Fruit trees Production Guide

Edited by: Derrick Yson

 MANGO PRODUCTION GUIDE
Introduction

Mango (Mangifera indica, Linn) has an increasing commercial importance all over the world.
Reputed as fruit of par excellence, it has assumed a leading position among commercial fruits being rich in
vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, proteins, anti-oxidants, and enzyme with stomach soothing properties.
Aside from its contribution to the economy, it has also an ecological function since the tree prevent soil
erosion and minimize greenhouse effect.

As an emerging tropical export crop, it is produced in about 90 countries in the world with a
production of over 25.1 million tons. Asia is the main producer with 76.9% of the total world production,
followed by America with 13.38%, Africa with 9% and less than 1% each for Europe and Oceania

Mango is considered as high value crop, with proper management and favourable growing
condition, it could give farmers an average income of 250,000.00 pesos or more per hectare a year. Mango
is a permanent crop and as it grows old, with proper management productivity increases. The variety of
commercial importance in the country is „Carabao, ‟ it is known internationally as “Philippine Super
Mango” and one of the world‟ s best varieties. Due to its superior, it has a great demand both in local and
international markets.

It ranked 3rd among the most important fruit crop, next to banana and pineapple in terms of area
planted and volume of production. The mango industry of the country supports about 2.5 million farmers
and contributes 17.91 billion pesos to GVA in agriculture with a domestic and export value of 41.60 billion
pesos and 31 million US dollars for fresh mango production and 29.7 million US dollars for processed
products.

In 2010, the area planted to mango is about 189,436 hectares with 8,526,816 bearing trees and
production of 825,676 metric tons of fresh fruits (BAS, 2011). On the other hand, export of fresh fruits
reaches up to 15,010 metric tons, of which 68% went to Hongkong, 17% to Japan, 5% each to China and
Malaysia and the rest to other countries (BPI-PQS, 2009).
 Culture and Mangement

Requirements for ideal mango production

A geographical information system (GIS) map for mango developed by DA-Bureau of Agricultural
Research (DA-BAR) could be used as guide in determining suitable areas for mango. The following
condition should be given attention in selecting areas for establishment of mango orchards.

Distinct wet and dry season. During its productive years mango tree should be exposed to dry period
of at least 4 to 5 months. This condition simulates “stress” necessary for the trees to accumulate reserved
food and enhance maturation of leaves in preparation for flowering. In contrast, areas with continues
rainfall tend to make trees more vegetative and difficult to induce. The following provinces are ideal
for growing mangoes: Abra, Antique, Bataan, Batangas, Bulacan, Cavite, Cebu, Cotabato, (South),
Davao (North and Southern), Guimaras, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Iloilo (South and Western), Laguna
(Western), La Union, Negros Occidental (Western), Negros Oriental, Nueva Ecija, Mindoro Oriental,
Palawan, Pampanga, Pangasinan, Rizal, Tarlac and Zambales.

Ideally, the dry period should start from flowering and extend through harvest season. This condition
also minimizes problem with diseases and hastens the development of high quality fruits.

Soil. Mango is not exacting with regards to its soil requirements, since the trees are deep-rooted and
grow over a wide range of soil type and fertility levels. However, for commercial plantation,
welldrained soil, moderately rich in organic matter with pH ranging from 5.5 to 7.5 should be selected
but the most ideal is pH 6.5. Planting trees in waterlogged areas should be avoided to prevent depletion
from oxygen and infection due to soil-borne fungus (Phytopthora).

Elevation. For commercial planting, it is recommended that mangoes should be planted at elevation
not higher than 600 meters above sea level.
Trees grown at higher elevation will have delayed flowering and fruit development and are susceptible
to diseases.

Temperature. Temperature influences the period of leaf development, time of flowering and maturity
of fruits. A mean temperature of 28°C is favorable for successful mango production. Avoid planting
trees in high altitudes were temperatures oftentimes becomes low.

Rainfall. Generally, as rainfall increases, the relative humidity also increases hence, incidence of
diseases particularly anthracnose and scab are high and control measures are often not economical.
Continuous rainfall also makes the tree more vegetative making flower induction difficult. On the
other hand, rain at early stages of plant growth is necessary for fast establishment of trees in the field
and early flushing of leaves.

Wind. High wind velocity experienced during the months of February and March enhances
evaporation of water causing drying of soil and wilting of young plants. In windy areas, grafted trees
tend to break-off causing mechanical injuries and subsequent fruit drops. Planting of wind breaks
along the orchards perimeter can be done.
 Planting materials. For the establishment of new farms, it is recommended that cultivars be chosen
based on the resistance to pests, suitability to the site, yield potential and market preference. The
following are the recommended strains of „Carabao‟ mango as approved and registered in the National
Seed Industry Council (NSIC): „Golez Strain, (formerly „GES 73‟ ), „GES 77‟ , „GES 84‟ , „GES 8‟ ,
„Lamao Strain No.1‟ . „MMSU Gold‟ , „Sweet Elena‟ , „Talaban‟ , „Fresco‟ , „Tanaleon, „Efondo‟ ,
„Guimaras Super „ (formerly „Galila‟ ), „JTA Sweet‟ , and „P1 King Rodolfo‟ .

Scions of these registered varieties/strains can be sourced-out from the NSIC registered parent trees or
from established foundation/scion groves validated and certified by the Bureau of Plant Industry –
National Seed Quality Control Services. Grafted seedlings are available in accredited nurseries of the
Bureau of Plant Industry.

Mango Propagation

Mango can be propagated sexually using the seeds and asexually by means of vegetative parts.
Propagation by seed is common, however under orchard type management, more growers prefer to plant
grafted mangoes instead of seedlings since more trees are planted to a hectare and fruit production is much
early.

Advantage of sexual propagation:

1. Trees planted from seeds are deep-rooted, as such anchorage and nutrient exploration are
enhanced.
2. Yield of seeded trees are generally high as compared to grafted.
3. Long-lived. Mango trees continue to be productive over hundred years of age.
4. Easy and fast way of multiplying the variety.

Disadvantages of sexual propagation:

1. Seeded trees do not produce fruits that are “true to type.” This means that seeds coming from
superior fruits do not always come up to the expectations of growers. Hence, sweet and big fruits
may not necessarily produce the same characteristics when planted from seeds.
2. Trees have enormous sizes (tall with large canopies). Many of the cultural practices like pruning,
spraying, bagging and harvesting are difficult to implement.
3. Seeded trees take longer time to bear fruits. They produced fruits only after 10 to 15 years from
planting.

Seeds as rootstock. One important use of seeds is to grow them as source of rootstocks. Healthy and
vigorous rootstocks are the key to successful propagation of mango. Several cultivars such as „Carabao,
‟ „Pico, ‟ „Katchamitha‟ and „Pahutan‟ can be grown as rootstocks for „Carabao‟ mango. Depending
on the variety, rootstocks can be fast growing as in „Pahutan,‟ medium as in „Pico‟ and „Katchamitha‟
and slow growing as in „Carabao.‟ The kind of rootstocks used will also influence the size and height
of the tree as well as the fruit quality.
 Care and proper maintenance of seeds and rootstocks. Seeds should come from matured fruits. It
should be free from insect damage, diseases or mechanical injuries. Avoid seeds coming from
processing plants, since most of them are non-viable due to exposure from heat.

