Introduction to Information and

Communication
Technologies
Lecture 2 – Introduction
Lecturer: Engr. Muhammad Talha Jahangir
PhD Scholar (Computer Engineering) NUST,
Pakistan
Exam Type Marks
Assignment 05
Quiz 10
Mid Term 30
Final 40
Project 10
Class Performance 05
CODE OF ETHICS
❖ All students must come to class on time (Attendance will
be taken in first 5 to 10 mins)
❖ Students should remain attentive during class and avoid
use of Mobile phone, Laptops or any gadgets
❖ Obedience to all laws, discipline code, rules and
community norms
❖ Respect peers, faculty and staff through actions and
speech
❖ Student should not be sleeping during class
❖ Bring writing material and books
❖ Class participation is encouraged, if someone shy to ask
questions, then student can ask me questions via Piazza
platform. (Piazza Access code: ds101)
Email Submission Policy
❖ Assignments should be submit in soft as well as hard form.

❖ When emailing me, please format the subject line as follows:

❖ “Course - <First name> - <subject>” e.g. “DS-TALHA-

Assignment1

❖ While submitting assignments all related files must be

enclosed in a “.rar” file.

❖ File name “must” be same as mentioned above.

❖ Email Id is: talha93uet@gmail.com

Course Outline
• Brief history of Computer
• Four Stages of History
• Computer Elements
• Processor
• Memory
• Hardware
• Software
• Application Software its uses and Limitations
• System Software its Importance and its Types
• Types of Computer (Super, Mainframe, Mini and MicroComputer)
• Introduction to CBIS (Computer Based Information System)
• Methods of Input and Processing
• Class2. Organizing Computer Facility
• Centralized Computing Facility
• Distributed Computing Facility
• Decentralized Computing Facility
• Input Devices
• Keyboard and its Types
• Terminal (Dump, Smart, Intelligent)
Course Outline
• Dedicated Data Entry
• SDA
• Source Data Automation
• Pointing Devices
• Voice Input
• Output Devices
• Soft- Hard Copies
• Monitors and its Types
• Printers and its Types
• Plotters
• Computer Virus and its Forms
• Storage Units
• Primary and Secondary Memories
• RAM and its Types
• Cache
• Hard Disks
• Working of Hard Disk
• Diskettes
• RAID
• Optical Disk Storages (DVD, CD ROM)
• Magnetic Types
• Backup System
Course Outline
• Boolean Operation,
• Hexadecimal Notation
• Data Communications
• Data Communication Model
• Data Transmission
• Digital and Analog Transmission
• Modems
• Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission
• Simplex. Half Duplex & Full Duplex Transmission
• Communications
• Medias (Cables, Wireless)
• Protocols
• Network Topologies (Star, Bus, Ring)
• LAN
• Internet
• A Brief History
• Birthplace of ARPA Net
• Web Link
• Browser
• Internet Services provider and Online Services Providers
• Function and Features of Browser
• Search Engines
• Some Common Services available on Internet.
Expected Outcome
A student who successfully completes the course will have the ability
to:
✓ Understand Fundamental concepts of computers
✓ Understand Functionality of OS
✓ use the units for conveying data and those for storing data
appropriately, including use of the prefixes kilo, mega and giga.
✓ Understand the working of internet
✓ demonstrate an awareness of the main processes in an ICT system
(sending, receiving, storing, retrieving, manipulating, conveying)
✓ demonstrate an awareness of some of the hardware, software and
communication components used in ICT systems.
✓ Create a short document using a word processor
✓ Represent tables of information in word processors and
spreadsheets
✓ Create a short presentation with multimedia elements
✓ Collect data using ICT tools
✓ make a simple web page
Relevant Books
1. Introduction to Computers by Peter Nortorn
Important Websites
1. https://www.sanfoundry.com/1000-computer-
fundamentals-questions-answers/
2. https://dev.to/ (Share ideas on computing)
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Data & Information
1.2 Computers: Hardware and Software
1.3 Von Neumann Architecture
1.4 Computer Organization
15 Programming
1.6 Complexity in Hardware & Software
1.7 What is OS
1.8 Services of OS
1.9 How Computer Represent Data
1.10 How Computer Process Data
1.11 Hard disk, Flash memory, RAM, Cache & Register
1.12 CPU and Computer Internal Clock
1.13 Buses
1.14 Components of Affecting Processing Speed
1.15 Memory Hierarchy
1.16 History of Computer
1.17 Types of Computer
Moor’s Law
❖ Moore's Law is the observation made in 1965 by
Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, that the
number of transistors per square inch on
integrated circuits had doubled every year
since the integrated circuit was invented.
❖ Moore predicted that this trend would continue
for the foreseeable future.
❖ In subsequent years, the pace slowed down a bit,
but data density has doubled approximately every
18 months.
❖ Most experts, including Moore himself, expect
Moore's Law to hold true until 2020-2025.
History of Computer
❖ In previous we have mechanical and analogue
computers.
❖ Now we are dealing with digital computer.
❖ Now the question is if we are dealing with digital
computer then…
❖ Why should we spend time on recounting the
events of the past.
❖ Why not just talk about what is happening in
computing now and what is going to happen in the
future?
❖ Why?
Answer
❖ If you do not learn from the history, your condemned to
repeat it

