a(T )
p=
Vm b Vm(Vm + b) + b(Vm b) (2)

M
=
Vm (3)

where M is the molar mass, g/mol, and that of CO2 is 44.01 g/

Figure 10. Variation in the viscosity reduction rate of saturated
dissolved supercritical CO2−heavy oil with temperature.20 Reproduced
with permission. Copyright 2011 CNKI.
mol; P is the pressure, MPa; Vm is the molar volume at a certain
temperature and pressure, L/mol; and a(T) is the temperature−
dependent molecular gravitational parameter.
The empirical model derived by Ehsan et al.66 and Zhou et
67
al. can be used to calculate the viscosity of supercritical CO2.
Ehsan et al.66 developed an empirical model for calculating the
viscosity of supercritical CO2 based on the experimental data of
Stephan and Lucas, which was gathered at pressures of 7.7 to
81.1 MPa and temperatures of 40 to 250 °C68 (eq 4).
A1 + A 2 p + A3p2 + A4 ln(T ) + A5(ln(T ))2 + A 6(ln(T ))3
=
1 + A 7p + A8 ln(T ) + A 9(ln(T ))2
(4)
67
Zhou et al. obtained a power−law relationship between Ar
and Re (eq 5) based on a visualization apparatus and high−speed
camera system, which can be used to calculate the viscosity of
supercritical CO2 by measuring the terminal velocities of
particles (steel, glass, and aluminum) settling in the supercritical
CO2 at temperatures ranging from 35 to 70 °C and pressures
between 6 and 16 MPa.

g( p f
) f dp3 3
Figure 11. Variations in the viscosity reduction with solution gas−oil Ar = = CDRe 2
ratios at different temperatures.15 Reproduced with permission. 2
4 (5)
Copyright 2014 CNKI.
where Ar is the Archimedes number, CD is the drag force
coefficient, and Re is the Reynolds number.
distances, leading to an increase in volume as well as decreases in The constant−pressure specific heat capacity of supercritical
both the density and viscosity of the heavy oil. CO2 can be calculated with the Benedict−Webb−Rubin−
4.4. Water Content. Zhang14 and Gao15 experimentally Starling (BWRS) equation of state69 (eq 6):
determined that, with the same solution gas−oil ratio, a higher
i C0 D E0 yz
p = RT + jjjB0 RT A 0
water content in heavy oil increases the viscosity reduction rate,
+ 03 zz 2
as shown in Figure 13. During the emulsification of heavy oil k T 2
T T4 {
containing water, its viscosity is increased63,64 and the dissolved
i d yz 3 i dy
supercritical CO2 causes demulsification;22 therefore, with + jjjbRT a zz + jjja + zzz 6
increasing water content, the mechanisms of demulsification k T{ k T{
and dilution, microbubble viscosity reduction, etc., work 3
c
together to reduce the viscosity of the water−containing heavy + 2 (1 + 2 ) exp( 2
)
T (6)
oil (Table 3).
where p is the system pressure, kPa; T is the system temperature,
5. CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS K; ρ is the density of the gas or liquid phase, kmol/m3; R is the
Characteristic parameters are key indicators used to describe the universal gas constant, 8.3143 kJ/(kmol·K); and A0, B0, C0, D0,
physical properties of supercritical CO2 and heavy oil, such as E0, a, b, c, d, α, and γ are the 11 parameters of the BWRS equation
the CO2 solubility and viscosity of crude oil containing dissolved of state, which must be obtained from large amounts of
CO2. In the establishment of models for these characteristic experimental data.
11573 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c01387
Energy Fuels 2023, 37, 11567−11583
Energy & Fuels pubs.acs.org/EF Review

Figure 12. Viscosity versus pressure of the heavy oil without and with dissolved supercritical CO2.9 Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2010
CNKI.

where U(r) is the potential energy; r is the molecular spacing;

and A, B, m, and n are constants.
5.2. CO2 Solubility. Mehrotra et al.71 developed a four−
parameter empirical eq (eq 8) to calculate the solubility of CO2
in asphalt based on the correlation of CO2−saturated asphalt
properties at temperatures ranging from 23.0 to 97.4 °C and
pressures between 1.6 and 6.38 MPa. This equation can be used
to predict the solubility of CO2 in dead oil.
i Ps yz
Rs = 0.0073508 14.794Ps + 6428.5 × jjj zz
k T + 273.15 {
2
i Ps yz
+ 4971.39 × jjj zz
k T + 273.15 { (8)