Dehusking or removal of the husk is recommended to facilitate fast germination. Be sure that dehusked
seeds are plump and plant only those that are free from pest damage or physiological injuries. Healthy
seeds should be sown with concave side down, 5 cm apart and 1 cm deep. This position prevents the
development of crooked stem after germination.

Seeds may be sown in wooden seed box (20 x 20 x 3 inches) using a medium consisting 1 part compost
or organic fertilizer, 1 part sand and 1 part garden soil. Under nursery conditions, a seedbed (2 x 8 m)
is recommended. Sawdust or coconut coir can also be used as germinating medium. Germination starts
at 10 to 15 days from sowing. Seedling is ready for transplanting 25 to 30 days after sowing or when it
has 2-3 pairs of fully developed green leaves. Put seedlings in plastic bags, of 8 x 10 inches containing
1 part garden soil, 1 part sand and 1 part organic fertilizer.

When transplanting older seedlings, leaves should be cut into half to minimize transpiration. Otherwise,
this may result to wilting and eventually death of seedlings.

Fertilization is needed a month after transplanting by applying one-half teaspoon of complete fertilizer
per seedling or foliar spray of fertilizer with high in nitrogen (1 tbsp. per 20 li water). It is not advisable
to fertilize plants immediately after transplanting. Fertilization is repeated at monthly intervals until
the plants are vigorous and are ready for grafting.

Water is necessary especially during dry months. Mortality of seedlings is high when water becomes a
problem. It is recommended that water should be directly applied in the bag and not poured on the
leaves to minimize incidence of diseases specially anthracnose.

Growers should inspect the plants weekly for the presence of insects particularly scales, corn silk beetle,
tip borer, cecid fly, thrips and disease such as anthracnose. Insecticide or fungicide should be sprayed
when necessary.

Seedlings are ready for grafting when the stems attain „pencil‟ size in diameter and are approximately
8 to 10 months old. Rootstocks like „Pahutan‟ can be grafted when seedlings are 4 to 6 months old
provided these are vigorous and healthy. „Carabao‟ and „Pico‟ usually are slow growers when used as
rootstocks hence; these require longer time for development.

Seedlings should be grown under shade using nets or coconut leaves to prevent drying and scalding of
the leaves from direct heat of the sun. Avoid putting the seedlings under mango trees for inoculums
of diseases may transfer on the seedlings especially during rainy months.

Advantage of asexual propagation:

1. Asexually propagated trees produce fruits that are “true to type.” When planted, the expected
characters of the parents are carried to the offspring.
 2. Earliness to bearing (precocity) takes a shorter time. Under proper management, grafted trees
bear fruits 2 to 3 years after planting. However, it is recommended that the first 4 years of
growth should be encouraged for proper establishment in the field.
3. Trees are small in size and several numbers can be planted to a hectare. In addition, many of
the recommended cultural practices can be implemented without much difficulty (spraying,
inter-row cultivation, bagging and harvesting).

Disadvantages of asexual propagation:

1. Grafted trees are shallow rooted and are easily uprooted by strong winds and typhoons.
2. It is a common notion that grafted trees have shorter life span. However, this is yet to be proven
since the oldest grafted trees are approximately 90 years old yet are vigorous and productive.

Cleft grafting. There are several methods of asexual propagation in mango (inarching, budding,
marcotting and grafting). Cleft grafting is commonly used since it is easy to perform and percentage of
success is high.

Steps involve in cleft grafting are as follows:

1. Collect scions from identified bearing mother trees. Cut scions to about 6-8 inches long. Scions should be
healthy (free from pests) with well-formed buds and about pencil size in diameter. Preferably, these are
exposed to sunlight and about 4-5 months from flushing.
2. Other practice includes defoliation of the leaves prior to cutting. This allows the scions to store food that
enhanced for fast development of young buds. This practice is often done in small scale propagation of
mango and is seldom followed in large nurseries.
3. In the process of grafting, select scions of similar size with the rootstock. Prepare the scion by removing
the leaves. Make a perpendicular cut on both sides of the base to form a wedge shape tip.
4. With a sharp grafting knife, cut the rootstock 12 inches from the base. This will provide allowance in case
union is not successful.
5. Make incision on the center of the cut portion, enough for the entrance of the wedge shape tip of the scion.
6. Insert the scion in the incision made on the rootstock. See to it that a contact is provided between the scion
and stock. Wrapping the union or the point of contact with a plastic strip will insure good grip. This will
also prevent the scion from tapering off during the healing process. It is recommended to wrap/cover the
upper portion of the scion with plastic strips/bag to prevent drying.
7. When graft is successful, young shoots are visible after two weeks. Immediately expose the shoots by
removing the plastic cover to allow subsequent growth. Do not remove the plastic strip that binds the
scion and rootstock.
8. Place the grafts under shade and water them regularly. Fertilization can hasten growth. The grafts are
ready for disposal or planting after 6-8 months, other farmers may prefer 2-year old grafts for field planting.

9. Hardening of grafts is recommended before planting. This is done by withholding water and gradual
exposure of grafts to sunlight. This practice will allow the grafts to resist the harsh environment in the
field.

Kinds of planting materials

• Grafted mangoes should be purchased from registered nurseries (certified plants). Accredited
nursery operators strictly follows the proper nursery management such as selection of seeds for
rootstocks, care and maintenance of rootstocks, preparation of soil media, dehusking, germination,
transplanting of seedlings, fertilization, watering, insect-pests and diseases control and grafting
techniques. Above all, the scions are taken from registered mother trees.

• One-year old vs. 2-year old graft. One-year old grafts are commonly used as planting materials for
mango. However, when these are planted in the field, mortality is oftentimes high and replacement
of trees would mean uneven growth. Thus, some growers prefer to use older grafts as planting
materials. Although more costly, older grafts are easy to establish, mortality is low and trees flower
earlier. The choice of planting materials therefore, depends on the capability of growers
considering price, size of the farm and equipment available for hauling and planting.

o c.Single vs. multiple rootstock. Aside from using single rootstock, growers are inclined to
plant mango tree with two (dipod) or three (tripod) rootstocks using approach grafting or
inarching. According to proponents of this practice, multiple rootstocks provide better
o absorption of water and nutrients hence, faster plant growth. In addition, it secures the
tree on the ground thus, prevents uprooting by typhoons and strong winds. This method
is however, not supported by research findings and is expensive on the part of small
growers. Normally, approach grafting (dipod/tripod) is done to assist trees with defective
root system especially those infected with disease. This method is also recommended for
trees with poor anchorage in the soil. With mango these problems are not so critical and
use of single rootstock is still the best way to propagate the tree.
• In „situ‟ grafting. In places where availability of grafted mangoes is a problem, it is recommended
to plant seedlings in the field following a desired spacing. When seedlings are about two years old,
the branches are grafted with selected scions using the cleft method. With this procedure, several
scions can be grafted to a tree. The advantages of in „situ‟ grafting are that, management of
seedlings in the nursery is omitted and percent of successful grafts is high. However, shading is
recommended to prevent death of newly inserted scions.
Establishment of mango orchard

a. Underbrushing, cultivation and harrowing. If the area has not been planted to any agricultural
crops, cutting of trees/shrubs, clearing and removal of stones, stumps and log should be done.
Uprooting of grasses to clear the area from weeds is also recommended. On the other hand,
single plowing and two harrowing are necessary for previously cultivated areas. Land
preparation should be done in summer to minimize growth of weeds and facilitate plowing and
harrowing activities.

b. Holing. The best time to dig holes is during summer. When the soil is fertile, 1.0 x 1.0 feet hole
can be excavated in the field. If the soil is hard, rocky and infertile, larger holes of 0.5 x 0.5 meter
is recommended. One fourth of the area should be filled up with organic matter to provide
nutrients for newly planted grafts.

