2023

BANANA ORCHARD ESTABLISHEMENT

Banana Orchard Establishment

Afrostain Farmtech
12/28/2023
Banana Production

3.0. Introduction

Banana belongs to the genus Musa of the Musaceae family and to the edible species Musa
cavendish. Its origin is in the tropics of South- East Asia which includes Burma, Thailand
and Malaysia. Musa Cavendish was developed from the two species Musa acuminata and
Musa balbisiana. They have their closely relative starch type species called plantains which
belong to the species Musa parabisiaca. Bananas are a valuable source of vitamin B6,
vitamin C, and potassium.

3.1. Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• describe the banana plant

• the environmental requirements of bananas

• describe how bananas are propagated

• discuss the orchard care practices involved in banana production

• outline the maturity indices of bananas

• describe the process of harvesting bananas

3.2. Uses

Bananas are a staple starch for many tropical populations. Both the skin and inner part can
be eaten raw or cooked. Bananas are eaten deep fried or baked. They can be made into
jam, banana pancakes or chips. Dried bananas are also ground to make banana flour.
Banana hearts are used as a vegetable, either raw or steamed with dips or cooked in soups,
curries and fried foods.

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Nutritionally, bananas are an excellent source of vitamin B6, soluble fiber, and contain
moderate amounts of vitamin C, manganese and potassium. Along with other fruits and
vegetables, consumption of bananas may be associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer
in women.

It can also be source of income and foreign currency to the farmer and the nation
respectively.

3.3. Botany

Banana is a perennial, herbaceous and fast growing plant which arises from a special
underground rhizome usually called a corm. The banana plant can grow up to between
1.5- 8m tall.

3.3.1 The banana stem

Banana trunk consists of all the leaf petioles wrapped around each other tightly forming a
pseudostem. New leaves start growing inside, below the ground originating at the centre
(basal meristem) around the apex of the rhizome. They push up through the middle and
emerge from the centre of the crown. When a banana plant is mature, the corm stop
producing new leaves and begins to form a flower spike or inflorescence which push up
through the middle and emerge from the centre of the crown (fig 3.1). After fruiting, the
pseudostem gradually dies, but offshoots will normally have developed from the base, so
that the plant as a whole is perennial.

Fig 3.1. The banana canopy.

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 3.3.2 Leaves

The leaves of banana plants are composed of a "stalk" (petiole) and a blade (lamina). The
base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly packed sheaths make up the
pseudostem, which is all that supports the plant. The edges of the sheath meet when it is
first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem
the edges are forced apart. Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres long and
60 cm wide. They are oblong with a rounded tip, and are often shredded (torn) along
veins by the wind resulting in the familiar frond look.

3.3.3 Roots and the rhizome

The rhizome is the base of the plant called a corm. A corm is a swollen underground stem
in which a plant can store energy that allows it to survive during harsh conditions, e.g.
during a drought. The banana tree corm is perennial and can keep on producing
pseudostems for 15 years or even longer. The corm (fig 3.2) acts as the true stem from
which the leaves, roots, flowers and suckers develops. The roots are flesh and thick (5-
8mm in diameter). They arise from beneath the base of the oldest surviving leaves. A health
plant produces 200- 400 main roots which may spread laterally 4- 5m radius from the
pseudostem.

Fig. 3.2. The banana corm.

3.3.4 Flowers

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The inflorescence is produced terminally originating from the basal meristem. The hanging
inflorescence is elongated into the fruit stalk. Flowers develop in a series of double rows
arranged spirally around the fruit stalk. The inflorescence contains many bracts (sometimes
incorrectly called petals) between rows of flowers (fig 3.3a). The female flowers (which
can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem (closer to the leaves) from the
rows of male flowers. The ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower
parts appear at the tip of the ovary (fig 3.3b).

a) b)

Fig. 3.3. The banana inflorescence (a), and the female flowers (b).

3.3.5 Fruit

Fruits generally develop parthenocarpically (without pollination) and hence are seedless.
The fruits grow in hanging clusters called hands with up to 20 fruits per hand. The total of
the hanging clusters (hands) which can consist of 3- 20 hands is known as a bunch, or
commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh from 30–50 kg. The fruit averages 125 g,
of which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter content. Each individual fruit,
known as a banana or 'finger', has a protective outer layer (a peel or skin) with a fleshy
edible inner portion. Typically the fruit has numerous strings (called 'phloem bundles')
which run between the skin and the edible portion of the banana, and which are
commonly removed individually after the skin is removed. The seeds are diminished nearly
to non-existence and their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit

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.