❖ Recounting the events of the past provides an excellent

opportunity to:
▪ learn lessons
▪ discover patterns of evolution, and
▪ use them in the future

❖ If we learn from history well, we will:

▪ neither repeat the mistakes of the past
▪ nor would we waste time re-inventing what already has been
invented
Abacus
❖ The history of computer starts with the birth of abacus.
❖ Abacus is a manual calculator that has sliding beads to represent numbers.
❖ It is a wooden rack holding horizontal wires with beads stung on them.
❖ When these beads move around, according to programming rules, memorized
by user, all regular mathematical problem can be done.
❖ Chinese and Japanese used abacus beads line vertically.
❖ While most of the world used horizontal lines.
❖ In vertical beads abacus, the central part called center bar, the beads which
are lower to central part which is called lower beads and the beads which are
above the central bar called upper beads.
❖ The upper beads are called the "Heavenly beads" and are worth five in the first
column. The lower beads are called "Earthly beads" and are each worth one in
the first column.
❖ When moving a bead towards the middle bar (reckoning bar), it's considered
counted and when no bead is touching the reckoning bar that column is equal
to zero.
❖ It was used extensively in ancient China, Greece, and Rome for basic
arithmetic calculations.
Abacus Diagram

Vertical Abacus
Continue ….
❖ When u start calculation by using abacus u should consider two
thing, one is your abacus instrument should be reset and
secondly u should start calculation by mid point.
❖ The separation dots and off-colored beads vary depending on
the abacus but are always used to separate numbers into sets of
three.
❖ These markers can also mark your first position if you do not
want to start counting from the far right.
❖ The beads values start in the far right 1's column, which are
beads valued between 1 and 9.
❖ If earthly bead contain 4 beads than heavenly beads
contain value which is equal to 5.
❖ Going from right-to-left the beads values increase to the 10's
place, 100's place, 1,000's place, etc.
How to Use of Abacus
❖ To use the abacus, lay it on a flat surface and set it to zero
by making sure no beads are touching the reckoning bar.
❖ If you have a reset button, press it to reset the beads.
❖ To count on the abacus start on the far right side of the
abacus, and slide one earthly bead up to the reckoning
bar using your thumb.
❖ One bead touching the reckoning bar makes the abacus
equal 1.
❖ Slide three more beads up make the abacus value four (3 + 1
= 4).
❖ Because the modern abacus only has four Earthly beads, if
you want to count to five, you must move the heavenly
bead down to the reckoning bar using your index
finger. At the same time, move all Earthly beads down.
❖ If you wanted the total to be seven, move two earthly beads
up to the reckoning bar (5 + 2 = 7).
Example
❖ To count to higher numbers, move further left, depending
on how high you want to count.
❖ For example, in the picture, the abacus is equal to
"283" with nine beads moved towards the reckoning bar.
❖ The third column (100's column) has two beads
counted for 200.
❖ The second column (10's column) has a Heavenly
bead counted for 50, and three Earthly beads
counted for 30 giving it a total of 80.
❖ Finally, the first column (1's column) has three beads
counted.
❖ Adding all columns together (200 + 80 + 3) gives you
the total of 283.
Abacus Diagram