Design and distance of planting. Commercial plantings for mango should follow certain designs
for ease of implementing the cultural requirements of trees and to estimate the number of trees
needed per hectare. In the square system, a tree is planted at each corner of the square while in the
triangular, trees are set in the corners of the triangle, equidistant to each other. About 15 percent
more trees per hectare can be accommodated with the triangular design. On the other hand, in the
quincunx, a filler tree is planted in the middle of the square to maximize space. Hence, the number
of trees per hectare is increased. The square design is commonly used in many orchards.

Recommended spacing for „Carabao‟ mango. The main objective of the layout is to space the trees
at suitable distances in order to allow ample space for development. It also permits intercultural
operations and easy passage of light to discourage pests and diseases. In poor soil the tree makes
thrifty growth and can stand closer spacing. On the other hand, in fertile soil, the tree makes
luscious growth and produce overlapping canopies within few years hence, wider spacing is
necessary.

Another important factor that influence tree spacing is the growth characteristic of the variety.
„Carabao‟ mango is considered a fast grower, attaining canopy spread of 4.5 m after 3 years. Thus,
closer spacing for this variety should be discouraged to avoid over crowding which can affect yield
and fruit quality. If intercropping is desired, it is best to have wider spacing to accommodate
growth of cereals, vegetables and short maturing fruit crops like guava, cashew, papaya, pineapple
and jackfruit. The spacings for „Carabao‟ mango are 10 x 10 m (100 trees), 12 x 12 m (70 trees), 14
x 14 m (51 trees) and 16 x 16 m (39 trees), 20 x 20 m (25 trees). However, it is recommended that
„Carabao‟ mango should be planted at least 14 x 14 meters.

High density planting (use with caution). Close density planting is practiced in Australia, Israel,
Mexico and India. The success of this technology is attributed to the variety whose growth
characteristic is of non-spreading and responsive to pruning. For „Carabao‟ mango, close density
planting can pose problem because the tree grows fast and over crowding is easily attained as early
as 6 to 8 years after planting. Mango flowers and fruit clusters are borne on the periphery of the
canopy and need to be exposed to sunlight. Trees with crowded and overlapping branches do not
produce as many flowering tips as compared to those exposed to light. Overcrowding also creates
condition favorable for the growth and multiplication of pests particularly hoppers and
anthracnose. High density planting at 5 x 5 m (400 trees), is used for scion grove establishment.
 Field layout

For flat and slightly rolling areas, layout should be done after land preparation and preferably in
summer. The materials needed for the field layout are triangular wooden frame (1 x 1 x 1.5 m), 3 pieces
nylon cords (100 m each), meter stick, 6 pieces bamboo poles (4 m), 100 pc bamboo sticks (2 ft) and
markers (colored strings).

Steps involved in the field layout are as follows:

1. Set the triangular frame in one corner of the field. Using a 100 m nylon cord, extend one arm of
the triangle (westward) and with the other cord, do the same for the second arm (southward).
Stretch the cords to form straight lines and fix both ends around the bamboo poles forming a
big triangle. This will serve as the reference point or base line for the layout.
2. With the nylon cord, measure and mark the required distance using colored strips. Both ends
of the cord should also be stretched and tied to bamboo poles.

3. Move the marked cord inside the big triangle and using the recommended distance of planting,
set the cord parallel to the base line, (westward extension of the triangular frame). Fix the ends
of the cord on the ground with the bamboo poles. Identify these marks in the field by placing
bamboo sticks (staking).
4. Transfer the cord and measure the same distance for the next line. Repeat this procedure until
the whole area is laid out.

For high slopping areas, contour layout is practiced in areas with highly sloping lands. The stakes are
placed perpendicular to the slope and fixed in the center of the slope to provide straight line drawn
from bottom to top. This is accomplished by stretching the nylon cord from the highest to the lowest
parts and locating the position of the grafts along the marked points of the cord. Actual planting is
done from below to top of the slope. Plant orientation can also be guided with the use of an “A” frame.
To assure high percentage of plant recovery, planting should be planned at the start of rainy months
when water supply is enough and considered appropriate planting.

Caring of Young Mango Trees

Fertilization. It is important that grafts should get established in the field prior to fertilizer application.
Soil and tissue analysis is recommended to determine the needed fertilizer for the crop, however in the
absence of such, a general recommendation could be considered. Fertilization is recommended 2 to 3
months after field planting and could be done before in split application, and at the end of rainy season.
One practical guide for fertilizer application is the development of young shoots 6-8 weeks after
transplanting. The following are suggested fertilizer requirements for nonbearing trees:

1. One year old - 100 g Urea (split application start and end at rainy season) or 200 g manure + 100
g Urea. Fertilizer should be placed few inches from the trunk in a shallow canal constructed
around.
3. Two years old - 200 g Urea (split application) or 500 g manure + 200 g Urea.
4. Three years old - 300 g triple 14 (split application) or 1.0 to 2.0 kg manure + 300 g triple 14
 5. Four years old – 400 to 500 g triple 14 (split application) or 2.0 to 3.0 kg manure + 400 to
500 g Urea

Irrigation. Death of young trees in the field is usually attributed to lack of water particularly during
the dry months (December to April). Manual irrigation using water sprinkler is recommended weekly.
Irrigate 2 to 4 liters of water to saturate the soil. This activity should be done continuously for the 2 nd
and 3rd years of growth until the trees have established in the field. In large plantation, irrigation system
(sprinkler and drip) is recommended.

Intercropping. The available space between mango trees can be made productive while waiting for the
trees to bear fruits. This practice will not only provide additional income to grower but also keep the
area free from weeds and improve the fertility of the soil. Several short maturing trees (interfillers) such
as citrus, papaya, pineapple, guava, cashew, jackfruit and citrus are recommended as choose intercrops
for mango. Choose crop(s) which are easily adopted in the area, requires less management and with
high market demands. In cases where the intercrop competes with the main crop for nutrition, water
and space, these should be removed. Avoid intercrops which are alternate hosts of insect pests and
diseases.

Weed control. Weeds are not the only problem of annual crops but also of perennial like mango. They
compete for food and water and serve as alternate hosts for insects and diseases. The frequent burning
of mango orchards especially during summer months is also caused by dry weeds which accidentally
catch fire.

Ring weeding is recommended for young and backyard trees. This is done by scraping or hoeing the
weeds around the base of the trunk. An area of about one meter radius should be maintained weed
free. For large areas as in orchard plantation, inter-row cultivation using a tractor is necessary. However,
caution must be observed so that the disc or mouldboard plow does not damage the roots of the trees.
Soil erosion during cultivation should also be considered.

