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LANguage,
Literacy
second
edition

early
Childhood
EduC tion
Janet Fellowes
Grace Oakley
vi Contents

4 Early Childhood Settings and Oral Language Learning and

Development 69
Introduction 70
Language development and the home setting 71
Language development and the childcare setting 73
Language development and the preschool setting 76
Language development and the early years of the primary school setting 79

5 Key Early Childhood Learning Contexts for Oral Language 84

Play and oral language 85
Reading aloud to children 90
Storytelling 93
Conversations and discussions 97
Investigations 105

6 Learning Experiences and Activities for Speaking

and Listening 109
Introduction: Important considerations 110
Speaking and listening activities 111
Activities with a listening focus 124
Drama as a medium for speaking and listening development 127

7 Language, Thinking and Learning 134

Cognition and language 135
Language use and brain development 135
The relationship between language and cognition 136
Inner speech and thinking 138
Language and learning 138
Questioning for cognition and learning 145

8 Assessing Speaking and Listening 156

Assessment issues in Early Childhood 157
What needs to be assessed? 158
The components of language 159
Collecting data about children’s oral language 161
Documentation of oral language learning 169
Interpreting the information gathered about oral language 179
 Contents vii

Part 2
young children and reading 182

9 Understanding Reading 184

Defining reading 185
Foundational knowledge for reading 185
Knowledge about text purposes 193
Phonological awareness 193
Knowledge about letters and sounds 195
Letter–sound relationships 198
Word recognition: Phases of development 198
Sight words 200
Reading development 200
Perspectives on how to teach reading 203
Child-initiated or educator-initiated literacy learning? 205

10 Phonological Awareness, Letters, Sounds and Sight Words 208

Phonological awareness 209
Teaching phonological awareness 210
Principles for teaching phonological awareness 224
Assessment of phonological awareness 224
Teaching about letter–sound relationships 226
What do children need to know about letter–sound relationships? 229
Suggested sequences for teaching phonics 232
Principles of phonics teaching 235
Strategies and games for teaching phonics 235
Working with letters and sounds 237
Assessment of letter–sound knowledge 240
Teaching sight words 242
Strategies for teaching sight words 243
Assessment of sight-word knowledge 245

11 Vocabulary for Reading and Writing 247

What do we mean by vocabulary? 248
Why is vocabulary important in reading and writing? 248
How does vocabulary develop? 249
Levels of vocabulary knowledge 250
How can vocabulary learning be facilitated in the early years? 252
Indirect instruction 253
Explicit vocabulary instruction 255
Word study 256
Word sorts/classifications 262
Purposeful strategic conversations 262
Using dictionaries 263
viii Contents

Using contextual cues 263

Teaching word consciousness 264
Some principles for vocabulary teaching 265
Assessment of vocabulary knowledge 266
Toolbox of Vocabulary Strategies 268

12 Strategies for Teaching Reading 271

Pedagogical strategies for supporting reading 272
Reading aloud to children 272
Shared reading 276
Guided reading 282
Language Experience Approach 288
Buddy reading 288
Independent reading 289
Reciprocal teaching 289
Literature circles 290
Matching texts to children 290
Finding out about children’s reading interests 292

13 Reading for Comprehension 294

Introduction 295
How can reading comprehension be defined? 296
What does a child need to know and do to comprehend a text? 297
Reading comprehension: Suggested developmental pathway 298
‘Levels’ of comprehension 300
Strategic processes for comprehension 302
Teaching comprehension processes and strategies 311
Comprehension of informational texts 312
Providing appropriate texts 314
Vocabulary for reading 315
Comprehension of multimodal texts 315
Good practice recommendations 315
Assessment of reading comprehension 316
Toolbox of Comprehension Strategies 323

14 Developing Reading Fluency 332

What is reading fluency? 333
Elements of reading fluency 334
Why is reading fluency important? 335
Fluency development 335
Key practices for fostering reading fluency 337
Improving the elements of fluency 341
Improving expressiveness 342
Using ICTs to teach reading fluency 343
Pulling it all together 344
Assisting struggling readers 345
 Contents ix

Assessment of reading fluency 345

What not to do 347
Toolbox of Fluency Strategies 350

Part 3
young children and writing 354

15 Introduction to Writing 356

Written communication 357
Four components of writing 358
The physical aspect of writing 361
Writing traits 361
The writing process 362
Children’s growth in written communication 367
Using the phases of writing development 372

16 Writing Purpose and Text Organisation 375

Introduction 376
Writing purpose 376
Audience 377
Written texts 378
Types of texts 379
Teaching about texts: Beginning and emergent 387
Teaching about texts in the early years of school 388

17 The Writing Conventions: Grammar and Punctuation 394

Writing conventions 395
What is grammar? 395
Oral language and grammar as a prelude to writing 396
Understanding English grammar 397
Punctuation 406
Teaching about the writing conventions 410

18 Spelling and Handwriting 415

The importance of good spelling 416
The English orthographic system 416
Spelling knowledge 418
Spelling strategies 421
Children’s spelling development 422
Invented spelling 425
Teaching spelling 426
Spelling activities 427
x Contents

Spelling journals 435

Spelling lessons 436
Spelling and editing 438
Handwriting 438

19 Key Strategies for Teaching Writing 445

Introduction 446
Modelled writing 448
Shared writing 452
Working with texts produced in modelled or shared writing 454
Interactive writing 456
Language Experience Approach 457
Guided writing 459
Independent writing 461
The teaching strategies in use 462

20 Writing Experiences and Activities 468

The emergence of writing 469
Supporting the emergence of writing 470
Supporting children’s further progress as writers 479
Developing writing lessons for children in the early years of school 480
Establishing the stimulus for writing activities 481

21 Assessing and Evaluating Writing 492

What to assess? 493
Collecting information about children’s writing 495
Spelling 502
Assessment of writing interest and motivation 507

Part 4
framing language and literacy learning 510

22 Children’s Literature by Helen Adam 512

What is children’s literature? 513
The place of literature in the curriculum 514
Laying the foundations 516
Response to literature 516
Creating a positive environment for dynamic literary response 518

23 Visual and Critical Literacy 534

Introduction 535
Defining critical literacy 535
 Contents xi

Visual literacy and its importance in the 21st century 541

Defining viewing or visual literacy 541
Broad approaches to teaching viewing 548
Suggested themes for critical and visual literacy 549
Assessment of visual literacy 553

24 Language, Literacy and Information and Communication

Technologies 556
Young children and ICTs 557
SAMR and TPACK 561
Using ICTs to further young children’s literacy learning 562
ICTs to help children learn sight words, comprehension and fluency 567
Writing using ICTs 572
ICT-based concept mapping for reading and writing 577
Using the web 578
Interactive whiteboards 581
ICTs and safety concerns 583

25 Connecting with Families 585

Family literacy practices 586
Family literacy practices and emerging literacy 586
Oral language as a component of family literacy 586
Family literacy and emergent literacy 587
Family literacy diversity 588
Family literacy initiatives 589
Parent–educator partnerships 590
The benefits of parent–educator partnerships 592
Partnership practices 593
Working with families from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds 599

26 Planning for Language and Literacy 605

The learning program 606
The literacy-enriched environment 608
Language and literacy programs for the different early childhood settings 611
The informed early childhood professional 619

Appendix A: Compendium of Teaching Strategies and Activities for

Language and Literacy 622
Appendix B: Test Your Language and Literacy Knowledge 625
Bibliography 632
Index 658
xii

Professional Insights
Professional practices
Educator: Preparing to tell a story 94
Action rhymes  115
Listening experiences for toddlers 127
Recording observations 170
Important assessment practices 179
Rhyme generation game: Roll-a-rhyme 213
Rhyming riddles  213
Game: Syllable walk 215
Riddles264
Questions an educator might ask during a picture walk 279
Reading strategies for children to practise during guided reading sessions 284
Prompts for educators to use during guided reading 285
Lesson plan  286
Example of an interest inventory 292
Little Red Riding Hood 301
Writing in response to literature 381
Sentence variety 398
Structuring a modelled writing lesson 450
Structuring a shared writing lesson 453
The format of a guided writing lesson 460
The take-home literacy bag 598
Example of a preschool timetable 614