Vertical Abacus
Abacus Diagram

Horizontal Abacus
Napier’s Bones
❖ John Napier (1550 - 1617) was a Scottish
mathematician, who made many contributions to
arithmetic, including the invention of logarithms.
❖ He also created a device which is Napier's bones to
perform arithmetic calculations.
❖ Napier's bones, also called Napier's rods, are numbered
rods which can be used to perform multiplication of any
number by a number 2-9.
❖ By placing "bones" corresponding to the multiplier on the
left side and the bones corresponding to the digits of
the multiplicand next to it to the right, and product can be
read off simply by adding pairs of numbers (with
appropriate carries as needed) in the row determined by
the multiplier.
❖ This process was published by Napier in 1617 an a book
titled Rabdologia, so the process is also called rabdology.
Napier’s Bones
❖ Here if we observer “1” column then
here 1+1=2 which is in second row of
second column.
❖ If we observer, here upper part is “0”
because 1%1=0 and remainder is 0.
❖ Similarly, in lowest row 1%2=2 so
remainder at 2 is also zero.
❖ So, we repeat the same step.
Napier’s Bones
❖ If we observer third column, here 2+2=4
which is mention in third row and in third
column.
❖ 4%2=0 so 4 upper part is 0.
Napier’s Bones
Napier’s Bones (Image)
Napier’s Bones (Example)
❖ Here we want to multiply
4*7894 or 7894*4.
❖ In next step we hide the
number above and below
to 4 which is shown in
below:

❖ Here we add diagonally

such as 6 then 1+6=7 then
3+2 =5 then 3+8=11 then 2
one carry of 11 added to
2 so it become 3 now the
final result is 31576.
Pascal’s Pascaline Calculator
❖ Pascal’s Invented a first mechanical calculator or
machine that had a system of gears.
❖ Pascaline was developed by Blaise Pascal in 1642.
❖ It was capable of performing additions and
subtractions by the movement of wheels of 8 digits as
it contains 8 dials, gear, and wheels.
❖ It could not do division and multiplication.
❖ Pascal’s calculator was not a commercial success
because these devices could not be built with sufficient
precision for practical use.
❖ The German mathematician, von Leibniz, produced a
machine that was like to Pascal’s but more reliable and
accurate.
Pascaline calculator (Image)
Pascaline calculator (Image)
Alfred Poetry

Every minute dies a man,

Every minute one is born

Alfred Tennyson
(very famous poet)
 Every minute dies a man,
And one and sixteenth is born

Charles Babbage
(very famous computer scientist)

Charles Babbage did such type of unique things.