Cover cropping involves planting of leguminous and creeping crops like tropical Kudzu and
Centrosema to suppress the growth of weeds. These plants intercept light minimizing the heat which
accumulates in the soil. In addition these crops suppress growth of weeds due to their creeping
behavior. When fully matured, these are plowed and incorporated in the soil as green manure to
improve soil fertility. Leguminous crops also provide food and habitat for insect pollinators like spiders,
praying mantis and wasps.

At present, there are non-selective herbicides (glyphosate) used to replace the laborious and expensive
weeding procedure. However, avoid spray contact with any parts of the tree during application since
this can result to burning and death of trees.

Insect and Disease control. Insects and diseases damage young trees in the field. Insects attack the
leaves, branches and root systems and are prevalent during the dry season. Diseases on the other hand,
are rampant during the rainy season and they destroy the leaves and roots of young trees.

1. Scale insects (Aonidiella orientales., Coccus viridis, Aspidiotus destructor, Phenocapsis inday and
Hemiberlesia palmae). These are small scale-like insects usually found hiding underneath the leaves
or branches of the tree. Both adults and nymphs destroy the plant by sucking the vital sap resulting
to the drying and falling of leaves. Scale insects are abundant during summer and can cause high
 mortality of young grafts. As plant suckers, scales also excrete sticky fluid called “honey dew”
which serves as excellent medium for the development of the fungus, sooty molds. The latter,
blackens the leaves and affects the photosynthetic activity of the plant. In addition, while feeding,
scale insects inject toxic substances in the tissues resulting in the galling of the branches. Affected
parts enlarged and resulted to galling of the branches which do not recover.
Control. Scale insects, particularly the armored group is difficult to control with insecticides
because their bodies are covered with waxes. When contact insecticides are used, stickers are
necessary. Insecticides with systemic activity are also preferred. During heavy infestation,
pruning of affected parts should be done followed by spray application of insecticides. Fertilize
and water the plants to stimulate new growth. When infestation is minimal, brushing them off
with soap and water will minimize the problem in the field. Spray plant oil as a mixture of
plant oil + insecticide. This chemical is effective for scale insect control.

2. Tip Borer (Chlumetia transversa). The adult moth starts to lay eggs when flushes are present. The
eggs hatch to small larvae which bore in the shoots and stems, feeding the vascular bundles. Since
water and food are prevented from growing up the plant tip (due to the destruction of the food
bundles), the top most portion of the plant dies. When dissected, small, pinkish larvae are found
inside.
Control. If infestation is minimal, prune the damaged part and burn/bury them. During severe
infestation use systemic/contact insecticides and spray regularly to protect flushes.

3. Mango Twig cutter/borer (Niphonoclea albata, Newman and N. Capito, Pascoe). The adult cuts or
girdles the branch/twig. This is done by nipping the branch halfway, then turning around to make
another cut just as deep as, but slightly lower than the first cut. Affected parts fail to transport
nutrients and water causing the terminal leaves to dry up. Dried leaves on the tree canopy are
common sign of twig cutter infestation.

Control: Adults are attracted to young leaves or flushes for egg laying. To prevent or minimize
damage, spray the whole canopy with insecticide. Repeat application after one month. Prune
damaged twigs and branches. It is advisable to prune in summer to minimize occurrence of disease
which may enter the cut tips. Infested parts should also be burned to kill the larvae inside.

4. Circular white-back borer (Callimetopus sp.). This is a long-horned beetle and has very similar
habits to the twig cutter/borer. The adult scrapes the bark of young twigs causing death of terminal
parts. The insect is easily identified by the circular white mark on the back of its body. Control.
Like the twig cutter, adults are attracted to young leaves. Insecticides recommended for twig cutter
infestation can also be used to protect trees from circular white-back borer infestation. Prune
affected parts and burn them.

5. Corn silk beetle (Monolepta bifasciata). The adults are small, yellowish beetles and are voracious
leaf feeders. Newly formed leaves (flushes) are very attractive to the insect. Infested leaves show
holes and under severe attack the entire leaf is destroyed. Damaged leaves are also easily infected
by anthracnose, a fungal disease.
Control. Timely application of insecticide during flushing. Use any contact insecticide
recommended for mango.

6. Grubs (Leucopholis irrorata) and Termites (Macrotermes sp.). The insect feeds on the roots and stems
of the tree. Under heavy infestation, grafted plants die.
 Control. Granular insecticides such as (a.i.Furadan) (50 g/tree) applied as soil drench will kill the
insects in the soil while contact insecticides are necessary for those found on the trunk and branches.
It is important to expose the adults prior to application of contact insecticides by destroying earthen
tunnels. Eggs of grubs can be prevented from hatching organic matter before applying them as
fertilizer.

7. Thrips (Scirtothrips sp.). These are small insects and new pest problem during flushing. Leaves
affected result to drying and the burning symptom is prevalent.
Control Spray contact insecticide particularly underneath the leaf surface where the insect stays.

8. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes). This is the most common disease of mango and is
prevalent during rainy months. Leaves are easily susceptible to the disease especially the flushes.
The common symptoms are black, pin size lesions which coalesce to form bigger spots. These spots
produce a shot hole appearance on the leaves. Affected leaves dry and fall to the ground pre-
maturely.
Control. Anthracnose can be controlled by pruning the affected parts and spraying with
recommended fungicides especially during rainy season. To avoid wetting of leaves during
irrigation, direct water only to the roots.

Early Pruning.

1 Formative pruning is done to reduce the height of trees. This is usually done when the tree is
about 1m tall, and the terminal portions are cut/pinched to encourage lateral branching.
2 Three (3) to four (4) branches are allowed to grow and then the second cutting or pruning of
terminal portions is done until the branches are evenly distributed.
4. For established young trees, 3-4 year old (at least 3 meter tall), where early pruning is not
practiced, the tree is center-pruned to control the height and for proper development of lateral
branching. This allows sunlight penetration, air circulation, and facilitates spraying, bagging and
harvesting operations.
5. Pruning is suggested to be done during the dry season.

Deblossoming. The removal of flowers which develop on young trees should be practiced as it happens
as early as the first year of growth of grafted mangoes. The presence of flowers will require nutrients
suppose to be channelled for vegetative growth of the plant as early as the first year of grafted mangoes.
Hence, early flowering can affect the development of trees resulting to stunted growth.

Caring for trees

Pruning. Pruning is done to remove undesirable and crowded branches which are of no use to the tree.
This includes the removal of water sprouts, old, decaying and unproductive dried and overcrowded
branches, infected and infested parts to discourage the presence and multiplication of insect pests and
diseases. Pruning allowed maximum light penetration and air circulation in the canopy. This minimizes
the build up of diseases inoculum and insect population particularly, mango leafhoppers.
Excessive pruning on bearing trees should be avoided. As a general rule, branches which are 2
inches in diameter or less are removed. These usually grow as side shoots from tertiary branches in
the canopy. Other branches which deviate from the main limbs are also removed. A wellpruned tree
has equal distribution of branches and allows light penetration within the canopy. As a practical
guide, a well-pruned tree allows one to see adjacent trees within the vicinity.

Preferably pruning should be done during summer months after harvest. If done during the rainy
season, the cut portions should be protected from fungal infection by application of fungicides, paint
or coal tar.