Fig. 3.4. Stages of fruit development on the banana plant.

3.4. Banana Cultivars

There are a number of important banana cultivars grown in Zimbabwe although the
majority of bananas grown in villages are of unidentified origin. Of most importance are;
the Dwarf Cavendish, Williams and Gros Michel.

3.4.1 Dwarf Cavendish

This subgroup of the Cavendish bananas is by far the most important in Zimbabwe. They
are short (up to 3m tall) and can throw branches at about 2m height. Its height makes it
less prone to wind damage. It can produce up to 40 tonnes per hectare per year. Its
bunches are small and can weigh about 30- 40 kg as was recorded at Chiredzi research
station. The Cavendish bananas are of good quality but they do not transport well unless
the hands are cut from the stalk and packed in cardboard cartons. They are resistant to
Panama disease caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporium f. cubensis and work well with
high density planting drip irrigation.

3.4.2 Williams

The plants are bigger and grow up to 5m tall. They throw branches at the height of 3.5 m.
It produces larger fruits and the mean bunch weight is 100kg or more. It can yield up to

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50tones per hectare per year. They are highly susceptible to wind damage because of its
weight and height. It is also adapted to cooler regions.

3.4.3 Gros Michel

It is a tall cultivar about 4- 8m tall and produces fruits which are long and with an attractive
colour and taste. Because the fruits are larger , the plant population is low hence the yield
is also low. Its height makes it vulnerable to wind damage and is also susceptible to Panama
disease.

3.5. Climatic Requirements

3.5.1 Rainfall

Bananas have a high water requirement of at least 25mm per week through out the year
for optimum growth. Under high water shortage leaves turn yellowish green and die
prematurely. Extended dry periods may cause choking, i.e. failure of the fruit stalk to come
out from the pseudostem. When the water is applied, the bunch resumes growth and may
burst through the side of the pseudostem. Annual rainfall requirement is 1500- 2500mm.

3.5.2 Temperature

Optimum temperature range is 20- 30oC. In cooler temperatures growth is slow. If cold
temperatures coincide with formation of female flowers, few flowers will be formed hence
few fruits. Temperatures of less than 21oC later in fruit development delays fruit colour
change during ripening. Frost can cause leaf death, poor bunch quality and reduced fruit
quality. At high temperatures bananas may suffer from sun scotch.

3.5.3 Wind

Bananas are prone to wind damage and even moderate winds can tear the leaves.
Provision of windbreaks is helpful.

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3.6. Soil Requirements

Bananas grow well in a wide range of soils provided the soil is fertile, have moderate to
good drainage as root development is chiefly determined by the degree of soil aeration.
Poor aeration restricts root development. Many roots die if exposed to water logging for
more than 24 hours. Water logged soils reduces yield, plant size, root growth and turn the
leaves to pale green. The optimum pH of the soil is 5.5- 6.5 on a calcium chloride scale.
The soils should be deep up to 1meter as the roots normally grow to a depth of 60- 80cm
and occasionally to 1.2m. Bananas require soils with high organic matter which aid in
moisture retention and contain abundant amounts of nitrogen and potassium.

3.7. Fertiliser Management

Bananas are gross feeders and make heavy demands on available nutrients. Yields can be
increased dramatically by fertilization. The elements nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) are
the most important for the production of good quality fruits while phosphorous (P)
increase the number of hands and fingers produced per bunch. Both phosphorous and
potassium have been found to affect the flavour adversely when one of them is deficient.
P and K should be applied in the planting hole and thereafter once or twice yearly as
surface dressings. For K, muriate of potash is required at a rate of 75- 100kg for the initial
application and 250- 750kg per hectare as surface dressing in four equal top dressings. For
P, single supper phosphate is required at a rate of 200- 350kg/ha as an initial planting
application and then 150- 300kg/ha each year in August or September.

Nitrogen should be applied in small amounts at frequent intervals trough out the year. In
Zimbabwe, ammonium nitrate is applied at a rate of 400- 750kg/ha in four equal top
dressings in January, March, September and November. This prevents loss due to leaching.