where Rs is the CO2 solubility, m3/m3; T denotes the reservoir

temperature, °C; and Ps denotes the saturation pressure, MPa.
Chung et al.35 correlated the solution gas−oil ratio, volume
coefficient, and viscosity of CO2−saturated heavy oil based on
Figure 13. Relationship between the viscosity reduction rate and the
solution gas−oil ratio with different water contents.15 Reproduced with
physical property experiments performed before and after
permission. Copyright 2014 CNKI. saturating the heavy oil with CO2 and established an expression
for the CO2 solubility in heavy oil (eq 9).
Table 3. Viscosity Reduction Effects of Supercritical CO2
R s = 0.1781073
with Different Water Contents (RsCO2 = 50 Sm3/m3, 70 °C
and 13 MPaa ÅÄÅ i yÑÑÑ
É 1
ÅÅ a2 a7
ÅÅa1 T + a3T a4 expjjj 145a5P + a6 zzzÑÑÑ
ÅÅ jj 145p zz{ÑÑÑÑÖ
Water Viscosity ÅÅÇ k (9)
content Initial heavy oil Viscosity of heavy oil with reduction rate
(%) viscosity (mPa·s) dissolved scCO2 (mPa·s) (%)
0 15889 495 96.88 T = 1.8t + 32 (10)
10 20128 515 97.44 where γ is the relative density of heavy oil; t is the temperature,
20 27497 538 98.04 °C; a1 = 0.004934, a2 = 4.0928, a3 = 0.571 × 10−6, a4 = 1.6428, a5
30 40536 566 98.60
= 0.6763 × 10−3, a6 = 781.334, and a7 = 0.2499.
40 51284 600 98.83
Emera et al.38 established a relationship between the CO2
50 65157 639 99.01
a
solubility in live crude and dead oil based on a genetic algorithm
Reproduced with permission.14 Copyright 2004 CNKI. (GA):
(1) Solubility of CO2 in dead oil:
The interactions between supercritical CO2 molecules can be ① Gaseous CO2 (eqs 11 and 12).
represented with the intermolecular potential energy function70
(eq 7): R s = 2.238 0.33y + 3.235y 0.6474
U (r ) = Br m
Ar n
(7) 4.8y 0.25656 (11)

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Energy Fuels 2023, 37, 11567−11583
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exp(1/ MW )
ij 0.006897(32 + 1.8T )0.8 yz Rs =
y = jjj zz
zz
j Ps PT
s (5.6444 + 0.008756MW )
k {
(12) 8.9318Ps2 + 0.010819MW · PT 2
s + T + 41.105 T
(19)
② Liquid CO2 (eqs 13 and 14).
R s = 0.033 + 1.14y 0.7716y 2 + 0.2176y 3 ② Solubility of CO2 in live oil (eq 20):