Drastic or radical pruning (top working) to change the variety/rehabilitate old trees is the removal of
the total or more than 30% of the canopy. It is practice for the trees which are severely infested with
insects particularly scales and mealy bugs. It is also done to rejuvenate old trees or replace varieties
which are unproductive in the field. Pruning saw, shear and pruning pole are appropriate tools needed.
However, if these are not available, ordinary carpenter saw and bolo can be used.

Fertilization.Early researches believe that nutrient level of soils from different mango producing
provinces are adequate to support growth and development of trees. This is because mango has an
extensive root system capable of extracting nutrients deep in the soil. However, with the discovery of
potassium nitrate, induction of trees became common and its yearly application has resulted ill effects
as observed in the fields. Continuous use of potassium nitrate specifically at higher concentration
resulted to cause leaf defoliation, decline production and low response of trees to flowering. In extreme
cases, trees become sickly and non-productive.

A closer look at the problems will reveal that affected trees are usually malnourished and deficiency
symptoms of the major elements (NPK) are very glaring hence, the role of nutrition in flower induction
is very important.

Soil analysis, tissue analysis recommendation and symptomatology exhibited by trees which lack
that certain element(s) are ways to determine deficiency of important elements in mango. The most
common procedure employed is soil analysis. Soil samples are taken from the field and submitted to
the Bureau of Soil and Water Management of the Department of Agriculture for analysis. Laboratory
result identifies the limiting elements, its amount and the corresponding recommendations. It is
important to have your soil analysis prior to application of fertilizer. However, in the absence of such,
the following recommendation for bearing trees could be observed.

Age (Years) Rate of Application Time of Application

5-6 500 g to 1 kg Triple 14 or Apply whole amount at the

3 to 4 kg manure + 500 g to 1 kg Triple start of the rainy season or split
14 application with the first half
given at the start of rainy days
7 -8 2 kg Triple 14 or and the remaining before the
4 to 5 kg manure + 2 kg end of the rainy season.
Triple 14

9 - 10 3 kg Triple 14 or
5 to 6 kg manure + 3 kg
Triple 14
 11 - 15 5 kg Triple 14 + 10 kg manure

16 – 20 6 to 7 kg Triple 14 +12 kg manure

20 - above 10 kg. Triple 14 + 15 to 20 kg manure

Common nutritional deficiency symptoms in mango:

1. Nitrogen. Presence of yellow, undersized leaves. Discoloration starts on the base and progress
towards the tip. Growth retardation.
2. Phosphorus. Usually older leaves shows presence of brown neurotic spots located in between
veins. In the advance stage, the leaves become brown, dry up and drop. In some cases, the
leaves turn reddish purple along the margins, mature abscission and stem die back occurs.
3. Potassium. Distinct symptoms of potassium deficiency occur on older leaves. It is indicated
by brown necrosis on the leaf margin which often extends to the tip. Leaf blade appears dull
yellowish green to light green. The symptoms are very prominent during dry season.
4. Calcium. Similar to nitrogen deficiency except that yellowing of the leaves start at the apical
portions and not at the base.
5. Magnesium. Deficiency from this element cause considerable retardation of growth and
premature defoliation of leaves. In severe cases chlorosis extends up to the midrib and little or
no green color remains.
6. Copper. Presence of oversized leaves. Usually gum exudations are present on the bark of the
twigs and branches.
7. Zinc. The deficiency symptom is characterized by the little leaf symptom. As the leaf mature,
the margin bent with downward or upward causing the apical portion to curve in the same
direction. Veins appear more prominent on the upper surface and appear yellow.

Proper fertilizer application should be observed particularly on big and mature trees (> 30 years old)
which are fertilized by digging narrow canals or holes of 15 - 30 cm deep around the trunk following
the spread of the canopy. Fertilizer is placed in the holes/canal and covered with soil to minimize
volatilization or run off of the chemicals during rainy days. For younger trees (5-30 years old) holes or
canals are constructed 1.0-2.0 radius from the trunk.

Foliar fertilizer is recommended at flowering as supplement for optimum growth. The first and second
application of foliar fertilizer starts at 14 to 18 and 22 to 25 days after induction which is needed to
increase panicle length and in preparation for a good fruit setting. The second application at 35to 40
days after induction encourages fruit setting and retention while the 4 th application at 50 to 55 days
increases fruit size. Choose foliar fertilizers with major elements (NPK) as well as microelements such
as Calcium, Magnesium, Boron and Zinc.

Flower induction. Age of leaves should be between 7 to 8 months. Leaf maturity is observed to be
influenced by water stress, temperature and day length. Dark green to coppery green, brittle, crispy
and crack or break when squeezed are practical guides that mango leaves considered to be matured.

Spray potassium nitrate (KNO3) by thorough wetting the leaves. Agricultural grade of KNO3 or other
salts of nitrate at 1 to 3 percent or formulated products (liquid/solid) are recommended. High
concentration during cold/rainy months, low concentration during dry months. These rates would
vary from 2.0 to 3.0 percent and 1.0 to 1.5 percent for early and late flower induction respectively. One
percent means 1 kg of potassium nitrate in every 100 litters of water. Stronger/higher concentration is
also needed for younger shoots but often time‟ s chemical induction is not practical. On the other hand,
formulated products can be made strong or weak depending on the amount of water added to the
inducer.

Follow up spray or dressing. This is usually done during cold months or off-season production and
when rain occurs 6 hours after the induction. Spray at lower concentration (50% or ½ of the rate) 2 to
3 days after the first application.

Cultar also known as “paclobutrazole” is a growth retardant which can induce flowering in mango.
The chemical is applied as soil drench. However, the response of „Carabao‟ mango to application of
cultar is not significant.

Flower management. Technically, mango flowers are referred to as inflorescence because it is made up
of several individual flowers (floret). Sometimes, the entire flowers are also referred to as panicle. In
„Carabao‟ mango, a single panicle may have 800 to 2,000 florets. Mango flowers are light yellow in
color and turn dark yellow to light orange towards the blooming stage.

Basically, there are two types of mango flower, the male which are relatively small but numerous in
number and the hermaphrodites or complete flower. The latter, are bigger and have both male and
female parts present in a single flower. Only hermaphrodite flowers develop into fruit, the males fall
to the ground. Since, the number of males are higher than the hermaphrodite (3:1), only few fruits will
develop per panicle. Without care and maintenance, these fruitlets will continue to drop until only one
or two fruits will be retained per panicle. In most cases, nothing is left at harvest.

Foliar application of liquid fertilizer at 14 and 22 days after flower induction (DAFI). This is a very
important recommendation to follow since foliar application will enhance mango flowers from the
series of developmental stage prior to the development of fruit. Such stages are post emergence,
preanthesis and full bloom. Likewise, fruit development will commence from fruit set to fruit
enlargement and finally on to fruit maturation.

Pest control for important insects/diseases is an important consideration on flower management.

Mango flowers are very susceptible to attack of mango leafhoppers and tip borers. Flowers should
therefore be sprayed with effective insecticides against these pests. During rainy days, flowers turn
black and fall to the ground due to anthracnose. This is a very common disease of mango which is
prevalent when moisture is present. Failure of flowers to develop into fruits is therefore influenced by
the presence or absence of insects and diseases.

Encourage pollinators (flies and bees) by avoiding application of pesticides at full bloom stage. Fruit
setting increases as the presence of natural pollinators hence, many of the insects will be killed during
insecticide application at full bloom stage.