Professional knowledge
Our definition of a ‘literate person’ 3
Identifying children who have reduced hearing 37
Understanding conductive hearing loss 38
Standard English 40
Language teaching and learning principles 70
Websites for how to make children’s musical instruments 124
ESL learners and comprehensible input 125
Constructing Knowledge 139
Questioning using Blank’s Levels of Talk framework 148
Five question categories 150
Slack’s core questions 151
 professional Insights  xiii

Slack’s processing questions 152

Books to help teach the alphabet 197
Development of word recognition 199
Sequence of phonological awareness development 209
Marking long and short vowels 219
Children’s books with rhyme or alliteration 220
What does explicit and systematic phonics mean? 228
Letters and sounds phases 234
Levels of vocabulary knowledge 251
Ideas for teaching about compound words 257
Reading to infants (0–18 months) 273
Reading to toddlers (18–36 months) 274
Expressive engagement 275
A cumulative story 276
Assessing text difficulty 290
Calculating percentage oral reading accuracy 318
Calculating the self-correction rate 319
Texts for choral reading 338
Readers’ theatre scripts online 340
Calculating words correct per minute (WCPM) 341
Elements of prosody 343
Talking e-books online 344
NAEP’S oral reading fluency scale 346
Children who speak English as an additional language (EAL) learning to write 372
Word classes: Quick reference 405
The paragraph 410
Example of a modelled writing lesson 462
Example of a shared writing lesson 464
Assessment of handwriting 506
Choosing books for babies and toddlers 521
Critical literacy 536
Clever cloze example 540
Colours545
Texts for teaching viewing 546
Developmentally appropriate technology 560
Examples of WebQuests for children K–2 579
Example of an information card for parent involvement 594
Program considerations for culturally and linguistically diverse learners 609

Vignettes
Peter’s story: In the morning 27
The conversation of a group of five- and six-year-old children 100
Dialogue: Year 1 children 153
Communication styles 602
xiv 

About the Authors

Janet Fellowes is a Senior Lecturer at Edith Cowan University, Western Australia where she
teaches Early Childhood Language and Literacy. She spent fifteen years before this working
as a classroom teacher in a range of locations and across early childhood and primary classes.
Janet continues to work closely with schools and classroom teachers and is regularly called upon
to conduct staff professional development sessions in early childhood language and literacy.
Her research work is closely linked to the early childhood classroom and has comprised such
projects as Small Group Literacy Teaching in the Early Years, Teacher Efficacy and the Teaching
of English as a Second Language, The Oral Language Development of Preschool Children,
Boys and Literacy, Focused Intervention for Effective Literacy Development and Writing
in the Preschool Years. Janet is passionate about ensuring that early childhood teachers are
knowledgeable about, and inspired by, language and literacy teaching and learning, and that
they are reflective, resourceful and adaptable practitioners.

Grace Oakley is an Associate Professor at the University of Western Australia and teaches
primarily in Language and Literacy. Grace has lectured in this area for over ten years, in early
childhood and primary teaching programs, both undergraduate and postgraduate. She has had
classroom experience in K–7 classrooms, including LOTE teaching. Grace’s research interests
focus on the role of ICTs in early literacy learning, helping children who struggle in literacy, literacy
assessment, literacy motivation and metacognition in literacy learning. She has been involved in
several research projects involving literacy in the early years, one of which investigated teachers’
methods of assessing reading. She is also interested in home literacy practices and was involved
in the Better Beginnings project.

Helen Adam wrote Chapter 22 on children’s literature. Helen is a lecturer at Edith Cowan
University, Western Australia. She has lectured and written on the subject of children’s literature
for the past seven years. Helen’s writing and research addresses the role and importance of quality
literature in the social and emotional wellbeing of the child. Helen’s lecturing and writing highlight
the potential and importance of quality literature in developing critical and creative thinking,
ethical understandings, personal and social capabilities and intercultural understandings—all
of which are highlighted in the Australian Curriculum and The Early Year Learning Framework
and are important to all children. She is currently undertaking her Doctor of Philosophy studies
on the topic: Investigating the use of children’s literature to support principles of diversity in the
kindergarten rooms of long day care centres.
  xv

Preface to the Second Edition

We are very excited to have been given the opportunity to write a second edition of Language,
Literacy and Early Childhood Education, which focuses on the literacy learning of children from
birth to the age of eight, with an emphasis on four to eight year olds. Since the first edition was
written, there have been several important changes in the early childhood education and care
(ECEC) landscape internationally and in Australia, which we attempt to address in this book.
In Australia, the Australian Curriculum (ACARA, 2014) has been introduced, which lays out
the learning expected of students from the Foundation Year (five year olds) onwards. In this
second edition of the book, we pay particular attention to the English curriculum but also, where
appropriate, we make references to the ‘general capability’, Literacy. Alongside the Australian
Curriculum, the National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN), a national
testing regime that commenced in 2008, appears to be having an effect on literacy education in
the early years, since educators are charged with the responsibility of preparing young children
for the Year 3 literacy tests. We wish to mention that, while it is important for early childhood
educators to build children’s skills, understandings and dispositions to help them achieve success
with reference to the Australian Curriculum and national assessments, it is just as important
to keep in sight children’s need for meaningful curriculum and appropriate, child-centred
pedagogies.
Another important change to the ECEC landscape in Australia has been Belonging, being and
becoming: An Early Years Learning Framework for Australia (DEEWR, 2009), which is now being
embedded into early years education and care settings. This framework, along with the National
Quality Standard (ACECQA, 2013), attempts to bridge any disconnections that may have existed
between home, early childcare, and education. The importance of transitions ‘including from
home to early childhood settings, between settings, and from early childhood settings to school’
are highlighted (DEEWR, 2009, p. 16). The framework also recommends that educators make
use of play-based learning but also employ ‘intentional teaching’, which ‘involves educators being
deliberate, purposeful and thoughtful in their decisions and actions. Intentional teaching is the
opposite of teaching by rote or continuing with traditions simply because things have “always”
been done that way’ (DEEWR, 2009, p. 15). In this book, we attempt to describe pedagogical
practices that allow educators to plan for play-based learning and also employ other approaches
such as explicit teaching, collaborative learning and learning though exploration and discovery.
The principles, practices and learning outcomes contained in Belonging, being and becoming, which
is often referred to as the EYLF or ‘the framework’, focus on ensuring that children from birth
to the age of five have access to care and education that enables them to build the foundations
for future success in learning. The ‘children are effective communicators’ outcome receives
special attention in this book, although this outcome is very much intertwined with the other
four: children have a strong sense of identity; children are connected with and contribute to their
world; children have a strong sense of wellbeing; children are confident and involved learners.
xvi preface to the second edition