0.02183y 4 (13) Rs =
exp(32 + 1.8T / MW ) 7.3695Pb 7.3713Ps + 0.48618
ij P yz
y = jjjj s zzzz 0.021262MW + 4.6233Pb 5.0337Ps T A
j Pliq z (20)
k { (14)
where Rs is the CO2 solubility, mol %; γ is the oil Xing et al.74 studied the effect of water on the solubility of
specific gravity; MW is the oil molecular weight; T CO2 in crude oil and that of oil on the solubility of CO2 in water
is the temperature, °C; and Pliq is the CO 2 based on physical property tests on CO2 flooding for fluid
liquefaction pressure at the specified temperature, recovery and proposed a model to determine the solubility of
MPa. CO2 in water−bearing crude oil (eq 21).
(2) Solubility of CO2 in live oil:
R s = X wR w + XoR o (21)
① Gaseous CO2 (eqs 15 and 16).
where Rw and R0 are the solubilities of CO2 in water and oil,
R s = 1.748 0.5632y + 3.273y 0.704 respectively, and Xw and X0 are the volume fractions of water and
4.3y 0.4425 (15) oil, respectively, in the oil−water mixture.
Wang et al.75 studied the solubilities of CO2 in formation
exp( 1 ) fluids at 45 °C and pressures between 3 and 8.5 MPa. Based on
ij 0.006987(32 + 1.8T )1.125 yz MW
analyses of Daqing Oilfield fluids, the relationship between the
y = jjj zz
zz
j Ps Pb solubilities of CO2 in oil−water mixtures and those in crude oil
k { as well as formation water was derived (eqs 22−24).
(16)
where Pb is the oil bubble point pressure, MPa. 1 1
R1:1 = Ro + R w
② Liquid CO2 (eqs 13−14). 2 2 (22)
Emera et al.38 concluded that the solubility of liquid CO2 in
live oil is similar to that in dead oil, therefore the same empirical 2 1
R 2:1 = Ro + R w
equation can be used. 3 3 (23)
Kavousi et al.72 developed a computational model for the
solubility of CO2 in heavy oil based on the mass balance and gas 4 1
R 4:1 = Ro + R w
eq (eq 17), and Kavousi et al.72 showed that the solubility of 5 5 (24)
CO2 in heavy oil is mainly influenced by temperature variation
rather than oil viscosity variation. where R1:1, R2:1 and R4:1 denote the solubilities of CO2 in
mixtures with oil to water volume ratios of 1:1, 2:1 and 4:1,
mCO2 , dissolved respectively.
Rs = × 100
Voil Zhang et al.76 suggested that the solubility of CO2 in oil−
ÄÅ ÉÑ water mixtures is only related to the pressure and liquid
(MV )CO2 ÅÅÅi P y ij P yz ÑÑÑ
Ñ
= Å j z
ÅÅjj zz jj zz ÑÑ × 100 composition and used the weighted averaging method to modify
RTVoil ÅÅÅk Z {i k Z { f ÑÑÑ the CO2 solubility model of Xing74 and Wang75 to obtain an
Ç Ö (17)
equation for calculating the solubilities of CO2 in oil−water
where Rs is expressed in units of g/m3 and Zi and Zf are the mixtures at a constant temperature (eq 25).
compressibility factors at the initial and final pressures,
respectively. R s = (1 X w )R o + X w R w (25)
Barclay et al.39 established a model for calculating the 5.3. Viscosity of Crude Oil Containing Dissolved CO2.
solubility of CO2 in light oil based on the experimental data of The viscosity of heavy oil containing dissolved supercritical CO2
Emera et al.38 (eq 18), while the solubility equation of Barclay et is closely related to parameters such as the amount of dissolved
al.39 considered the reservoir temperature and pressure, and the CO2, the temperature, and the pressure. By compiling and
calculation accuracy was higher than that of Emera et al.38 generalizing experimental data, Lederer77 proposed a modified
R s = (a + bT ) ln(p) + (c + dT ) (18) equation similar to the Arrhenius equation (eq 26), which can be
used to calculate the viscosities of heavy oil and diluent mixtures.
where a = 0.36913, b = −0.00106, c = 0.01280, and d = The viscosity ratio range between pure CO2 and heavy oil is very
−0.00160. wide, up to 20−106. The equation of Lederer77 can be employed
Rostami et al.73 developed a model to calculate the CO2 to calculate the viscosity of crude oil containing dissolved gas for
solubilities in dead oil and live oil based on gene expression high−viscosity ratio systems.35,78−80
programming (GEP):
① Solubility of CO2 in dead oil (eq 19): ln m = Xo ln( o ) + X s ln( s ) (26)

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Table 4. Application Ranges for Various Models

Source Calculation parameters Temperature range (°C) Pressure range (MPa) Oil viscosity (mPa·s) Oil density (g/cm3)
71
Mehrotra et al. Rs 23.89−97.22 1.60−6.38 73−22900 −
Chung et al.35 Rs 24−94 ≤20.684 100−1139 0.93−1
Emera et al.38 Rs ≤140 ≤34.485 12000 −
Kavousi et al.72 Rs 21.85−31.85 1.73−4.48 5000 0.97175
20000 0.97974
Barclay et al.39 Rs 32.2−73.9 1.81−27.4 − 0.85−0.90
Rostami et al.73 Rs 18.33−140 0.5−32.76 − 0.6748−0.99
Wang et al.75 Rs 45 3−8.5 − 0.8573
Zhang et al.76 Rs 20−65 2−20 1.29 −
Xiong et al.81 μo(p,T), μo(T) 60−80 8−14 1594.54−7862.90 −