Irrigation is advised for weekly application of water to enhance flowers and fruits development. Water
can be supplied naturally through rain or artificially. Sources of irrigation may be obtained from drip
irrigation system, overhead sprinklers, surface run-off or furrow irrigation.
Fruit management. The presence of numerous flowers is not a guarantee of bountiful harvest. Low
fruit setting can occur anytime since there is a predominance of male flowers. In addition, large number
of perfect flowers (hermaphrodites) are not pollinated by insects.

In general, less than 1 percent of the hermaphrodite flowers will develop into fruits at maturity. Fruit
drop which occur from fruit setting to 60 days after induction is also responsible for the low yield at
harvest. Fruit drop in mango is associated with nutrient competition, lack of water during
development, insect and diseases, degeneration/abortion of newly fertilized fruits, parthenocarpy
(fruits not fertilized) and phytotoxic effects of some pesticide.

Fruit drop should be also viewed as mechanism for survival of the trees. Fruit development is an energy
requiring process and the presence of numerous fruits in the panicle would mean large amount of food
required for their development. Hence, the tree rejects many of these fruits and retains only those which
it can support. To minimize the occurrence of fruit drop at an early stage of development the following
are recommended:

a. Foliar applications of fertilizer at fruit set (35 to 40 DAFI)

and before fruit bagging (50-55 DAFI). b. Pest control against
major insects/ diseases.
c. Irrigation of trees at weekly interval starting from panicle initiation until one month before harvest.

Fruit drop stabilized at 60 days after flower induction. However, if fruits continue to fall beyond this
period, other problems like water, insects/diseases and strong winds have to be considered.

Integrated pest management

Mango is one commercial crop which receives a tremendous amount of pesticides during flower and
fruit development. Over the past decades, mango production has become increasingly dependent on
chemicals or conventional approaches to pest control. These include calendar spraying (about 8-10 times
during flower and fruit development) and the use of different mixtures of toxic chemicals. These
practices create economic, environmental and health problems in the countryside.

One management practice which can help address these problems is Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
IPM can increase farm profits, maintain good yields, safeguard the environment and reduce health risks
to farmers and consumers. It involves the combination of proper cultural management to improve the
vigor of the trees, resistant varieties, biological control and other biological procedures to prevent,
reduce or mitigate pests. The use of pesticides is included as part of an integrated approach to pest
control. However, cultural management practices which tend to prevent pests are emphasized. With
IPM, pesticides are used only when absolutely necessary, mainly to control pest infestation. Natural
enemies of pests and the use of natural pollinators are encouraged. Environmental contamination is,
thus, minimized.

IPM Strategies and Tactics

1. Pruning - involves the removal of crowded and unnecessary branches as well as parts damaged
by insects and diseases. Through pruning the population of insect pests is reduced, discourage
 multiplication and spread of diseases. Pruning is recommended after harvest, preferably during
summer. Well-pruned trees allow light penetration and good air circulation. This creates an
environment less favorable for the development of leafhoppers, mealy bugs and diseases like
anthracnose, stem end-rot and scab. In addition, it also facilitates the distribution of spray droplets
within the canopy for effective control of pests.

2. Clean culture - is done by ring cultivation, sanitation through cleaning of surrounding areas and
collection and destruction of infected branches and fruit droppings. This is an effective cultural
management practices which limits the development and spread of pests. The practice is very
important in minimizing problems related to fruit fly and seed borer infestations. Collection of
fallen fruits and burying them deep in the ground to prevent insects from completing the life cycle.
This also eliminates the breeding sites of other pests. It is also recommended to destroy sources of
disease infection by collecting and burning fallen branches, fruits and other trashes.

3. Monitoring - regular monitoring of flowers and fruits for specific pest and population has been
proven effective for the success of pest program. This will depend on the comprehensive
knowledge of the pest particularly its life history and behavior, distribution, dispersion and
seasonal abundance. For example, the nymphs and adults of mango leafhoppers are very
destructive to flowers and are abundant during dry season. Their population becomes low when
flowers are not available. Thus, the increase of fruit fly population is influenced by availability of
suitable host and onset of the season will be detected from a regular visit of the fruit trees.

4. Chemical control. Chemicals which are used to control or kill pests are referred to as pesticide.
These are power tools in pest management since they are usually effective against large pest
population, act within a short period of time and are readily available for use.

5. Insecticides. These are chemicals used to control insect pests, classified as inorganic and organic
depending on their chemical nature and according to their route of entry. They can be grouped
into stomach poisons (act via ingestion and absorption), contact poisons (readily absorbed by the
cuticle of the skin) and fumigants (enter through the breathing organs of the insect in gaseous state).
Insecticides are formulated either as wettable powders (WP), emulsifiable concentrates (EC) or
granules (G).

6. Insecticide management

a. Identify the weak links in the life cycle of insect pests and direct the insecticidal application at
these weak links.
b. Insecticides should be applied based on pest monitoring. For instance, at panicle stage,
insecticide application is initiated when 3 hoppers are present per panicle.
c. Different classes of approved insecticides should be used alternately to delay development of
insect resistance.
d. Apply insecticide as fine spray mists for better control of different insect pests.
e. Use the most effective insecticides only at very critical stages and when pest population reach
very high level.

Fungicide. Most of the diseases affecting mangoes are caused by fungus. Hence, fungicides are an
important tool for pest management. Fungicides are generally sprayed on leaves, flowers and fruits of
mango as protectants. In other words, they are designed to be present on the plants in advance to
prevent infection. New products have also been developed to kill fungi which have already invaded
the tissues.

Fungicide management

a. Fungicide should be applied at plant stages that are vulnerable to anthracnose and when
environmental conditions are favorable for the development of the disease (need-based rather
than calendar-based application).

b. The vulnerable plant stages for anthracnose infection are stages covering flushing (1-15 days
after flower bud break) up to fruit set and maturity. The most critical stage for anthracnose
infection is from prebloom (about 20 DAFI) up to fruit set (about 35 DAFI).
c. Appropriate use of fungicide should be observed. Protectant fungicides should be applied
during less critical period and are effective if they are applied before disease infection is
initiated. Systemic fungicides should be applied during very critical periods and usually after
infections have started.
d. Protectant and systemic fungicides should be applied alternately to prevent development of
resistance. When critical stages (20-35 DAFI) coincide with extremely favorable condition for
anthracnose development, a mixture of combination of systemic and protectant fungicides can
be resorted.
e. If flushing (1-15 DAFI) coincide with wet and humid conditions, protect flushes by spraying
one round of protectant fungicide. Avoid the use of systemic fungicides.
f. Fungicides application should be scheduled base on crop phenology and weather condition.

Bagging. Bagging is recommended to protect the fruit from pests and reduce the spraying of
insecticides. Bagging is an important cultural practice for mango since it reduces the number of
pesticidal applications and produce fruit of better quality.

This is done when fruits are about chicken‟ s egg size (55 to 60 DAFI). The bags used to serve as physical
barrier which prevent mechanical injury, protect the fruits from fruit flies, seed borer, black borer, cecid
flies and minimize infection caused by anthracnose, diplodia and scab. If early attack of insect pest is
anticipated, early bagging of fruits is recommended (45DAFI onwards).