Thirdly, the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (AITSL, 2012) have been introduced.
These are intended to make clear the knowledge, practices and professional engagement required
across educators’ careers. Educators are required to: know students and how they learn; know
the content and how to teach it; plan for and implement effective teaching and learning; create
and maintain supportive and safe learning environments; assess, provide feedback and report
on student learning; engage in professional learning; and engage professionally with colleagues,
parents/educators and the community. Much of the content in this book will assist educators in
meeting these standards, particularly at the graduate level, although more experienced educators
should also find the content useful since it draws on recent research.
In this second edition of Language, Literacy and Early Childhood Education, we have made
links to curriculum documents in Australia, where appropriate. It should be noted that, because
language and literacy are complex and multilayered, it would be impossible to list all possible
links to curriculum documents. Also, our intention in providing links is to provide examples,
not to diminish educators’ professional judgment, creativity and innovation in making their
own links and in planning learning experiences that best suit their own settings. As well, good
research-based pedagogies, which form the bulk of this book, can be applied to any curriculum
framework.
In this second edition, we have updated all chapters with new references to current
international research. We have also built in more information about children from diverse
linguistic and cultural backgrounds, although it is beyond the scope of this general text to go into
great detail in this area or to discuss children with special needs. All chapters have been updated
and the chapter on ICTs and literacy in the early years (Chapter 24) has been extensively updated.
As in the previous edition of the book, some of the chapters have a ‘toolbox’ of strategies, but in
other cases these are not provided because the strategies concerned needed more explanation
with reference to the broader chapter content. Likewise, oral language and writing have separate
chapters on assessment. However, assessment of reading and its elements is dealt with in the
relevant chapters—comprehension, vocabulary, letters and sounds, and so on.
As will be explained in Chapter 1, in which we discuss definitions of literacy, there is scope
for some confusion among educators because in the English curriculum area of the Australian
Curriculum, the term ‘literacy’ is not used in the same expansive way that it is used in much of
the international literature. Please read Chapter 1 to ascertain what we mean by literacy, what
terms are used in the international literature, and how curriculum documents in Australia define
language and literacy.
We would also like to make clear that, in this text, we use the term ‘educator’ to refer to
teachers and early childhood educators and carers working within early childhood settings such
as childcare, preschool and the early school years (Foundation to Year 2).
We would like to draw attention to the excellent chapter on children’s literature by Helen
Adam from Edith Cowan University. We are very grateful to Helen for writing this chapter—she
has a great deal of expertise in this area, through many years of classroom teaching and teaching
pre-service educators, as well as presenting at conferences. The Australian Curriculum has
highlighted the importance of children’s literature through the inclusion of the Literature strand.
We hope that the updates we have made to the book will better meet the needs of pre-service
educators, teacher educators, practising educators and others interested in language, literacy
and early childhood education, both in Australia and internationally.
 preface to the second edition xvii

References
Australian Children’s Education & Care Quality Authority (ACECQA) (2013b).
The national quality standard. Retrieved from <www.acecqa.gov.au/
national-quality-framework/the-national-quality-standard>

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) (2014). Australian

Curriculum. Retrieved from <www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/>

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) (2012). Australian
professional standards for teaching. Retrieved from <www.teacherstandards.aitsl.
edu.au/>

Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) (2009).

Belonging, being and becoming: The early years learning framework for Australia.
Retrieved from <http://docs.education.gov.au/node/2632>
xviii

Guided Tour
16

Chapter objectives:
A bulleted list of chapter
2 UNDERSTANDING ORAL
LANGUAGE
learning objectives outlines
the main concepts and
ideas that readers will
encounter in each chapter.
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
This chapter will increase your understanding of:

• language and communication

• the different properties and features of the English language system
• the functional nature of language and the need to adapt language use to suit different
speaking and listening situations
• listening (receptive language) and learning to listen
• the link between language, culture and identity and the need to acknowledge and respect
children’s home language or English dialect
• varieties of a language.

Key terms: Listed at the start

Key terms
of each chapter. These are also child directed speech (CDS) recasting
highlighted where they are first 598 classical
Partconditioning
4 Framing Language and Literacy Learning scaffolding

holophrastic speech sequential second language learning

explained in the text, and a
language acquisition device (LAD) telegraphic speech
concise definition appears in the children. They are a way in which children and families can participate in enjoyable language
language
and acquisition support
literacy activities systemthe
that support (LASS)
experiencestheory of mind and learning goals of the
and development

margin notes. care

operant and education setting. Resources might include
conditioning storybooks,
universal writing materials, games, tapes
grammar
of songs and rhymes, or recipes and other texts. To maximise involvement and success, each
readiness
pack should contain a letter to parents, explaining the purpose of the pack and the ways in which
children should be engaged with the activities and resources.
• Literacy bags contain different books, book audio tapes and other literacy resources that
promote enjoyable and relevant reading and writing experiences for children to undertake
Pause and reflect: Short
with their families. There might be a set of different bags, each of which contains different
Pause and reflect books, resources and activities. Different bags might be suitable for children at different
Early childhood learning principles questions to prompt
development levels. Children and families borrow the bags to take home for a week or so at
a time.
Review the ‘Language teaching and learning principles’ (above). Identify three that you
• A lending library can be set up for parents toreaders
borrow books,to think
puppets about
and recorded stories and
feel are most important and consider the practical applications of each.
other language and literacy learning resources for their children’s use at home. There should
chapter content.
be materials that cater for the different interests of children, books that parents can read
aloud and those that are appropriate to the group of children involved.

Professional insights: This feature

PRofessional PRactices
is categorised into Professional THE TAkE-HOME LITERACY BAG
practices, Professional knowledge The bag consists of such items as:
• sets of books (fiction and non-fiction) on a theme of interest to the children
and Vignettes. These provide • related activities/materials—link to books or topic

readers with further research, • activities for developing literacy knowledge, language and literacy skills and a positive attitude
to storybooks and interest in literacy
and useful resources, case studies • games, craft and play activities (suited to the age group)
Families borrow the bags and keep them for a period of time.
and teaching ideas that extend They read the books with their children and choose and carry out some of the games and activities.

and support the chapter content. ExAMPLE

Topic: ducks
Literacy level: emergent/early
Texts: Duckling, Six little ducks, Do like a duck does.
ACTIvITIES:
After reading the Duckling book, the parent/child:
• writes one thing they learnt about ducks in the record book provided
• records (draws or writes) in the diary provided the things Oliver Duck does with the family
• uses the pictures provided to sequence and retell the events from the story
• uses the letter cards to experiment with making words.
 Guided Tour xix

276 Part 2 Young Children and Reading

Summary margin notes: Read-alouds are an important component of a balanced literacy program and should not
See Chapter 5
be seen as something that only very young children need; they are beneficial throughout
Further information on for information
about read- the preschool and school years, although it can be increasingly difficult to select texts that
alouds and are of interest to every child in the group. In many cases, small group read-alouds should be
a specific subject or to Chapter
how they 2 Understanding
implemented.
oral Language 43
benefit oral

reinforce a key point; also language

development. SHARED READING
used as a link
recognised between
ESL/ESD techniques to support children shared
in understanding
reading
Sharedthereading
spokenwas originally
English of introduced by New Zealander Don Holdaway (1979) and is
a teaching sometimes referred to as Shared Book Experience (SBE). There are variations of shared reading
the learning environment.
related chapters of the text. strategy but all involve the educator reading aloud while children follow along and join in where possible.
Reference: National Association for the Education of Young Children (2009);
that involves The Victorian
rationale Department of reading is that, since young children love to sit on parents’
behind shared
educators
Education and Early Childhood Development (2012); Western Australialaps
reading aloud
and listen to
Department of stories being
Education read aloud, it should be possible for educators to read aloud to
and
several children at once through the use of enlarged or big books, thus extending the benefits
to children Training (2009)
and pointing of ‘lap reading’ beyond the home. The idea is to mimic the ways in which parents read to their
out features of children—with warmth, intimacy, enthusiasm and gestures. The use of big books also enables
the text while educators to point at words as they go along, using a special pointer, and in the process help
Pause and reflect doing so. The
educator may
children learn concepts about print such as directionality, one-to-one correspondence between
spoken and written words, and simple punctuation like full stops, commas and speech marks.
Cultural and linguistic diversity also ‘think
Also, shared reading helps children develop listening comprehension, learn sight words through
aloud’ to
Choose three of the suggested practices (above)model workingrepeated
for reading exposure, and
with culturally also learn some letter–sound correspondences, either through problem-
and
strategies. solving approaches or a degree of explicit teaching.
linguistically diverse children. Consider specific approaches you might take as an early
childhood educator in order to realise these important practices.

Australian Curriculum
and Early Years Learning
The Early Years Learning Framework emphasises the need for educators to implement a
curriculum that acknowledges and values all children’s cultures, identities, abilities and Framework: Connect chapter
strengths and that responds to the uniqueness of their family lives.
content with these two key
documents.