Vs
Xs =
Vo + Vs
Xo = 1 Xs
where μm is the viscosity of the CO2−heavy oil mixture, mPa·s;
V0 and Vs are the volume fractions of heavy oil and CO2,
respectively; μo and μs are the viscosities of the heavy oil and
CO2, respectively, mPa·s; α is an empirical parameter; and X0
and Xs are the proportionality coefficients.
Xiong et al.81 improved the Lederer77 model by considering
high−temperature and high−pressure conditions. With the use
of the Yarranton model82 (eq 29) for calculating oil phase
viscosities at high temperatures and pressures, combined with
the Motahhari model83 for calculating the oil expansion
coefficient F0 and the Welker and Dunlop model84 for
calculating the oil expansion coefficient Fs for saturated
supercritical CO2, the Lederer model (eq 30) improved by
Xiong et al.81 can be used to calculate the viscosities of heavy oil
containing saturated supercritical CO2 under high−temperature
and high−pressure conditions.
o applicability. In addition, these models or formulas are mainly
o (p , T) = (T )[1 + 1(1 2T )p]
FoFs 1
ln = ln( o ) +
m
+ FoFs 1 + FoFs 1
where F0 is the volume factor; Fs is the swelling factor; μo(p,T)
and μo(T) are the viscosities of the dead heavy oil at a given
temperature and pressure and at a given temperature and
atmospheric pressure, respectively, mPa·s; and σ1 and σ2 are
fitting parameters, with σ1 = 0.008 + 0.00006MW, MW =
44.29γ/(1.03-γ); and σ2 = 0.0033.
α is an important empirical parameter used in calculating the
viscosity of heavy oil mixed with supercritical CO2. Shu et al.79
obtained an empirical expression for α based on viscosity data of
17 heavy oils and correlated α with the density and viscosity of
the dilute and oil phases (eq 31). Chung et al.35 established α as
a function of the specific gravity, temperature and pressure of
heavy oil (eq 32).
0.5237 3.2745 1.6316
17.04 A B
=
ln ()
A
where ρA and ρB are the densities of the heavy oil and CO2,
respectively; Tr is the comparison temperature, Tr = T/547.57,
(27) o
R; and Pr is the comparison pressure, Pr = P/l071, psi(a).
Xiong et al.81 proposed that the model used for calculating the
(28)
viscosity of supercritical CO2−saturated heavy oil has a high
degree of accuracy but also has certain limitations. First, the
accuracy of the Motahhari model83 used to calculate the oil
expansion coefficient F0 is not high and is lower than that in the
literature. Second, at temperatures below 70 °C, the heavy oil
viscosities calculated with the Yarranton model82 have large
deviations.
Table 4 summarizes the application scope of the above
calculation models. Currently, the effect of supercritical CO2 in
reducing the viscosity of heavy oil is strongly affected by factors
such as temperature, pressure, and CO2 concentration, and this
requires many experimental studies and calculated simulations
to optimize the process parameters and ensure that the expected
viscosity reduction is realized in engineering applications.
Furthermore, most of the models or correlations used in
predicting CO2 solubility in the literature were developed with
data from degassed crude oil or heavy oil; therefore, they are
only effective for certain data ranges or oil types and have limited
(29)
based on laboratory experiments or software simulations and do
not fully consider the field application conditions. Therefore,
ln( s ) future in−depth research on the CO2 solubility should be
(30) carried out from the following perspectives:
(1) The correlation established by Chung et al.35 does not
adequately address the effect of CO2 liquefaction pressure
on CO2 solubility, and this model can be improved to
enhance the prediction accuracy.
(2) A more widely applicable calculation model can be
established by considering the effects of API, pressure,
viscosity, temperature, MW, etc.
(3) New programming based on artificial intelligence can be
developed to predict CO2 solubility, and error analysis can
be carried out in combination with existing GA and GEP
technologies.
(4) Different combination models can be established based
on the Mehrotra model,71 Chung model,35 Emera
model,38 Kavousi model,72 Barclay model,39 and Rostami
model,73 and the optimal combination can be selected for
predicting CO2 solubility.