Steps Involved in Bagging:

1. For bagging materials, imported newspapers are preferred during rainy months since these are
sturdy and can withstand strong wind and rain. If this is not available, the yellow pages of the
telephone directory can be used. Local newspaper could be used during dry season. Avoid using
plastic bags since these can accumulate moisture conducive for the development of diseases. A
Chinese pre-formed brown paper bags is available but cost Php 1.00 per piece.
2. A full-page newspaper will produce 6 paper bags, each measuring 8.5 inch in width. This size is
appropriate for bagging the fruits. Approximately 294 bags can be made with 1kg newspaper.
3. The bag should be sealed at all sides except the opening with staple wire. Arrange the bags in
bundles (100 bags per bundle) and about 3 to 4 bundles be carried each time the bagger climbs the
tree.
 4. Ladder and ropes are used to access fruits during bagging. Ropes are tied around the bagger‟ s
waist with one end of the rope tied to a sturdy branch. The rope must be long enough for
adjustment when the bagger transfers position during the operation. Bagging starts from the top
of the canopy moving downward.
5. Fruits which are clean and without any abnormality should be bagged. After enclosure, the
opening of the bag should be folded and sealed with a staple wire to prevent entry of insects.
6. Avoid bags which are small that fit closely to the fruit. Insects like fruit fly and cecid fly can easily
pierce the paper with their ovipositor and lay eggs on the fruit surface. The size of the bag
recommended earlier can lessen this problem.
7. It should also be emphasized that bagging does not provide total protection for the fruits. Studies
have shown that maximum protection for insect and diseases control varies from 75 to 80 percent.
In the field, bags are destroyed by strong winds and rains exposing the fruits to several pests. In
such cases, re-bagging is recommended.

Irrigation. Water is essential not only for the development but also for the translocation of nutrients.
Although the ideal climatic requirement for mango is five months continuous dry season, water is
beneficial to mature trees especially during flowering and fruiting.

Established trees are deep rooted and have the ability to extract water several feet below the ground.
However, during flowering and fruiting, moisture should be readily available for optimum growth.
Irrigation during flowering and fruiting results to longer flower panicles, increased number of fruits per
panicle (fruit set), reduced fruit drop, increased fruit size and improved fruit quality.

For big trees, 100 to 200 liters of water is recommended each week. This is applied weekly starting from
flower emergence (12 days after flower induction) to one month before harvest (90 days after induction).
This requirement is however, enormous and often times not met in the field.

In places where water availability is a problem it is recommended that bamboo poles 6 inches diameter
and 1-2 m high should be placed around each tree. Four of such poles are buried 0.5 m deep and 1 m
away from the trunk. The poles are filled with water requirement of each tree during flower and fruit
development. Each week, bamboo poles are refilled with water for continuous supply. Plastic pipes
(PVC) may replace bamboo poles since the former doesn‟ t stay long in the field.

Water can also be applied to trees using canal, holes, flooding, dike and by drip method. In the latter, a
motor pump is provided which forces water into small black tubes. A regulator is provided in each tube
which control and distribute the required amount of water per tree. This system is the most efficient
way of irrigating trees in the field.

In some orchards, the drip system is a common irrigation facility. This consists of perforated rubber
hose, placed in rows or between rows of mango trees. A control unit allows the prescribed volume and
frequency of water needed by each tree. With some modification, fertilization can be applied while
irrigating the trees and process is called fertigation.

Important Considerations in Irrigation:

1. Irrigate trees at flowering and fruiting stages to enhance faster development of flowers,
minimize fruit drop and increase fruit size.
2. Apply water weekly during flower and fruit development and stop 1 month before harvest.
 3. Amount of water varies with size of the tree and available moisture in the soil.

List of important pests affecting bearing trees:

Pests Affecting twigs and Flowers

1 Mango leafhoppers (Idioscopus clypealis). Nymphs and adults damage the flowers by piercing
their mouth parts in the tissues and sucking the plant sap which causes withering, drying and
falling of individual flowers. Under severe infestation, no fruits develop. The insects excretes a
fluid called “honey dew,” an excellent medium for the development of the fungus, “sooty mold”
which interferes with the photosynthetic activity of the leaves. It also disturbs fertilization and
spoils the appearance of flowers and fruits. Under high insect population, the entire canopy is
covered with sooty mold with leaves and flowers turning black.
Prevention: Since hopper population is expected to be high in summer, early induction of mango
trees (September, October and November) will prevent hopper problems in the field. Light
trapping is also recommended during early stages of flower development to attract and kill
adults which are ready to lay eggs. To install light trap, hang the source of light (electric bulb or
kerosene operated lamp) on the tree. Place underneath a basin containing mixture of soap and
water (1:10). Hoppers which are attracted to the light are drowned in the solution. One light trap
is required per hectare of mango plantation. Pruning of crowded branches is an important
management practice which discourages hoppers from staying in the tree. Pruning allows good
light penetration and makes the habitat unfavorable for hopper development.
Control. To prevent insect build up, insecticides are sprayed to protect the susceptible stages of
flower development (bud elongation, pre-flower opening and opening). It is important to
monitor the different stages of flower for the presence of the insect. Application of insecticides
for hopper control in done based on monitoring and not by calendar spray.

No insecticidal spray should be done when mango flowers are blooming (28-32 DAFI). At this
stage, beneficial insects like flies, bees, ants, etc. actively pollinating the flowers. They should be
spared from the toxic chemicals. Otherwise, no pollination will occur and the flowers will not
turn into fruits.

A fungus known as Hirsutella regulates hopper population in the field. When present, collect
them from the leaves, soaked in water and spray them back in the trees. Some botanical
insecticides (neem, tobacco leaves, tubli and bulb onions) have been reported to control hoppers.

2 Mango Tipborer (Chlumetia transversa) . While mango tip borer is a common problem on young
shoots, the insect is also observed to destroy the flowers. Newly developed flowers are damaged
entirely while mature flowers are cut into half, with the upper portion being destroyed. The insect
is becoming an important problem of mango flowers.
Prevention. The adults start to destroy the flowers from bud emergence to elongation. Hence,
early spraying of insecticides is necessary to protect these stages especially during summer.
Insecticides recommended for hopper control will also protect the flowers of mango from tip
borer infestation.
Control.When the larvae are inside the flowers, many of the insecticides are not effective against
the pest. Pruning of infested flowers is recommended followed by insecticidal applications to
protect non-infested flowers.
3 Mango Twig cutter/borer (Niphonoclea albata, Newman and N. Capito, Pascoe). The adult cuts or
girdles the branch/twig. The damage is done by nipping the branch halfway, and then turning
around to make another cut just as deep as, but slightly lower than the first cut where adults lay
their eggs. Affected parts fail to transport nutrients and water causing the terminal eaves to dry
up. Dried leaves on tree canopy are common sign of twig cutter infestation.
Prevention. Adults are attracted to young twigs/branches for egg laying. To prevent or minimize
damage, spray the whole canopy with insecticide. Repeat application after one month. Control.
Prune damaged twigs and branches. It is advisable to prune in summer to minimize occurrence
of disease which may enter the cut tips. Infested parts should also be burned to kill the larvae
inside.