But he gave gift to humankind in the form of
digital computers.
Charles Babbage (1791-1871)
❖ Charles Babbage designed two important computing machines
during the 19th century: the Difference Engine and the
Analytical Engine.
❖ Difference Engine: Babbage designed multiple versions of the
Difference Engine, but a complete working model was not
constructed in his lifetime.
❖ Later, in the 1990s, the London Science Museum successfully
built a working replica of Babbage's Difference Engine No. 2.
❖ Analytical Engine: Unlike the Difference Engine, the Analytical
Engine was never fully constructed during Babbage's time. The
lack of funding and the complexity of the machine contributed to
its incomplete development.
❖ It remained a visionary concept that greatly influenced the
future of computing.
Difference Engine
❖ Babbage’s difference engine was designed to calculate
polynomial functions and was considered to be the first
automatic computer.
❖ Unfortunately, the difference engine was never completed
due to lack of funding, and Babbage’s plans for a more advanced
machine, the Analytical Engine, were never realized.
❖ Difference engines are so called because of the mathematical
principle on which they are based, namely, the method of finite
differences.
❖ The beauty of the method is that it uses only arithmetical
addition and removes the need for multiplication and
division which are more difficult to implement mechanically.
❖ Adding two numbers using gearwheels is easier to implement
than multiplication or division and so the method simplifies
an otherwise complex mechanism.
Explanation
❖ Charles Babbage's Difference Engine was a mechanical device designed
to calculate and print mathematical tables.
❖ Here's a simplified explanation of how it works:
1. Input: The user sets the initial values or input parameters on the
machine. These are typically the starting numbers for the mathematical
calculation.
2. Addition Mechanism: The core of the Difference Engine involves a
series of interconnected gearwheels. Each digit in a number has a
separate gear. When a number needs to be added to another, the
corresponding gears turn, and the sum is mechanically calculated.
3. Carry Mechanism: Just like in manual addition where you carry over a
digit when the sum is more than 9, Babbage's design included a mechanism
to carry over excess values to the next set of gears.
4. Printing: The calculated results are then mechanically transferred to a
printing mechanism. This allows the machine to produce a table of results,
typically in the form of printed output on paper.
❖ The concept behind the Difference Engine is to automate the process of
creating mathematical tables, which were crucial for various scientific and
engineering calculations in the 19th century.
❖ Babbage's idea was revolutionary because it aimed to eliminate errors that
often occurred when creating tables manually.
Principle of Difference Engine Example
❖ If the first few values of a polynomial are known, the rest may be calculated
using simple repeated addition.
❖ The method is illustrated in the diagram below for the function F(x) = x2 + 4. The
values of x are shown in the first column incrementing by 1 each time (x = 1, 2,
3, 4 . . .).
❖ Here x^2 is X*X it need multiplication but now we calculate some values by hand.
❖ The values of the function x2 + 4 are shown in the second column with the first
four values calculated by mental arithmetic or by hand (5, 8, 13, 20).
❖ When u calculate by some value by hand then next values can be calculate with
the help of previous value.
❖ The next step is to calculate the first and second differences.
❖ The first differences are shown in the third column and are calculated by
subtracting successive values from the previous column as shown by the
solid arrows flowing from left to right (8-5=3, 13-8=5 etc.).
❖ The second differences are calculated by subtracting first difference pairs and
these are shown in the last column.
❖ With these initial values calculated the rest of the values of the function can be
calculated by reversing the process.
❖ The values we wish to calculate are shown below the upper dotted line.
❖ For this polynomial, the second difference is a constant (2).
Principle of Difference Engine

2nd order polynomial

Continue ….
❖ To calculate the value of the function for x=5 the constant difference (2)
is added to the first difference (7) to obtain the next first difference
(9) (red arrow), which can then be added to the last function value
(blue arrow) to yield F(5) = 29.
❖ This is the desired result, achieved without performing
multiplication.
❖ The process can then be repeated to yield the next first difference (11)
which may be added to the last function value to get F(6) = 40, etc.
❖ Using this method, any second-degree polynomial can be computed
this way and, more generally any nth degree polynomial can be
computed, using only addition, starting with the nth difference.
❖ Babbage's Difference Engine No. 2 has 'registers' to hold one number
from each of the columns in the table (for example 20, 7, 2).
❖ It would add the second difference to the first, then add that result to
the function value to compute the next entry in the table.
❖ There were enough 'registers' for seven differences, allowing it to
compute 31-digit values for polynomials with terms up to x7.
Charles Babbage(Difference Engine)
Analytical Engine
❖ The Analytical Engine was a conceptual design for an
early mechanical general-purpose computer,
proposed by the British mathematician and inventor
Charles Babbage in the 1830s and 1840s.
❖ Although it was never fully built during Babbage's
lifetime, his ideas laid the foundation for the development
of modern computers.
❖ Here are key features of the Analytical Engine:
1. General-Purpose Computing: Unlike Babbage's earlier design, the
Difference Engine, which was specialized for specific mathematical calculations,
the Analytical Engine was conceived as a general-purpose machine capable of
performing various types of calculations and manipulations.
2. Programmability: One of the most innovative aspects of the Analytical
Engine was its ability to be programmed. Babbage envisioned using punched
cards to input instructions and data into the machine. This allowed users to
change the sequence of operations, making the Analytical Engine
programmable and setting the stage for the concept of stored programs in
computers.
Explanation
1. Basic Components:
❖ Mill: The "mill" was the central processing unit of the Analytical Engine. It performed
arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
❖ Store: The "store" functioned as the memory of the machine, capable of holding both
instructions and data.
❖ Control: The "control" unit managed the sequence of operations, directing the flow of
data between the mill and the store.
❖ Memory and Storage: Babbage's design included two types of memory: the "store"
for immediate calculations and a separate "store" for long-term storage. This
separation of memory and storage is analogous to the modern computer's RAM
(random-access memory) and hard drive.