B (31) (5) Based on the solubility and diffusion coefficients for CO2
under dynamic and static conditions, the existing models
ÄÅ É
Pr ) Ñ can be tested in the field and optimized for improvement.
Å ÑÑ
4.16 1.85Å
7.36
e 7.36(1
Tr ÅÅÅÅ ÑÑ
e
= 0.255 ÑÑ In the future, the models used in predicting the viscosity of
ÅÅ e 7.36
1 ÑÑ
ÅÇ ÑÖ (32) supercritical CO2−saturated heavy oil can be improved by
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Energy & Fuels
considering the F0 calculation model and the predictions of oil
phase viscosity under high temperature and pressure based on
the Yarranton model82 below 70 °C.
6. ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF SUPERCRITICAL
CO2
In recent years, supercritical CO2 has been increasingly applied
in the petroleum industry due to the rapid development of
CCUS.
Supercritical CO2 can be used to improve oil and gas
production and geological storage. The results for supercritical
CO2 injection and enhanced oil recovery in the Bakken field
showed that the oil recovery rate was increased from 8.8% to
33% with increasing injection pressure.85 As of 2019, the CO2
miscible flood in the Gao−89 block of the Shengli Oilfield
produced approximately 5 t of API 31 oil per day (appx 38 bbl/
d), with 2.6 × 104 t of CO2 injected into the Gao−89 block for
CO2−EOR and storage.86
Demonstration projects in the Jilin and Daqing oilfields
showed that CCUS−EOR increased the recovery rate by 10% to
25%. Injecting 2.0 to 3.0 t of CO2 increased oil production by
approximately 1.0 t.87 The North Xiaojing well of Hei 79 is
expected to exhibit an increase of more than 25% in the recovery
rate during the CO2 miscible flood trials. The Daqing oilfield has
injected a total of 1.89 × 104 t of CO2, with an annual injection
rate of 3.0 × 105 t of CO2 and an annual oil production rate of 1.0
× 105 t. After a CO2 miscible flood was implemented in the
SACROC block of the Kelly Snyder oilfield in 2002, the annual
oil production reached 1.5 × 106 t, and this amount has been
produced steadily for 16 consecutive years up to 2020; this
corresponds to a cumulative oil increase of 2.456 × 107 t with 3.9
× 1010 t CO2 injected into the formation.88
Sinopec has conducted numerous field tests of CO2 flooding
in blocks such as the Taizhou Formation in the Cao She Oilfield,
Gao 89−1 Block in the Shengli Oilfield, and Hua 26 in the
Jiangsu Oilfield89 and has implemented 24 CO2 flooding
projects covering geological reserves of 2.512 × 107 t, with a
cumulative oil gain of 2.558 × 105 t. Well field tests in the Shengli
Oilfield showed90 that the injection of 200 t of CO2 into the
formation resulted in a net oil gain of 519 t. CO2 in the
intermediate zone during the secondary gas drive fully interacted
with the heavy oil, reduced the viscosity, and precipitated
bitumen. In the middle zone of the secondary gas drive, the CO2
and heavy oil interacted fully, which reduced the viscosity,
precipitated asphaltene, and enhanced the recovery rate by
55.2%.91
The viscosity of dead oil retrieved from the ultradeep low-
permeability reservoir in the Luo 322 block decreased from 1053
to 664.9 mPa·s at 100 °C after saturation with CO2 at the
formation pressure with a viscosity reduction rate of 36.9%.
Experiments on viscosity reductions of heavy oil in the Gudao
Oilfield revealed92 that CO2 and thermal action synergistically
reduced the viscosity by 96% under reservoir conditions. In the
field, the CO2 cold recovery throughput efficiencies of 77 wells
were enhanced, with a cumulative oil increase of 11089 t and an
input:output ratio of 1:6.0. CO2 can also be used with
solubilizing viscosity reducers, surfactants, and steam through-
put93 to increase production and generate better results.
Supercritical CO2 fracturing technology effectively enhances
shale gas production,94 saves water resources, provides potential
for CO2 storage and reduces the environmental impact. By the
end of 2020, Yanchang Petroleum had drilled more than 10 wells
in the Yan’an shale gas demonstration area for supercritical CO2
pubs.acs.org/EF Review
fracturing field trials, and the shale gas wells showed production
increases of more than 50%.95
Supercritical CO2 extraction can be used to clean heavy oil
deposits and extract valuable compounds from petroleum, such
as aromatics. Compared with traditional organic solvents,
supercritical CO2 is more environmentally friendly and efficient
and significantly improves the product purity and yield. Kurz et
al.96 demonstrated through core flooding experiments that
supercritical CO2 extracted 12−65% of the hydrocarbons from
organic−rich Bakken shale within 24 h.
7. OTHER ISSUES FOR CRUDE OIL CONTAINING
DISSOLVED CO2
7.1. Corrosion. The dissolution of CO2 in water produces an
acidic aqueous solution, which exerts a corrosive effect on oil
pipeline materials. Experiments have shown that the corrosive-
ness of an aqueous CO2 solution is even higher than that of
hydrochloric acid at the same pH, and it corrodes the tubing in
wells more severely than hydrochloric acid.97,98 The chemical
process involved in CO2 corrosion of pipelines99−101 is shown in
(eq 33). Sun et al.102 found that when X65 steel was exposed to
water saturated with supercritical CO2 containing various
impurities, the different impurities caused various degrees of
corrosion (Figure 14).
Fe + CO2 + H 2O FeCO3 + H 2 (33)
Figure 14. Macroscopic morphologies of X65 steel specimens with
various corrosion scales under exposure to a water−saturated
supercritical CO2 system for 120 h at 10 MPa and 50 °C in the
presence of various impurities: (a) CO2; (b) CO2 + O2; (c) CO2 + H2S;
(d) CO2 + SO2; (e) CO2 + O2 + H2S; (f) CO2 + O2 + SO2; (g) CO2 +
H2S + SO2; (h) CO2 + O2 + H2S + SO2. The concentrations of O2, H2S,