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The addition of 20- 40 tones of manure in the planting holes and as a side dressing is
beneficial nutritionally and also contributes to improvement the water holding capacity of
the soil.

Banana plant residues can be copped into small pieces and spread in a thin layer around
the plants as they are rich in potassium and also act as a mulch to conserve moisture.

Lime is applied only on the basis of soil analysis. Generally 0.5 – 2 t/ha may be applied
depending on pH and texture of the soil. Where magnesium status is low, dolomitic lime
should be preferred.

3.8. Land Preparation

Land preparation for bananas include ripping followed by deep ploughing to ensure
adequate aeration. Plough the land during the dry season and remove all weeds,
particularly couch grass.

Discing is then done and planting stations made which should be large enough to
accommodate the propagating material.

Fumigation is necessary to protect the plants from possible attack by nematodes.

3.9. Planting material

For normal production, all bananas are propagated vegetatively by means of suckers,
pieces of corms, butts and bits.

a) Suckers

Suckers form the best planting material for bananas and the propagation is done by
separating the sucker from the rhizome and replant direct into the field. Suckers should be
taken from a health parent plants when they are about 50- 200cm height, and about 15-
25cm wide at the base. Before planting the sucker, observe the control measures for
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banana weevils and nematodes. Several types of suckers can be used, and these include
peepers, sword suckers, water suckers and maiden suckers. Types of suckers

i) Peepers

These are very young suckers which are about 30cm above the ground. They have a thick
base and a strong connection to the parent plant. They have not yet formed leaves.

Fig3. 5. Banana peepers.

ii) Sword suckers

These are suckers which have developed 3- 4 narrow, sword-like leaves. They are planted
when they reach a height of up to 75cm. These are old peepers and have a broad base
and narrow leaves.
It also has a strong connection to the parent plant. It is the most ideal sucker for
propagation.

Fig 3.6. Sword sucker.

iii) Water suckers

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These are superficially weak suckers with a narrow base and stem. The leaves are broad
and the suckers are not ideal for propagation.

Fig 3. 7. Water sucker.

iv) Maiden sucker
These are large strong suckers which have broad leaves but not yet developed the
inflorescence. After digging, they are cut back to 15cm above the corm and the central
meristem is destroyed. They are usually planted on their sides about 30cm deep.

b) Pieces of the corm with about 10cm of the pseudostem attached. These are placed in the
planting hole and covered with soil to a depth of about 5cm above the cut end of the
pseudostem.

c) Butts which are similar to pieces but have about 25cm of the pseudostem attached.

d) Bits are sections of the corm tissue weighing about 2kg or more containing a bud. They
are used when plants are too big for planting.

3.10. Planting

3.10.1 Planting time

The best time to plant bananas is at or just before the beginning of the rain season. Planting
can be timed such that fruit matures out of season so as to fetch higher prices. Bunches
formed in winter are likely to be of low quality but winter produced fruits often fetches
higher prices.

3.10.2 Spacing

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Trials at Chiredzi have shown that although a wider spacing of 2.4m by 2.7m gives a
greater mean bunch weight, yield per hectare per crop cycle are less than that of closer
spacing of 2.1m by 2.4m. This is attributed to the effects of reduced plant population.

For Williams, to date indications are that different combination of spacing and time of
sucker selection encourage the development of bunches at different times of the year.

Wider spacing has various advantages which are:

 better quality fruits

 greater bunch weight and finger size

 easier orchard management and

 improved light penetration which promote sucker growth and initiation.

Close spacing is associated with some disadvantages which include;

 reduced fruit size and weight. Ø the fruit does not fill properly
 sucker development is sparse and poor

 fungal disease incidences are greater and control is difficult

 orchard management become complicated and difficult

 Production cycle of the follower crop is prolonged

Wider spacing of 2.4m by 2.7m or 4m by 2m is therefore recommended for Dwarf

Cavendish.

3.11. Post Planting Operations

i) Replanting

About 4- 6 weeks after planting a careful check should be made on the survival rate of the
plants.