The Australian Curriculum emphasises the need for children to learn about variations in the
use of English in Australia. At Foundation Level, the requirement is that children understand
that English is one of many languages spoken in Australia and that different languages may
be spoken by family, classmates and community.

266 Part 2 Young Children and Reading

268 Part 2 Young Children and Reading
Educators need to build an awareness of how cultural, social and economic differences
can impact upon how children speak, listen and make meaning. If educators are to encourage
children to build on their strengths, it is necessary to understand the ‘funds of knowledge’ (Moll,
Toolboxes: A selection
assessment of
of voCabulary
Amanti, niff & Gonzales, 1992) or different ways of knowing and doing things that children bring
useful teaching
knoWledge strategies, TOOLBOX OF VOCABULARY
from the home. For example, eye contact is important in most English-speaking cultures but
children from other cultures may feel a sense of discomfort if asked to display such behaviour.
ideas and classroom STRATEGIES
An important question to ask in assessing vocabulary is: Which words do children need to know?
Some cultures think it is rude to ask direct questions so will instead make oblique enquiries and
The usefulness and importance of a word to a child should certainly be a factor in the teaching
activities.
sometimes, as in some Aboriginal groups, it is not compulsory to respond to questions or other
and assessment of vocabulary (Harmon et al., 2007). once it has been decided what to assess
statements. SEMANTIC FEATURE ANALYSIS
in vocabulary, decisions about how and when to assess need to be made. According to Harmon
et al. (2007), three effective ways of assessing vocabulary are:
Materials
•
Summary
asking children to provide synonyms and antonyms of the word
Whiteboard and marker (or IWB) or chart paper.
• asking children to categorise words under headings
• Language
observing is useduse
children’s forofwritten and
words in spoken
oral communication.
and written contexts. As a system of communication
Receptive vocabulary (listening and reading) has traditionally Description
it has many significant properties and components, and understanding these is important
been assessed through
to knowing
questioning what children
and asking is involved in children
to provide acquiring
definitions and own
in their developing language.this
words. However, Oralmay
The semantic feature analysis involves children filling in or creating a grid that pertains to a
language
give limited is used about
knowledge in different
whetherways depending
or not children on
havethea communicative
‘deep’ concept ofpurpose
a word. and the
Asking
particular category. For example, it might be about Australian animals. This activity helps to
features
children of the context
to categorise words orin sort
which oralaccording
them communication
to meaningis clarify
taking place.
can and
often Children
provide a require
clearer
deepen children’s understanding of word meanings.
picture of children’s understandings.
Picture vocabulary assessments can also be used to assess Procedure
receptive vocabulary. Here,
children are shown pictures and are asked to point at the picture that matches the stimulus word
• Choose some category names—for example, Australian animals.
that is pronounced by the educator. A formal test of this type is the Peabody Picture Vocabulary
Test—Revised (Dunn & Dunn, 1997). However, this assessment •is from The children
the USAbrainstorm:
and may not ‘What words fit into the chosen category?’ For Australian animals,
always be culturally appropriate for all Australian children, especiallywe might expect
culturally diversequokka, kangaroo, possum and wombat.
children.
The 43
02_FEL_LIT2_21177_TXT_3pp.indd PAT-R(Australian Council of Educational Research, 2008) also has some
• List a receptive
of the vocabulary
features of the items in the category.
21/07/14 For
9:51 example,
AM features of Australian
test, which is in the multiple choice format. These formal assessments would
animals not be
might used with
include: pouch, four legs, vegetarian and nocturnal.
most children; rather, methods of informal, continual assessment•would be used.
Create a grid and complete this as a group. When children become more proficient at
The assessment of expressive vocabulary (speaking and writing) can be feature
semantic achieved throughthe educator may step back and allow them to take on more
analysis,
the analysis of texts, both spoken and written, produced by the children. Educatorsfor
responsibility can also use the task.
completing
informal assessments, such as picture cards that children are asked to name (label) orally. They
• After having created the grid, discuss this and the features of the words/items being
can also ask children to think of synonyms and antonyms for words.
analysed.
Formal tests include the Expressive Vocabulary Test (Williams, 1997), which is for children who
Example
are five years of age or more. In this test, the student responds with a one-word answer to two
types of items: they must label items (pictures) and provide synonyms.
table 11.4 australian animals

Summary Chapter summary:

marsupial (has nocturnal herbivore (eats lives on the
pouch)
In this chapter we have discussed the importance of teaching vocabulary to children Highlightsvegetables
the significance
only) ground
in the early years, through the use of implicit and explicit strategies. Children who ✓
kangaroo
do not have a wide listening or receptive vocabulary will inevitably find it difficult to
of✓ issues
(mostly) discussed
✓ in ✓
Quokka supported by ✓ (mostly)
comprehend texts. In the early childhood years, hands-on experiences,
✓ lots the text. ✓ ✓
of talk between adults and children, will play a large part in vocabulary
koala learning. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗

tasmanian devil ✓ ✓ ✗ ✓
Review question
SEMANTIC MAPPING
1. What issues might children for whom English is a second or additional language face in
learning vocabulary?
Materials
Whiteboard and whiteboard markers or paper/card and marker pens. The software Kidspiration
xx Guided Tour

206 Part 2 Young Children and Reading

Review questions and Review

Review questions
1. What is foundational knowledge for literacy and why is it important?
348 Part 2
activities: Encourage readers to
Young Children and Reading

2. How do children acquire or learn foundational knowledge? How do home experiences

impact on this?
apply their learning and stimulate
3. Can you see any possible disadvantages of a ‘balanced’ approach to teaching reading?
What are they?
critical thinking.
Review questions
1. What are prosody, pitch and pace? How might you assess them?
2. How can educators help children who do not have word recognition difficulties improve
Review activities their fluency?

1. Go into a childcare centre or preschool classroom and observe the environment. Think
about how its richness in print and talk might facilitate the development of foundational
Review activities
skills for reading and writing. What kinds of toys, resources and manipulatives do you 1. Select a short children’s story and convert it into a readers’ theatre script.
see that might assist in this? 2. Practise reading a children’s poem with expression. How might you use pace, phrasing,
stress, pitch and volume to improve expression? Read the poem to some peers and seek
2. Think about how you as an educator might facilitate children’s learning. For each phase
their feedback on how it sounded.
of reading development (see Table 9.2), what could you provide in the classroom or
3. Listen to a child read and assess their reading in terms of smoothness, pace, prosody
centre environment (for example, picture books, posters, labels, toys, blocks)? What and accuracy. What feedback might you give them and how will you help them improve
could you do on a day-to-day basis to assist the children’s learning (for example, talk, their fluency?
reading aloud)?
Key references and Websites: Are
3. As you work through the following chapters, keep returning to Table 9.2 and reflect on key references
included at the end of each chapter to
how the strategies, principles and learning activities discussed might relate to children’s
accomplishments in the right-hand column of the table. How do Australian Curriculum Hasbrouck, J. & Tindal, g. A. (2006). Oral reading fluency norms: A valuable assessment
tool for reading. The Reading Educator, 59(7), 636–44.
help broaden understanding of the topics
documents align to the NAEYC phases of early reading development?
Oakley, g. (2005). Reading fluency as an outcome of a repertoire of interactive reading

covered and to extend learning.

Key references
competencies: How to teach it to different types of dysfluent readers (and how ICT
can help). New England Reading Association Journal, 41(1), 13–21.