and SO2 were 1000 ppmv.102 Copyright 2016, Elsevier.
Typically, corrosion protection strategies are developed based
on the factors that influence CO2 corrosion, such as temper-
ature, CO2 partial pressure, pH, flow velocity, and corrosion
product film. The commonly used techniques for CO2 corrosion
protection are listed in Table 5.
7.2. Stability of Pipeline Transportation. When heavy oil
containing dissolved CO2 is transported in pipelines, the
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Table 5. CO2 Corrosion Protection Technologies
Type Note
CO2 corrosion Steel with some alloying elements that resist CO2
resistant corrosion or slow it down, such as Cr, Cu, Ni, Mo, C, Ti,
materials etc.
Electrochemical (1) Impressed current cathodic protection;
protection (2) Sacrificial anode cathodic protection.
Surface protection Coating Epoxy resins and their modifiers,
polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon,
polyvinyl chlorine resins, acrylic resins,
polyester coatings, phenolic plastic
polymers, silicone resins, etc.
Plating Mainly Ni−P plating.
Corrosion Organic corrosion inhibitors, including amines, amides,
inhibitor imines, imidazolines, etc., and natural polymers.
Inorganic corrosion inhibitors, including metal ions such
as aluminum, zinc, calcium, potassium, sodium and their
compounds.
changes in temperature and pressure and the difference in gas−
liquid properties allow the CO2 dissolved in the heavy oil to
escape easily and exhibit multiphase flow, which lowers the
viscosity reduction effect. Ensuring the stability of the dissolved
CO2−crude oil pipeline transportation process is the key to
realizing supercritical CO2 heavy oil viscosity reduction
technology.9
7.3. Wax and Asphaltene Deposition. Since CO 2
imposes a notable extraction effect on light hydrocarbons,
after several extractions with CO2, the temperature of the crude
oil precipitation wax increases, and paraffin wax may be
produced at room temperature, leading to wax deposition in
the flow channels.103
To effectively prevent the solids deposition inside pipelines or
equipment, measures such as regular cleaning, installation of
filters, control of fluid flow velocities and volumes, appropriate
material selection, and addition of polymeric dispersants are
usually applied.104,105
7.4. Fouling. In recent years, many oil fields have adopted
the CO2 flooding technology. Due to the complex composition
and unique nature of oilfield water, the injection of CO2 in the
production process disrupts the equilibrium state of the scale
ions in oilfield water, and scale crystals can form and gradually
grow, which can easily lead to equipment scaling and
blocking.106 In addition, the gathering pipeline is prone to
fouling problems, which affects the pipeline transportation
efficiency of the oilfield extraction process and reduces the
recovery rate.
Physical or chemical descaling is typically used to solve the
problem of fouling in pipes or equipment. Physical descaling
techniques remove the foulants with mechanical action.
Chemical descaling, however, dissolves or converts the foulant
into a substance that can be easily removed by injecting a
descaling chemical into the pipe or equipment. Common
physical and chemical descaling methods are shown in Table 6.
7.5. Gas Sources. Large−scale CO2 consumption requires
adequate CO2 gas sources. Currently, there are two CO2 gas
sources for oilfield development:103 natural gas sources and
industrial waste gas. Based on the collection and storage
technology available for CO2, the utilization of waste gas is still
relatively limited, and research deserves attention.
8. CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES
Supercritical CO2 provides a new method for reducing the
viscosity of heavy oil, and the method has attracted the attention
of scholars in the petroleum industry and will play an important
role in the development, production, and transportation of
unconventional petroleum reservoirs in the future. However,
several crucial scientific challenges remain that limit engineering
applications.
8.1. Challenges. (1) There has been limited research on the
mechanism of supercritical CO2−heavy oil viscosity reduction.
The interactions between supercritical CO2 and heavy oil are
still in the stage of observing and analyzing apparent
phenomena, and conclusions are based on CO2 flooding or
related laboratory experiments. There has been little exper-
imental research on the viscosity reduction mechanism of
supercritical CO2 in heavy oil.
Supercritical CO2 is a highly compressible fluid whose
physical properties are greatly influenced by the temperature
and pressure. Therefore, under high−pressure conditions, the
mechanisms for the interactions between supercritical CO2 and
heavy oil are very complex. The pressure field and temperature
field as well as the changes occurring in the physical properties of
supercritical CO2 and the physical and chemical interactions
between CO2 and heavy oil must be considered. In addition, the
solubility and diffusivity of supercritical CO2 in heavy oil are
jointly affected by factors, such as temperature, pressure, and oil
properties. There is limited research on the cooperative effects of
different factors.
(2) The stability of live oil must be maintained during pipeline
transportation. When heavy oil containing dissolved CO2 is
transported in pipelines, changes in the temperature and
pressure and differences in the gas−liquid properties enable
easy escape of the CO2 dissolved in the heavy oil and subsequent
multiphase flow.
(3) Corrosion and penetration by supercritical CO2 must be
accounted for. The supercritical CO2 contained in heavy oil
forms acidic solutions, which leads to corrosion of pipelines and