4. Input and Output: The Analytical Engine was designed to receive

input through punched cards, and it could produce output in the
form of printed results. Babbage's use of punched cards for input is
an early example of a machine using an external means (in this case,
punched cards) to input data and instructions.
Punch card (1801)
❖ Initially had no relationship with computers.

❖ Invented by a Frenchman named Joseph-Marie

Jacquard for storing weaving patterns for automated
textile looms (“khuddian”).

❖ Their value for storing computer-related

information was later realized by the early computer
builders.

❖ Punched cards were replaced my magnetic

storage only in the early 1950s.
Explanation
❖ Punch cards (or "punched cards"), also known as Hollerith cards
or IBM cards, are paper cards in which holes may be punched by
hand or machine to represent computer data and instructions.
❖ They were a widely-used means of inputting data into early
computers.
❖ A punch card is a simple piece of paper stock that can hold data in
the form of small punched holes, which are strategically
positioned to be read by computers or machines. It is an early
computer programming relic that was used before the many
data storage advances relied upon today.
Difference Engine & Analytical Engine
❖ Charles Babbage (1791-1871), computer pioneer,
designed two classes of engine, Difference Engines, and
Analytical Engines.
❖ Both were designed by Charles Babbage. Difference
engine was first.
❖ It was used to calculate trigonometric functions like sine
and cosine with the help of Newton’s forward difference
method.
❖ Analytical engine was almost like a modern computer. It
had a”Mill” similar to CPU. It had separate memories for
program and data.
❖ Harvard Mark I was modeled after analytical engine
and it used electromechanical relays instead of
mechanical parts.
A lesson that we all can learn from Babbage’s Life
❖ Charles Babbage had huge difficulties raising money to
fund his research

❖ As a last resort, he designed a clever mathematical scheme

along with Ada, the Countess of Lovelace

❖ It was designed to increase their odds while gambling.