Clay, M., M. (2002). An observation survey of early literacy (2nd edn). Auckland: Heinemann.
Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2007). Letters and sounds: Principles and
practice of high quality phonics. Norwich: DfES.
Ehri, L. C. (1995). Stages of development in learning to read by sight. Journal of Research in
Reading, 18, 116–25.
Hiebert, E. H., Pearson, P. D., Taylor, B. M., Richardson, V. & Paris, S. G. (1998). Every child
a reader. Michigan: CIERA.
Samuels, S. J., Ediger, k. & Fautsch-Partridge, T. (2005). The importance of reading
fluency. New England Reading Association Journal, 41(1), 1–9.
Stahl, S. A., Heubach, k. & Holcomb, A. (1995). Fluency-oriented reading instruction.
Journal of Literacy Research, 37, 25–60.
Zutell, J., Donelson, R., Bevans, J. & Todt, P. (2006). Building a focus on oral reading
fluency into individual instruction for struggling readers. In T. Rasinski, C. L. Z.
Blachowicz & k. Lems (eds), Fluency instruction: Research-based best practices (pp.
265–78). New York: guilford Press.

Johnston, R. S. & Watson, J. E. (2005). A seven year study of the effects of synthetic
phonics teaching on reading and spelling attainment. Insight, 17, 1–9.
National Early Literacy Panel (NELP). (2008). Developing early literacy: report of the national
early literacy panel. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
Torgeson, J. K. & Mathes, P. G. (2000). A basic guide to understanding, assessing and teaching
phonological awareness. Austin, Tx: Pro-ed.
Websites
Busy Teachers’ Café: Building reading fluency in young readers:
<www.busyteacherscafe.com/literacy/fluency.html>
This website provides a range of information about reading fluency as well as an
overview of classroom strategies that can be used to develop children’s reading
fluency. Additionally, it offers links to other websites that can be accessed
about the teaching and assessment of reading fluency.
Reading First OHIO: <www.readingfirstohio.org/page/
teaching-fluency-instructor-s-guide-tool-literacy-coaches>

Oxford Education Hub: Literacy and Language

09_FEL_LIT2_21177_TXT_3pp.indd 206
www.oup.com.au/higher_education/oxford_education_hub/language_and_literacy
14_FEL_LIT2_21177_TXT_3pp.indd 348
21/07/14 12:30 PM
21/07/14 12:53 PM

Here you will find a diverse selection of activities, additional material,

and interactive revision tools to help you get the most from your study.
Open to both students and lecturers, the OEH aids both teaching and
learning with accessible, high quality digital resources.
There are more literacy resources at oup.com.au
 xxi

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank our family and friends and our literacy and early childhood colleagues
for their support and encouragement as we wrote this book. We would also like to thank the
publishing and editorial staff from Oxford University Press who have worked with us to ensure
the book’s quality and completion, particularly Debra James, Victoria Kerr, Jennifer Butler and
Geraldine Corridon. We dedicate this book to six beautiful children—Niamh, Charis, Bayley,
Kiaya, William and QiQi—who inspire us in our commitment to language, literacy and early
childhood education.
The author and the publisher wish to thank the following copyright holders for reproduction
of their material.
Allen & Unwin for cover of Magic Beach, Table 20.3; Clean Slate Press for cover and text
from To Town, p. 485; Evans Publishing Group for cover of Eating Fruit and Vegetables (Start-Up
Design and Technology S.) by Claire Llewellyn; Photographer: Liz Price, Table 20.4; istockphoto/
Ma_co (dog) /johavel (carrot) /kristijanh (brother), p. 122; NAEYC (National Association for
the Education of Young Children, Table 9.2; National Institute for Literacy, www.nifl.gov, for
extract on p. 186; North-South Books Inc for cover of The Rainbow Fish by Marcus Pfister,
©1992 North-South Books Inc., New York, an imprint of NordSüd Verlag AG, CH-8005 Zurich/
Switzerland in Table 20.3; Pearson Australia/New Zealand, cover reproduced with permission
from Jill Eggleton, Sailor Sam (c) 1999 Pearson Australia/New Zealand, p. 286; Penguin Group
for covers of Belinda by Pamella Allen (Penguin Australia) in Table 20.3, cover and text from
Boo to a goose by Mem Fox, Puffin, New York, 2001, p. 81, cover & text from Brown Bear by Bill
Martin and Eric Carle (1984), p. 485, cover of Dear Zoo by Rod Campbell (Penguin UK) in Table
20.3, Elephants, Chatterbox series by Edel Wignall, in Table 20.4, cover of Who Sank the Boat
by Pamela Allen (Penguin Australia - Picture Puffin), in Table 20.3, cover of Why is the sky blue?
by Geraldine Taylor and Amy Schimler in Table 20.4; Phonics Alive! for the screenshot, p. 566;
RAND Corporation for permission to use the RAND model of reading comprehension, Figure
13.1; Reprinted by permission, California Department of Education, CDE Press, 1430 N Street,
Suite 3207, Sacramento, CA 95814, Table 8.12; Shutterstock/Adam Borkowski, p. 71 /Celek,
p. 22 /Diego Cervo, p. 18 /Herjua, p. 21 /Morgan Lane Photography, p. 37 /Pavel Losevsky,
p. 617 /Pavlov Mikhail, p. 357 centre /Poznyakov, p. 74 /StockLite, p. 135; Walker Books page
for Let’s get a pup!, p. 551, cover of The Hidden Forest in Table 20.3.
Every effort has been made to trace the original source of copyright material contained in
this book. The publisher will be pleased to hear from copyright holders to rectify any errors or
omissions.
 1

Introduction to Literacy:
Definitions and Theoretical
Perspectives
1
Chapter objectives
This chapter will increase your understanding of:

• definitions of literacy
• multiliteracies
• theoretical perspectives on literacy learning
• affective factors in literacy learning.

In this first chapter of Language, Literacy and Early Childhood Education, you will be introduced
to various definitions of literacy, including the concept of ‘multiliteracies’. You will discover
that literacy is a dynamic social practice that is used in different ways for different purposes
by diverse groups. It is highly influenced by context, so with rapid advances in technology
and increasing globalisation, literacy has changed significantly since the beginning of the
21st century. In this chapter, we also present the major theoretical perspectives on how children
learn literacy, and outline how these perspectives have shaped pedagogical approaches. Finally,
affective factors such as children’s motivation and engagement in literacy learning will briefly
be discussed—including the observation that to be successful literacy learners, young children
need positive, supportive environments and relationships, as well as texts and experiences that
are relevant and of interest to them.

Key terms
affective multiliteracies
cognitive developmental perspective multimodal
emergent perspective socio-cultural perspective
evidence-based whole language
maturational perspective
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
quite excited by this prospect of blue flowers in clumps, with narrow
intervals, such a profusion of the heavenly, the Elysian color, as if
these were the Elysian fields.... That is the value of the lupine. The
earth is blued with it.”

Harebell.
Campanula rotundifolia. Campanula Family.

Stem.—Slender, branching, from five to twelve inches high. Root-leaves.—

Heart-shaped or ovate, early withering. Stem-leaves.—Numerous, long and
narrow. Flowers.—Bright blue, nodding from hair-like stalks. Calyx.—Five-cleft,
the lobes awl-shaped. Corolla.—Bell-shaped, five-lobed. Stamens.—Five. Pistil.—
One, with three stigmas.
This slender, pretty plant, hung with its tremulous flowers,
springs from the rocky cliffs which buttress the river as well as from
those which crown the mountain. I have seen the west shore of the
Hudson bright with its delicate bloom in June, and the summits of
the Catskills tinged with its azure in September. The drooping
posture of these flowers protect their pollen from rain or dew. They
have come to us from Europe, and are identical, I believe, with the
celebrated Scotch bluebells.

Blue-eyed Grass.
Sisyrinchium angustifolium. Iris Family.

Four to twelve inches high. Leaves.—Narrow and grass-like. Flowers.—Blue or

purple, with a yellow centre. Perianth.—Six-parted, the divisions bristle-pointed.
Stamens.—Three, united. Pistil.—One, with three thread-like stigmas.

For the sun is no sooner risen with a burning heat,

But it withereth the grass,
And the flower thereof falleth,
And the grace of the fashion of it perisheth.