Table 6. Descaling Technologies

Physical High-pressure The impact and cutting force of the high-pressure water jet is used to cut the foulant into small pieces, which are then flushed out of the
methods water jet pipe by the water jet at pressures of 70 to 140 MPa.
Water hammer The water hammer effect is used to remove the foulant by the instantaneous impact of high-pressure water.
Shock waves Removal of foulant by instantaneous shock waves of high-pressure gas or liquid.
Ultrasonic The ultrasonic power sound field is used to disperse, loosen, crush and dislodge the foulant.
Vibrational The use of mechanical or electromagnetic vibrations to vibrate the foulant away.
Chemical Acid washing Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, etc.
methods Caustic Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, etc.
washing
Oxidants Hydrogen peroxide, permanganate, etc.
Chelator Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA), gluconic acid, citric acid and polymer-based
scale inhibitors, such as poly(acrylic acid) or acrylic and maleic acid copolymers.

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equipment and poses a potential threat to transport safety. In
addition, supercritical CO2 has strong penetration character-
istics, which places higher requirements on the seals, corrosion
resistance, and penetration resistance of heavy oil equipment.
(4) Supercritical CO2 requires high pressures and poses a high
risk to storage and transportation equipment.107,108 Currently,
CO2 is mainly transported through high−pressure pipelines,
ships, or tankers. In the future, efforts should be made to develop
a coordinated, safe, and efficient CO2 transportation network.
(5) High-purity CO2 is needed. Contaminated CO2 has a
negative impact on the viscosity reduction effects with heavy oil.
The CO2 should come from relatively pure large−scale
industrial sources such as ethanol, fertilizers, and hydrogen
plants. It is necessary to vigorously promote the capture and
purification of CO2.
(6) The injection rate and method for supercritical CO2
should be optimized. The supercritical CO2 injection rate and
injection method affect the viscosity reduction of the heavy oil.
Research on models for calculating the CO2 injection rate and
mixing devices and controlling the diffusion and distribution of
CO2 is the key to reducing the heavy oil viscosity with
supercritical CO2.
(7) In CO2 flooding, the large viscosity difference between the
heavy oil and supercritical CO2 causes problems such as viscous
fingering and gravity segregation, which have negative impacts
on CO2 flooding. Flow control additives (supercritical CO2
thickening) and water−alternating−gas (WAG) injection can
effectively control gas mobility and improve the sweep
efficiency.108,109 However, there is currently no compound
that can be used to accurately thicken supercritical CO2
accurately.
(8) Economic and policy challenges need to be adddressed.
The enormous costs of CO2 capture, purification, and
transportation fundamentally limit widespread use of super-
critical CO2 for heavy oil viscosity reductions, EOR, enhanced
gas recovery (EGR), and CCUS processes.
Furthermore, CO2 leakage contributes to the greenhouse
effect, and with increasing global attention paid to environ-
mental protection, many countries and regions have imple-
mented strict energy policies and environmental standards. The
development of a supercritical CO2−heavy oil viscosity
reduction technology requires sufficient research and develop-
ment funding and governmental support.
8.2. Future Research Directions. (1) The viscosity
reduction mechanism of supercritical CO2 in heavy oil. From
a macroscopic perspective, further studies of the viscosity
reduction mechanism of supercritical CO2 is needed. These
should be complemented by experimental studies on the CO2
solubility and rheological properties of heavy oil to further
explore the principle of supercritical CO2 viscosity reductions.
In addition, experimental methods such as electron
microscopy and microscopic imaging are used to study the
microcharacteristics of heavy oil dissolved in supercritical CO2,
further elucidate the viscosity reduction mechanism of super-
critical CO2 in heavy oil, and establish a mathematical model to
predict the viscosity of the CO2−heavy oil mixture.
(2) Studies of the physical properties of CO2 dissolved in
heavy oil. Supercritical CO2 dissolves heavy oil well, but it is
prone to phase transitions. Therefore, it is necessary to explore
the effects of gaseous CO2 on the transportation of heavy oil to
ensure the stability of the dissolved CO2−heavy oil mixture
during transportation.
pubs.acs.org/EF Review
(3) Development of materials with strong pressure resistance,
resistance to penetration of supercritical fluids, and resistance to
CO2 corrosion and proposal of protective measures for major
equipment. CO2 corrosion has always been a problem in the oil
and gas industry. Currently, a relatively complete CO2 corrosion