❖ They bet money on horse races to raise enough money to

support their research experiments

❖ Guess what happened at the end? The lost every penny

that they had.
Ada, Countess of Lovelace(1815-52)
❖ Babbage student was Ada.
❖ At that time, she was doing mathematics.
❖ Wrote a program for computing the
Bernoulli’s sequence on the Analytical
Engine - world’s 1st computer program
❖ Ada? A programming language specifically
designed by the US Dept of Defense for
developing military applications was
named Ada to honor her contributions
towards computing
Mark -1
❖ Harvard Mark I, an early protocomputer, built during World War II in the
United States.
❖ The Mark I was designed in 1937 by a Harvard graduate student, Howard H.
Aiken to solve advanced mathematical physics problems encountered in his
research.
❖ Aiken discussed his idea with several manufacturers, eventually finding interest at
IBM, a company that specialized in calculating machines and punch card
systems.
❖ It is the electro-mechanical implementation of Analytical Engine.
❖ The programming of the Mark 1 involved the use of punched cards to provide
instructions to the machine.
❖ The Mark 1 could perform about 3 additions or subtractions per second and
one multiplication in about six seconds.
❖ The Mark 1 was a crucial step in the evolution of computing technology, and its
legacy influenced the further development of electronic computers in the
post-World War II era.
❖ The Mark 1 primarily used electromechanical relay switches and rotating
shafts to perform its calculations.
❖ It did not incorporate vacuum tube technology, which became more prevalent
in later generations of electronic computers.
Images
Images
ENIAC
❖ The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) is often
recognized as the first electronic digital computer.
❖ ENIAC was completed in 1945 at the University of Pennsylvania, USA. It
was designed and built by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, along with
their team.
❖ ENIAC was a massive machine that filled an entire room and was used for a
variety of numerical calculations.
❖ It is said that this computer weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes
that were used for processing. When this computer was turned on for the first-
time lights dim in sections of Philadelphia.
❖ Computers of this generation could only perform a single task, and they had no
operating system.
❖ ENIAC did not have a stored program in the way modern computers do, where
instructions are stored in memory that the processor reads and executes
sequentially.
❖ Instead, to change the program or perform a different computation, engineers and
programmers had to manually reconfigure the machine's wiring.
❖ Each time a new program or computation was needed, the engineers had to
physically move and reconnect cables and switches on the machine.
❖ Rewiring the machine was a labor-intensive and time-consuming task.
Images
Images
Turing -1950
❖ Alan Turing of Cambridge University presented his idea of a theoretically
simplified but fully capable computer, now known as the “Turing Machine”.
❖ The concept of this machine, which could theoretically perform any
mathematical computation, was very important in the future development of
the computer.
❖ You will learn about the details of the “Turing Machine” in your advanced
Computer Science courses.
❖ Another contribution of Allen is “Turing test”.
❖ A Turing Test is a method of inquiry in artificial intelligence (AI) for
determining whether or not a computer is capable of thinking like a human
being.
❖ A test proposed to determine if a computer has the ability to think.
❖ In which questioner/interrogator ask a question to both computer and
human. Human and computer answer to questioner and questioner able to
find out which answer belongs to machine and which answer belong to
human. If the machine can "fool" the interrogator, it passes the “Turing Test”.
❖ So until now, computer will not be able to think like human.
❖ So far no one has built a computer that can pass that test – there is
cash prize of US$100,000.
Turing -1950
❖ Alan Turing of Cambridge University presented his idea of a theoretically
simplified but fully capable computer, now known as the “Turing Machine”.
❖ The concept of this machine, which could theoretically perform any
mathematical computation, was very important in the future development of
the computer.
❖ You will learn about the details of the “Turing Machine” in your advanced
Computer Science courses.
❖ Another contribution of Allen is “Turing test”.
❖ A Turing Test is a method of inquiry in artificial intelligence (AI) for
determining whether or not a computer is capable of thinking like a human
being.
❖ A test proposed to determine if a computer has the ability to think.
❖ In which questioner/interrogator ask a question to both computer and
human. Human and computer answer to questioner and questioner able to
find out which answer belongs to machine and which answer belong to
human. If the machine can "fool" the interrogator, it passes the “Turing Test”.
❖ So until now, computer will not be able to think like human.
❖ So far no one has built a computer that can pass that test – there is
cash prize of US$100,000.
Turing Test
Generation of Computers
❖ The evolution of computers is often divided into generations, each
characterized by significant advancements in technology, architecture, and
capabilities.
❖ While the specific attributes of each generation may vary depending on the
source, here is a generalized overview:

1. First Generation (1940s-1956): Vacuum Tubes

▪ Key Technology: Vacuum tubes
▪ Notable Computers: ENIAC, UNIVAC I
▪ Characteristics: Large, cumbersome machines with limited processing power. Used
punched cards for input.

2. Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors

▪ In 1951 the first computer for commercial use was introduced to the public; the
Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC 1).
▪ Key Technology: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
▪ Notable Computers: IBM 700 series, UNIVAC LARC
▪ Characteristics: Smaller, more reliable, and faster than first-generation computers.
Magnetic core memory was introduced.
Explanation
3. Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits
▪ Key Technology: Integrated circuits (ICs) combined multiple transistors on a single chip.
▪ Notable Computers: IBM System/360, DEC PDP-8
▪ Characteristics: Further reduction in size, increased processing speed, improved reliability.
Introduction of high-level programming languages.

4. Fourth Generation (1971-1980s): Microprocessors

▪ Key Technology: Microprocessors (single-chip CPUs).
▪ Notable Computers: Intel 4004, Apple II, IBM PC
▪ Characteristics: Dramatic reduction in size and cost. Personal computers became
more widespread. Introduction of the graphical user interface (GUI).

5. Fifth Generation (1980s-Present): VLSI, AI, and Beyond

▪ Key Technologies: Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI), artificial intelligence (AI), parallel
processing.
▪ Notable Computers: Cray supercomputers, IBM Watson
▪ Characteristics: Advances in parallel processing, increased use of graphical interfaces, the
rise of personal computing. Fifth generations computing devices, based on artificial
intelligence (AI) are still in development, although there is some application such as voice
recognition, facial face detector, and thumbprint that are used today. Continued
growth in processing power and storage capacity.
Diagram (UNIVAC)
Diagram (IBM-360)
Diagram (Modern Computer)