So reads the passage in the Epistle of James, which seems so

graphically to describe the brief life of this little flower, that we might
almost believe the Apostle had had it in mind, were it to be found in
the East.
 The blue-eyed grass belongs to the same family as the showy
fleur-de-lis and blossoms during the summer, being especially
plentiful in moist meadows. It is sometimes called “eye-bright,”
which name belongs by rights to Euphrasia officinalis.

Venus’s Looking-glass.
Specularia perfoliata. Campanula Family.

Stem.—Somewhat hairy, three to twenty inches high. Leaves.—Toothed,

rounded, clasping by the heart-shaped base. Flowers.—Blue. Calyx.—Three, four,
or five-lobed. Corolla.—Wheel-shaped, five-lobed. Stamens.—Five. Pistil.—One,
with three stigmas.
We borrow from Mr. Burroughs’s “Bunch of Herbs” a
description of this little plant, which blossoms from May till August.
“A pretty and curious little weed, sometimes found growing in the
edge of the garden, is the clasping specularia, a relative of the
harebell and of the European Venus’s looking-glass. Its leaves are
shell-shaped, and clasp the stalk so as to form little shallow cups. In
the bottom of each cup three buds appear that never expand into
flowers, but when the top of the stalk is reached, one and sometimes
two buds open a large, delicate purple-blue corolla. All the first-born
of this plant are still-born as it were; only the latest, which spring
from its summit, attain to perfect bloom.”

Skull-cap.
Scutellaria. Mint Family (p. 16).

Stem.—Square, usually one or two feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, oblong, lance-

shaped or linear. Flowers.—Blue. Calyx.—Two-lipped, the upper lip with a small,
helmet-like appendage which at once identifies this genus. Corolla.—Two-lipped,
the upper lip arched, the lateral lobes mostly connected with the upper lip, the
lower lip spreading and notched at the apex. Stamens.—Four, in pairs. Pistil.—
One, with a two-lobed style.
The prettiest and most striking of this genus is the larger skull-
cap, S. integrifolia, whose bright blue flowers are about one inch
long, growing in terminal racemes. In June and July they may be
found among the long grass of the roadsides and meadows. They are
easily identified by the curious little appendage on the upper part of
the calyx, which gives to this genus its common name.

PLATE LXXXVIII

BLUE-EYED GRASS.—S. angustifolium.

Perhaps the best-known member of the group is the mad-dog

skull-cap, S. lateriflora, which delights in wet places, bearing small,
inconspicuous flowers in one-sided racemes. This plant is quite
smooth, while that of S. integrifolia is rather downy. It was formerly
believed to be a sure cure for hydrophobia.
S. galericulata is usually found somewhat northward. Its
flowers are much larger than those of S. lateriflora, but smaller than
those of S. integrifolia. They grow singly from the axils of the upper
leaves.

Fleur-de-lis. Larger Blue Flag.

Iris versicolor. Iris Family.

Stem.—Stout, angled on one side, leafy, one to three feet high. Leaves.—Flat
and sword-shaped, with their inner surfaces coherent for about half of their length.
Flowers.—Large and showy, violet-blue, variegated with green, yellow, or white;
purple-veined. Perianth.—Six-cleft, the three outer divisions recurved, the three
inner smaller and erect. Stamens.—Three, covered by the three overarching, petal-
like divisions of the style. Pistil.—One, with its style cleft into three petal-like
divisions, each of which bears its stigma on its inner surface.

Born in the purple, born to joy and pleasance,

Thou dost not toil nor spin,
But makest glad and radiant with thy presence
The meadow and the lin.[11]

In both form and color this is one of the most regal of our wild
flowers, and it is easy to understand why the fleur-de-lis was chosen
as the emblem of a royal house, although the especial flower which
Louis VII. of France selected as his badge was probably white.
It will surprise most of us to learn that the common name which
we have borrowed from the French does not signify “flower-of-the-
lily,” as it would if literally translated, but “flower of Louis,” lis being
a corruption of the name of the king who first adopted it as his
badge.
 PLATE LXXXIX

FLEUR-DE-LIS.—I. versicolor.

For the botanist the blue-flag possesses special interest. It is a

conspicuous example of a flower which has guarded itself against
self-fertilization, and which is beautifully calculated to secure the
opposite result. The position of the stamens is such that their pollen
could not easily reach the stigmas of the same flower, for these are
borne on the inner surface of the petal-like, overarching styles. There
is no prospect here of any seed being set unless the pollen of another
flower is secured. Now what are the chances in favor of this? They
are many: In the first place the blossom is unusually large and
showy, from its size and shape alone almost certain to arrest the
attention of the passing bee; next, the color is not only conspicuous,
but it is also one which has been found to be especially attractive to
bees; blue and purple flowers being particularly sought by these
insects. When the bee reaches the flower he alights on the only
convenient landing-place, one of the recurved sepals; following the
deep purple veins which experience has taught him lead to the
hidden nectar, he thrusts his head below the anther, brushing off its
pollen, which he carries to another flower.
The rootstocks of the Florentine species of iris yield the familiar
“orris-root.”
The family name is from the Greek for rainbow, on account of
the rich and varied hues of its different members.
The plant abounds in wet meadows, the blossoms appearing in
June.

American Brooklime.
Veronica Americana. Figwort Family.

Stem.—Smooth, reclining at base, then erect, eight to fifteen inches high.

Leaves.—Mostly opposite, oblong, toothed. Flowers.—Blue, clustered in the axils of
the leaves. Calyx.—Four-parted. Corolla.—Wheel-shaped, four-parted. Stamens.—
Two. Pistil.—One.
Perhaps the prettiest of the blue Veronicas is the American
brooklime. Its clustered flowers make bright patches in moist ground
which might, at a little distance, be mistaken for beds of forget-me-
nots. It blossoms from June till August, and is almost as common in
wet ditches and meadows as its sister, the common speedwell, is in
dry and open places. Some of the members of this genus were once
believed to possess great medicinal virtues, and won for themselves
in Europe the laudatory names of Honor and Praise.
 PLATE XC

AMERICAN BROOKLIME.—V.
Americana.

Common Speedwell.
Veronica officinalis. Figwort Family.

The little speedwell’s darling blue

is noticeable during June and July, when clusters of these tiny

flowers brighten many a waste spot along the sunny roadsides. This
is a hairy little plant, with a stem which lies upon the ground and
takes root, thus spreading itself quickly over the country.
 Arethusa.
Arethusa bulbosa. Orchis Family (p. 17).

Scape.—Sheathed, from a globular bulb, usually one-flowered. Leaf.

—“Solitary, linear, nerved, hidden in the sheaths of the scape, protruding after
flowering.” (Gray.) Flower.—Rose-purple, large, with a bearded lip.
In some localities this beautiful flower is very plentiful. Every
June will find certain New England marshes tinged with its rose-
purple blossoms, while in other near and promising bogs it may be
sought vainly for years. At least it may be hoped for in wet places as
far south as North Carolina, its most favorite haunt being perhaps a
cranberry-swamp. Concerning it, Mr. Burroughs writes: “Arethusa
was one of the nymphs who attended Diana, and was by that goddess
turned into a fountain, that she might escape the god of the river
Alpheus, who became desperately in love with her on seeing her at
her bath. Our Arethusa is one of the prettiest of the orchids, and has
been pursued through many a marsh and quaking-bog by her lovers.
She is a bright pink-purple flower an inch or more long, with the
odor of sweet violets. The sepals and petals rise up and arch over the
column, which we may call the heart of the flower, as if shielding it.
In Plymouth County, Mass., where the Arethusa seems common, I
have heard it called Indian pink.”

Purple Fringed Orchises.

Orchis Family (p. 17).

Habenaria fimbriata.

Leaves.—Oval or oblong; the upper, few, passing into lance-shaped bracts.

Flowers.—Purple, rather large; with a fan-shaped, three-parted lip, its divisions
fringed; with a long curving spur; growing in a spike.

Habenaria psycodes.