theory has been formed, but the specific reaction processes
involved are still unclear, especially the electrochemical
reactions, which have not yet been unified.
In addition, the corrosion processes occurring in special
environments (high pressure and high temperature) are often
exacerbated, which affects the safety of storage and trans-
portation equipment.110
Future research should include studies of CO2 corrosion
mechanisms by borrowing from existing multidisciplinary
theories and methods, optimizing existing protective technolo-
gies, and building a sound CO2 corrosion protection system with
the help of new energy sources and materials. The development
of corrosion−resistant, pressure−resistant, and sealed equip-
ment for transportation and storage is also necessary.
(4) Design of oilfield surface processes and equipment to
support supercritical CO2 viscosity reduction technology,
promote research on pipeline transportation technology for
supercritical CO2−heavy oil viscosity reductions, and transition
from laboratory experiments to pilot-scale experiments and
large-scale engineering applications.
(5) Efficient utilization of end−pressure energy. Develop new
types of end-pressure-utilization devices and optimize system
designs to recover pressure energy from the end of the process.
(6) Separation and recovery of CO2. In-depth research on
separation technology, combined with existing chemical
absorption, membrane separation, washing, and other tech-
nologies, is needed to develop new separation and recovery
technologies, improve the utilization rate of CO2 from industrial
waste gas, and obtain cheap and abundant CO2.
9. CONCLUSIONS
Supercritical CO2 viscosity reduction technology has broad
application prospects in the development and transportation of
heavy oil. It is of great significance in ensuring energy security
and achieving the goals of “carbon peaking” and “carbon
neutrality”.
In this Review, we introduced the mechanism for viscosity
reduction of heavy oil by supercritical CO2, the main factors
affecting the reduction effect, and models for calculating the
characteristic parameters, and we listed engineering applications
of supercritical CO2.
In general, research on supercritical CO2 viscosity reduction
technology for heavy oil is still in its infancy. If the existing
challenges can be overcome and in-depth research can be
conducted on the key issues, it will have an important reference
value for industrial applications.
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
Zehong Wang − School of Petroleum Engineering, Southwest
Petroleum University, Chengdu City 610500 Sichuan
Province, P. R. China; orcid.org/0009-0000-8669-4565;
Email: wzhswpu@foxmail.com
Authors
Jiatong Tan − School of Petroleum Engineering, Southwest
Petroleum University, Chengdu City 610500 Sichuan
Province, P. R. China
11579 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c01387
Energy Fuels 2023, 37, 11567−11583
Energy & Fuels
Siding Chen − China Petroleum Planning and Engineering
Institute, Beijing City 100083, P. R. China
Haili Hu − College of Energy Resources, Chengdu University of
Technology, Chengdu City 610059 Sichuan Province, P. R.
China
Complete contact information is available at:
https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c01387
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
Biographies
Dr. Jiatong Tan is a lecturer at Southwest Petroleum University. Her
research focuses on heavy oil transportation and multiphase flow. Dr.
Jiatong Tan received her B.Sc. and Ph.D. from the Southwest Petroleum
University in oil and gas storage and transportation engineering.
Mr. Zehong Wang received his B.Sc. degree from Southwest Petroleum
University in 2022. He is currently a Master’s student at the School of
Petroleum Engineering, Southwest Petroleum University. He is mainly
engaged in heavy oil transportation and multiphase flow research.
Mr. Siding Chen is a production engineer at the China Petroleum
Planning and Engineering Institute of PetroChina. His research focuses
on natural gas processing, CCS/CCUS and multiphase flow. Mr. Chen
obtained his B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in oil and gas storage and
transportation engineering from Southwest Petroleum University.
Dr. Haili Hu is a research assistant at Chengdu University of
Technology. Her research focuses on natural gas processing and
multiphase flow. Dr. Haili Hu received her B.Sc. M.Sc., and Ph.D. from
the Southwest Petroleum University in oil and gas storage and
transportation engineering.
■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the State Key Laboratory of Heavy
Oil Processing, China University of Petroleum and Oil & Gas
Fire Protection Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province
(OGFP201902).
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11583 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c01387
Energy Fuels 2023, 37, 11567−11583