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Replace all unsuccessful suckers preferably by lager maiden suckers.

ii) Mulching

The materials used may be the chopped stems of bananas from which fruits have been
harvested or banana leaves. The mulch should be spread evenly around the base of the
growing plants.

iii) Weed control

Weeds should be controlled until the plants are large enough to prevent weed growth due
to the density of the shade produced. Broad leaved weeds do little damage unless they
harbour pathogens. Grass weeds should be suppressed. Slashing has been found to be the
best solution when repeated at every 6- 8 week interval. Chemical weed control involves
the use of Diuron, Atrazine and simazine and paraquat.

iv) Irrigation

Bananas require additional water when grown in low rainfall areas. The banana plant has
a shallow root system and the roots are poor water drawers therefore application should
regular and adequate rather than heavy and less frequent. Sprinkler irrigation is preferred
than flood because of the following reasons:

 labour requirement is less

 sprinkler can be used slope land without need for land leveling.

 it is more efficient as the application can be accurately controlled.

 more uniform distribution of water

Low trajectory sprinklers spraying below the foliage should overcome the possibility of
increasing the incidences of cigar end rot (Hendersonula toruloides) of the banana fingers.

A basin irrigation system is very effective but it is more labour intensive.

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However a system of irrigation to be used will depend on the soil type, water availability
and cost for installation and management.

Table .3.1. A general irrigation guide.

Period Intervals between irrigation ( in days)

Light soils (35mm) Heavy soils (50mm)

April to August 9 13

September to November 5 7

December to March 6 9

3.12. Special Cultural Practices

a) De-suckering and selection of a follower sucker

De-suckering is the removal of excess side shoots to maintain the balance between growth
and yield. Failure to remove unwanted suckers inhibits the growth of follower suckers in
widely spaced plantings. Try to keep 3- 4 plants in the mat (clump) of varying sizes and
maturities of approximately 6- 9 months apart. This gives a more consistent harvest.
However some varieties seem to be affected by crowding than others. A follower sucker
is a side shoot which is allowed to grow as a successive plant to the fruiting plant after
harvesting. In the low veld the best time to select suckers of dwarf Cavendish is between
July and October. The bunches emerge between February and April and are harvested
between July and October. It is therefore not recommended to select suckers between
December and March the plants tend to produce bunches of poor quality.

Considerations in selecting a follow on sucker:

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  When the banana plant to be succeeded is about 1.5m tall

 It should be a sword sucker

 The sucker should be about 60- 80 cm tall

 It should be to the east or north- east of the mother plant for light interception

 The sucker should not be growing under the bunch of fruits

 The sucker should be in a marching direction

b) Trimming of leaves

Trimming involves the removal of dead leaves hanging down on the sides of the pseudo
stem. This practice helps combat diseases and enhances light penetration. It is
recommended to be done between April and August.

c) De-flowering

In dwarf Cavendish the flower parts often remain on the fingers during fruit development.
These withered floral remains should be removed shortly after flowering is complete. A
light brushing with a hand is enough to detach them. This improves the bunch appearance
and lessens the risk of cigar end rot infection. Removing floral remains during packing may
damage the fingers. d) Bell removal

This is the removal of the bell, the flower part at the end of the fruit stalk which is done
shortly after flowering is complete. It is done when the distance between the bottom hand
and the bell is about 150mm. This practice improves the bunch appearance and lessens the
risk of cigar end rot and bacterial wilt which is spread by attracted by the flowers. It also
increases the average weight of the fingers.

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Fig 3.9. The bunch with the bell removed.

e) Bunch covering

This is the covering of the bunch by a blue polyethylene bag. The bag is loosely tied just
above the first hand of the bunch and hanging at least 150mm below the lowest hand.
This protects the fruits from hail damage, cold temperature and insects and promotes
bunch filling. It is done at the onset of the rain season and only to a bunch which is 3
weeks from maturity.

Fig. 3. 10. Bunch covering.

f) Propping

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This is a practice whereby single wooden sticks or bamboo poles are placed against the
stem or on the curvature of the bunch stalk to support the weight of the bunch. It is done
during the last few months of its life cycle before harvesting. Williams are very prone to
wind damage because of their height and bunch weight therefore should be propped.

a) b)

Fig 3.11. A broken stem due to bunch weight (a), and a propped plant (b).

3.12. Crop Protection

3.12.1 Pests

i) Nematodes (Rhadopholus stimulus)

This is the burrowing nematode which destroys plant roots resulting in plants falling over.