Leaves.—Oblong or lance-shaped, the upper passing into linear bracts.

Flowers.—Purple, fragrant, resembling those of H. fimbriata, but much smaller,
with a less fringed lip; growing in a spike.
 We should search the wet meadows in early June if we wish to
be surely in time for the larger of the purple fringed orchises, for H.
fimbriata somewhat antedates H. psycodes, which is the commoner
species of the two and appears in July. Under date of June 9th,
Thoreau writes: “Find the great fringed orchis out apparently two or
three days, two are almost fully out, two or three only budded; a
large spike of peculiarly delicate, pale purple flowers growing in the
luxuriant and shady swamp, amid hellebores, ferns, golden senecio,
etc.... The village belle never sees this more delicate belle of the
swamp.... A beauty reared in the shade of a convent, who has never
strayed beyond the convent-bell. Only the skunk or owl, or other
inhabitant of the swamp, beholds it.”

American Pennyroyal.
Hedeoma pulegioides. Mint Family (p. 16).

Stem.—Square, low, erect, branching Leaves.—Opposite, aromatic, small.

Flowers.—Purplish, small, whorled in the axils of the leaves. Calyx.—Two-lipped,
upper lip three-toothed, the lower two-cleft. Corolla.—Two-lipped, upper erect,
notched at apex, the lower spreading and three-cleft. Fertile stamens.—Two. Pistil.
—One, with a two-lobed style.
This well-known, strong-scented little plant is found throughout
the greater part of the country, blossoming in midsummer. Its taste
and odor nearly resemble that of the true pennyroyal, Mentha
pulegium, of Europe.

Monkey-flower.
Mimulus ringens. Figwort Family.

Stem.—Square, one to two feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, oblong or lance-

shaped. Flowers.—Pale violet-purple, rarely white, growing singly from the axils of
the leaves. Calyx.—Five-angled, five-toothed, the upper tooth largest. Corolla.—
Tubular, two-lipped, the upper lip erect or spreading, two-lobed, the lower
spreading and three-lobed, the throat closed. Stamens.—Four. Pistil.—One, with a
two-lobed stigma.
From late July onward the monkey-flowers tinge the wet fields
and border the streams and ponds; not growing in the water like the
pickerel-weed, but seeking a hummock in the swamp, or a safe
foothold on the brook’s edge, where they can absorb the moisture
requisite to their vigorous growth.
The name is a diminutive of mimus—a buffoon, and refers to the
somewhat grinning blossom. The plant is a common one throughout
the eastern part of the country.

Common Motherwort.
Leonurus cardiaca. Mint Family (p. 16).

Stem.—Tall and upright. Leaves.—Opposite, the lower rounded and lobed, the
floral wedge-shaped at base and three-cleft. Flowers.—Pale purple, in close whorls
in the axils of the leaves. Calyx.—“With five nearly equal teeth, which are awl-
shaped, and when old rather spiny, pointed, and spreading.” (Gray.) Corolla.—
Two-lipped, the upper lip somewhat arched and bearded, the lower three-lobed
and spreading. Stamens.—Four, in pairs. Pistil.—One, with a two-lobed style.
The tall erect stems, opposite leaves, and regular whorls of
closely clustered pale purple flowers help us to easily identify the
motherwort, if identification be needed, for it seems as though such
old-fashioned, time-honored plants as catnip, tansy, and
motherwort, which cling so persistently to the skirts of the old
homestead in whose domestic economy they once played so
important a part, should be familiar to us all.
 PLATE XCI

MONKEY-FLOWER.—M. ringens.

Corn Cockle.
Lychnis Githago. Pink Family.

About two feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, long and narrow, pale green, with
silky hairs. Flowers.—Rose-purple, large, long-stalked. Calyx-lobes.—Five, long
and slender, exceeding the petals. Corolla.—Of five broad petals. Stamens.—Ten.
Pistil.—One, with five styles.
In many countries some of the most beautiful and noticeable
flowers are commonly found in grain-fields. England’s scarlet
poppies flood her farm-lands with glorious color in early summer;
while the bluets lighten the corn-fields of France. Our grain-fields
seem to have no native flower peculiar to them; but often we find a
trespasser of foreign descent hiding among the wheat or straying to
the roadsides in early summer, whose deep-tinted blossoms secure
an instant welcome from the flower-lover if not from the farmer.
“What hurte it doeth among corne! the spoyle unto bread, as well in
colour, taste, and unwholesomeness, is better known than desired,”
wrote Gerarde. The large dark seeds fill the ground wheat with black
specks, and might be injurious if existing in any great quantity. Its
former generic name was Agrostemma, signifying crown of the
fields. Its present one of Lychnis, signifies a light or lamp.

Blue Vervain. Simpler’s Joy.

Verbena hastata. Vervain Family.

Four to six feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, somewhat lance-shaped, the lower

often lobed and sometimes halberd-shaped at base. Flowers.—Purple, small, in
slender erect spikes. Calyx.—Five-toothed. Corolla.—Tubular, somewhat unequally
five-cleft. Stamens.—Two, in pairs. Pistil.—One.
Along the roadsides in midsummer we notice these slender
purple spikes, the appearance of which would be vastly improved if
the tiny blossoms would only consent to open simultaneously.
 PLATE XCII

BLUE VERVAIN.—V. hastata.

In earlier times the vervain was beset with classic associations. It

was claimed as the plant which Virgil and other poets mention as
being used for altar-decorations and for the garlands of sacrificial
beasts. It was believed to be the herba sacra of the ancients, until it
was understood that the generic title Verbena was a word which was
applied to branches of any description which were used in religious
rites. It certainly seems, however, to have been applied to some
especial plant in the time of Pliny, for he writes that no plant was
more honored among the Romans than the sacred Verbena. In more
modern times as well the vervain has been regarded as an “herb of
grace,” and has been gathered with various ceremonies and with the
invocation of a blessing, which began as follows:
Hallowed be thou, Vervain,
As thou growest on the ground,
For in the Mount of Calvary
There thou was first found.

It was then supposed to be endued with especial virtue, and was

worn on the person to avert disaster.
The time-honored title of Simpler’s joy arose from the
remuneration which this popular plant brought to the “Simplers”—as
the gatherers of medicinal herbs were entitled.

Beard-tongue.
Pentstemon pubescens. Figwort Family.

Stem.—One or two feet high, clammy above. Leaves.—Opposite, oblong to

lance-shaped. Flowers.—Dull purple or partly whitish, showy, in a slender open
cluster. Calyx.—Five-parted. Corolla.—Tubular, slightly dilated, the throat nearly
closed by a bearded palate; two-lipped, the upper lip two-lobed, the lower three-
cleft. Stamens.—Four, one densely bearded sterile filament besides. Pistil.—One.
These handsome, showy flowers are found in summer in dry or
rocky places. They are especially plentiful somewhat southward.
The white beard-tongue of more western localities is P. digitalis.
This is a very effective plant, which sometimes reaches a height of
five feet, having large inflated white flowers.

Self-heal. Heal-all.
Brunella vulgaris. Mint Family (p. 16).

Stems.—Low. Leaves.—Opposite, oblong. Flowers.—Bluish-purple, in a spike

or head. Calyx.—Two-lipped, upper lip with three short teeth, the lower two-cleft.
Corolla.—Two-lipped, the upper lip arched, entire, the lower spreading, three-cleft.
Stamens.—Four. Pistil.—One, two-lobed at the apex.
 PLATE XCIII

SELF-HEAL.—B. vulgaris.

Throughout the length and breadth of the country, from June

until September, the short, close spikes of the self-heal can be found
along the roadsides. The botanical name, Brunella, is a corruption
from Prunella, which is taken from the German for quinsy, for which
this plant was considered a certain cure. It was also used in England
as an application to the wounds received by rustic laborers, as its
common names, carpenter’s herb, hook-heal, and sicklewort, imply.
That the French had a similar practice is proved by an old proverb of
theirs to the effect that “No one wants a surgeon who keeps
Prunelle.”

Wild Bergamot.
Monarda fistulosa. Mint Family (p. 16).
 Two to five feet high. Leaves.—Opposite, fragrant, toothed. Flowers.—Purple
or purplish, dotted, growing in a solitary, terminal head. Calyx.—Tubular,
elongated, five-toothed. Corolla.—Elongated, two-lipped. Stamens.—Two,
elongated. Pistil.—One, with style two-lobed at apex.
Although the wild bergamot is occasionally found in our eastern
woods, it is far more abundant westward, where it is found in rocky
places in summer. This is a near relative of the bee balm (Pl.
LXXXII.), which it closely resembles in its manner of growth.

Day-flower.
Commelina Virginica. Spiderwort Family.

Stem.—Slender, branching. Leaves.—Lance-shaped to linear, the floral ones

heart-shaped and clasping, folding so as to enclose the flowers. Flowers.—Blue.
Calyx.—Of three unequal somewhat colored sepals, the two lateral ones partly
united. Corolla.—Of three petals, two large, rounded, pale blue, one small, whitish,
and inconspicuous. Stamens.—Six, unequal in size, three small and sterile, with
yellow cross-shaped anthers, three fertile, one of which is bent inward. Pistil.—
One.
The odd day-flower is so named because its delicate blossoms
only expand for a single morning. At the first glance there seem to be
but two petals which are large, rounded, and of a delicate shade of
blue. A closer examination, however, discovers still another, so
inconspicuous in form and color as to escape the notice of the casual
observer. This inequality recalls the quaint tradition as to the origin
of the plant’s generic name. There were three brothers Commelin,
natives of Holland. Two of them were botanists of repute, while the
tastes of the third had a less marked botanical tendency. The genus
was dedicated to the trio: the two large bright petals commemorating
the brother botanists, while the small and unpretentious one
perpetuates the memory of him who was so unwise as to take little or
no interest in so noble a science. These flowers appear throughout
the summer in cool woods and on moist banks.

Blue Linaria. Blue Toadflax.

Linaria Canadensis. Figwort Family.
 Stems.—Slender, six to thirty inches high. Leaves.—Linear. Flowers.—Pale
blue or purple, small, in a long terminal raceme. Calyx.—Five-parted. Corolla.—
Two-lipped, with a slender spur, closed in the throat. Stamens.—Four. Pistil.—One.
The slender spikes of the blue linaria flank the sandy roadsides
nearly all summer, and even in November we find a few delicate
blossoms still left upon the elongated stems. These flowers have a
certain spirituality which is lacking in their handsome, self-assertive
relation, butter-and-eggs.

Spiderwort.
Tradescantia Virginica. Spiderwort Family.

Stems.—Mucilaginous, leafy, mostly upright. Leaves.—Linear, keeled.

Flowers.—Blue, clustered, with floral leaves as in the day-flower. Calyx.—Of three
sepals. Corolla.—Of three petals. Stamens.—Six, with bearded filaments. Pistil.—
One.
The flowers of the spiderwort, like those of the day-flower, to
which they are nearly allied, are very perishable, lasting only a few
hours. They are found throughout the summer, somewhat south and
westward. The genus is named in honor of Tradescant, gardener to
Charles I. of England.

Pickerel-weed.
Pontedaria cordata. Pickerel-weed Family.

Stem.—Stout, usually one-leaved. Leaves.—Arrow or heart-shaped. Flowers.—

Blue, fading quickly, with an unpleasant odor, growing in a dense spike. Perianth.
—Two-lipped, the upper lip three-lobed and marked with a double greenish-yellow
spot, the lower of three spreading divisions. Stamens.—Six, three long and
protruding, the three others, which are often imperfect, very short and inserted
lower down. Pistil.—One.
The pickerel-weed grows in such shallow water as the pickerel
seek, or else in moist, wet places along the shores of streams and
rivers. We can look for the blue, closely spiked flowers from late July
until some time in September. They are often found near the delicate
arrow-head.
 Blueweed. Viper’s Bugloss.
Echium vulgare. Borage Family.

Stem.—Rough, bristly, erect, about two feet high. Leaves.—Alternate, lance-

shaped, set close to the stem. Flowers.—Bright blue, spiked on one side of the
branches, which are at first rolled up from the end, straightening as the blossoms
expand. Calyx.—Five-parted. Corolla.—Of five somewhat unequal, spreading
lobes. Stamens.—Five, protruding, red. Pistil.—One.
When the blueweed first came to us from across the sea it
secured a foothold in Virginia. Since then it has gradually worked its
way northward, lining the Hudson’s shores, overrunning many of the
dry fields in its vicinity, and making itself at home in parts of New
England. We should be obliged to rank it among the “pestiferous”
weeds were it not that, as a rule, it only seeks to monopolize land
which is not good for very much else. The pinkish buds and bright
blue blossoms with their red protruding stamens make a valuable
addition, from the æsthetic point of view, to the bunch of
midsummer field-flowers in which hitherto the various shades of red
and yellow have predominated.

Nightshade.
Solanum Dulcamara. Nightshade Family.

Stem.—Usually somewhat climbing or twining. Leaves.—Heart-shaped, the

upper halberd-shaped or with ear-like lobes or leaflets at the base. Flowers.—
Purple, in small clusters. Calyx.—Five-parted. Corolla.—Five-parted, wheel-
shaped. Stamens.—Five, yellow, protruding. Pistil.—One. Fruit.—A red berry.
 PLATE XCIV

BLUEWEED.—E. vulgare.

The purple flowers, which at once betray their kinship with the
potato plant, and, in late summer, the bright red berries of the
nightshade, cluster about the fences and clamber over the moist
banks which line the highway. This plant, which was imported from
Europe, usually indicates the presence of civilization. It is not
poisonous to the touch, as is often supposed, and it is doubtful if the
berries have the baneful power attributed to them. Thoreau writes
regarding them: “The Solanum Dulcamara berries are another kind
which grow in drooping clusters. I do not know any clusters more
graceful and beautiful than these drooping cymes of scented or
translucent, cherry-colored elliptical berries.... They hang more
gracefully over the river’s brim than any pendant in a lady’s ear. Yet
they are considered poisonous; not to look at surely.... But why
should they not be poisonous? Would it not be bad taste to eat these
berries which are ready to feed another sense?”

Great Lobelia.
Lobelia syphilitica. Lobelia Family.

Stem.—Leafy, somewhat hairy, one to three feet high. Leaves.—Alternate,

ovate to lance-shaped, thin, irregularly toothed. Flowers.—Rather large, light blue,
spiked. Calyx.—Five-cleft, with a short tube. Corolla.—Somewhat two-lipped, the
upper lip of two rather erect lobes, the lower spreading and three-cleft. Pistil.—
One, with a fringed stigma.
The great lobelia is a striking plant which grows in low ground,
flowering in midsummer. In some places it is called “High-Belia,” a
pun which is supposed to reflect upon the less tall and conspicuous
species, such as the Indian tobacco, L. inflata, which are found
flowering at the same season.
If one of its blossoms is examined, the pistil is seen to be
enclosed by the united stamens in such a fashion as to secure self-
fertilization, one would suppose. But it is hardly probable that a
flower as noticeable as this, and wearing a color as popular as blue,
should have adorned itself so lavishly to no purpose. Consequently
we are led to inquire more closely into its domestic arrangements.
Our curiosity is rewarded by the discovery that the lobes of the
stigma are so tightly pressed together that they can at first receive no
pollen upon their sensitive surfaces. We also find that the anthers
open only by a pore at their tips, and when irritated by the jar of a
visiting bee, discharge their pollen upon its body through these
outlets. This being accomplished the fringed stigma pushes forward,
brushing aside whatever pollen may have fallen within the tube.
When it finally projects beyond the anthers, it opens, and is ready to
receive its pollen from the next insect-visitor.