Nematodes reduce yields and the degree of damage caused by nematode attack depends
on:

 Soil type

 Age of the plant

 Water supply
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  Fertilizer application and

 Species of the nematode present.

Control

Nemacur, furadan 5% granular and Mocarp 10% granular are effective as preplant
applications.

Cut the roots of suckers before planting if the sucker is coming from a nematode prone
area.

Dip the bases of the planting material in hot water (62- 65 oC) for 10 minutes or dip in a
non- phytotoxic nematicide.

Leave the infested field fallow for 6 months or more.

Fumagon and Ditrapex are registered nematicides for use in Zimbabwe. Fumigants are
effective in controlling nematodes.

ii) Banana root borer (Cosmopolites sordidus)

This is a dark brown to black weevil about 1cm in length. It lays eggs in damaged or rotten
stems or in holes made by the adult in living stems. The larvae tunnel into the rhizomes
causing wilting of the newest leaves and weaken the stem.

Control

Infested stems should be cut as near the ground as possible and the remains chopped into
small pieces so as to decay rapidly and thus will not be suitable for egg laying.

Trapping is done by laying 30cm sections of stems or rhizomes on the soil near the base of
the plants preferably in shade area. The sections should be split into half length wise and
layered the cut area facing down. Adult weevils will gather below the sections to feed and

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to lay eggs. The sections are then collected every 48 hours. This reduces the banana
weevils.

Other banana pests are the banana rust thrips, armored scales, banana aphid and the
oriental fruit fly.

3.12.2 Banana Diseases

i) Cigar end rot

A fungal disease caused by the fungus Hendersonula toruloides

It is seen by rotting of fingers starting from the blossom end (fruit tip).

Control

• Bell removal, deflowering, bunch covering and leaf trimming minimize the disease
incidence.
• Keep the plantation weed free.

ii) Panama disease.

It is caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporium f .cubensis. This is a soil born disease. The
fungus enters the plants through the roots and rhizomes and travels with water into the
trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums that cut off the flow of water and nutrients,
causing the plant leaves then turn purple at first then to yellow and die at the same time
exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts of sunlight causing plants to wilt and slowly
die.

Control

Plant Cavendish cultivars in infected soil as they are resistant. Burn al infected plants and
obtain new plants from a disease free plantation. iii) Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV)

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This virus is spread by aphids. The leaves curl with some streaks, become smaller with short
petioles, resulting in a "bunched" appearance. Generally, an infected plant does produce
no or small fruits.

Control

There is no cure. However its effect can be minimized by planting only tissue-cultured
plants (in vitro propagation), controlling aphids, and immediately removing and
destroying infected plants.

3.13. Harvesting

Bananas are ready for harvesting when the top most hands become light green and angles
on the fingers become round. Fruits ripening on the plant result in poor quality, fruit
splitting and low sugar content.

Harvesting requires two people, the cuter and the backer and it consist of two operations
which are; a) lowering and cutting the bunch and b) stalk cutting (fig 3.7). Bunches are cut
and loaded into trucks cushioned with layers of straw, foam rubber, or any other material.
Bunches should be in an upright position. Hand are picked from the bunch and dipped in
a water bath with a fungicide then graded and finally packed in boxes.

Fig. 3. 12. How the stem is cut (about 1.5 maters height) after harvesting.

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3.14. Artificial Ripening

It is done using ethylene. Bananas are placed in small enclosed room or shed or covered
with a polythene sheet and ethylene is introduced. The ripening takes 5- 7 days at
temperature ranging from 14.4- 17.8 oC and relative humidity of 90- 95%.

Another method involves dipping banana hands in an ethrel solution and left in a room
for 3- 4 days.

3.15. Summary

Banana is a crop which is widely grown throughout the tropics both in villages and for
commercial production. It is among the major fruits found on both local and international
markets. Their quality is depended on site selection, sucker selection, orchard care and post
harvest handling of the fruits.

3.16. Activities

• Describe the botany, and the environmental requirements of bananas.

• Describe how bananas are propagated.

• Discuss the orchard care practices involved in banana production.

• Discuss the two major pests of bananas.

• Outline the maturity indices of bananas.

• Describe the process of harvesting bananas.

• Described how bananas are artificially ripened.

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