4 Circular white-back borer. This is a long-horned beetle and has very similar habits to the twig
cutter/borer. The adult cuts the leaves on the terminal portion of the twigs and bore hole on
young twigs for egg laying, causing death of terminal parts. The insect is easily identified by the
circular white mark on the back of its body.
Prevention. Like the twig cutter, adults are attracted to young shoots/twigs. Insecticides
recommended for twig cutter infestation can also be used to protect trees from circular whiteback
borer infestation. Control. Prune affected parts and burn them.

5 Mealybugs (Ferrisia virgata/ Planococcus lilacinus). Both adults and nymphs attack the flowers by
feeding on the base, gradually moving up to cover the entire panicle. The florets dry up and drop
off prematurely. The “honey dew” produced by mealy bugs attracts red ants and serves as
medium for the growth of sooty molds.
Prevention. Bagging of fruits using paper bags sealed at all sides and destruction of red ants are
recommended.

Control. Heavily infested parts (branches and leaves) should be pruned and burned. This should
be followed by spray application of insecticides recommended for the pest. When bagging is not
employed, insecticide sprays are recommended at 75 and 90 days after induction.

6 Thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis/ Selenothrips rubrocintus). Adults and nymphs (immature) are
emerging pest of flowers which destroys by sucking the vital plant sap causing the flowers to dry,
causing a similar to “burning” effect in many plants.
Prevention. Both young and adult insects are sensitive to light. Pruning of crowded branches to
allow light penetration will create an environment less favorable for their development.
Control. Application of insecticides at recommended rates. It is important that the chemical be
properly distributed on the canopy by adjusting the sprayer nozzle to produce fine mist. Spraying
should be done early in the morning.

7 Green Beetle (Anomala sp.) and June Beetle (Leucopholis irrorata). Adults have been found to feed
mainly on the leaves and occasionally on flower of mango. Lately the insects were reported to
attack young fruits by chewing bits and pieces of the peel or skin, particularly near the fruits stalk.
Prevention. Adults can be dislodged from the tree by shaking the branches. Adults that fall on the
ground can be manually collected or controlled by spraying of recommended insecticide.
Control. Commonly used insecticides for the control on insect pests on mango could be used.
Insect Pest Affecting Fruits

1 Mango Seed Borer (Noorda albizonalis). Damage starts when the newly hatched larvae enter the
fruit by boring holes on the apex or narrow tip of the fruit. As the larvae develop, they feed on the
tissues beneath the skin. The damage area later collapses causing the apex to burst and the fruits
eventually fall to the ground. Serious damage is brought about by the destruction of the seed in a
short period of time. Prevention. Fruits showing damage should be picked. Otherwise, larvae will
transfer and destroy adjacent healthy fruits. Infected fruits on the ground should also be collected
and properly disposed of by burning them to prevent the insect from completing its life cycle.
Bagging of fruits at 55 to 60 days after the induction will also minimize damage of the borer.
Control. Adults are active late in the afternoon. To effectively kill them, spray insecticides before
bagging. Insecticides are best applied in the afternoon before it gets dark.

2 Mango Black Borer. Female adult lay its eggs beneath the skin on any portion of the fruit. As the
larva emerges, it bores into the flesh and feed on the pulp ad seeds. The damaged area later
collapses and sometimes cracks and the fruits eventually fall to the ground. Presence of larvae can
be detected when there are excreta observed on the skin of the fruit.
Prevention. The same method employed in Mango Seed Borer.
Control. Control measures for Mango Seed Borer can be applied.

3 Mango Fruit Flies (Bactrocera phillippensis/B. occipitalis). Damage on fruits starts during egg laying.
Fresh punctures may not be readily recognized until after 3 to 5 days when soft brownish spots
appear on the skin and the underlying tissues start to spoil. The larvae cause the major problem
since continuous feeding destroys large portion of the flesh. Breakdown of tissues makes the mango
fruits unsuitable for consumption. In the field, infested fruits drop to the ground and decay. Under
severe infestation, damage to as much as 90 percent of the crop has been reported, making the
insect one of the most important pests of mango.
Prevention. Fruit drop should be collected and buried at least half a meter below the ground to
prevent the development of the insect. Avoid bruising of fruits during spraying since damaged
fruits are susceptible to fruit fly attack. Bagging of fruits at 55 to 60 days after induction (chicken‟
s egg size) will minimize damage from fruit fly. Don‟ t plant papaya, guava, seniguelas or santol
as intercrops for mango. These fruits are preferred hosts of the insect. On the other hand, cashew
and calamansi are less preferred.
Control. Male fruit flies are attracted to a chemical known as methyl eugenol. If it is mixed with
insecticide such as malathion, it can serve as bait which attract and kill the adult. Place the bait (4
percent Malathion and 96 percent methyl eugenol) in an absorbent board (2 x 2 inches) and
distribute 4 traps to a hectare. Field activity of the bait is up to 50 days.

Sustained baiting reduces the male fruit flies thereby decreasing the subsequent insect population
in the field. In the absence of the chemical, Basil (a spicy plant) can be grown in the mango orchard.
This plant produces methyl eugenol which attracts flies in the field. When Basil is sprayed with
insecticides, fruit flies attracted to them are contaminated and get killed.

In addition, protein bait spray can also be prepared to kill both males and females. The bait
formulation consists of mixing 220 ml protein hydrolysate, 150 ml Malathion and 12 li of water.
Spray the bait mixture on the trees as spot treatment 3 to 4 times at two week intervals during fruit
development.
4 Mango Cecid Fly (Procantarinia spp.). While the damage of Cecid fly is usually associated with
galling of young leaves, fruits attacked produced circular, brown scab-like spots randomly
distributed on the fruit surface. This damage is commonly called “buti”, armalite, and kurikong ‟
and„ saksak walis‟ by growers Infested fruits retain the scabby lesions up to harvest affecting their
quality. The scabby symptom was earlier believed to be associated with Capsid bug injury.
However, the presence of small, yellowish larvae confirmed damaged by the Cecid fly.
Prevention. Adults do not stay permanently on mango trees but rather on wild vegetation growing
nearby. Underbrushing and clearing of surrounding areas will destroy their habitats. Adults are
also sensitive to light. Therefore, pruning discourages the insect from staying on the trees. Early
bagging of fruits is recommended to prevent damage of Cecid fly. This should be done at 45 to 50
days after induction. Control. For insecticides to be effective, late in the afternoon spraying is
recommended since adults are active at low light intensity. The surrounding vegetation should
also be sprayed to destroy adult populations. Shallow soil cultivation and burning a layer of
grass/leaves below the tree canopy to destroy pupae in the soil.

5 Capsid bug (Helopeltis sp.). The adult is polyphagous and feeds on different species of plants. The
eggs are inserted in the stem or leaf tissues and hatch from 3 to 5 days the nymphs undergo five
instars lasting from 11 to 16 days. The total development is 20 days. The adults are small and
resemble a rice bug. The males are black but the female has an orange to red thorax while the rest
of the body is black. Capsid bug has nocturnal habit and confines most of its activities late in the
afternoon or early morning. The adults stay in wild vegetation and visit mango fruits only to feed.
This is the reason why the insect is not found in mango trees during daytime. Infested fruits show
dry, hard, black spots on the surface separated by corky rings. Young fruits are usually preferred.
In welldeveloped fruits, the spots are only superficial but quality is greatly affected. Fruits that are
damaged also fall prematurely to the ground.
Prevention.Early bagging of fruits at 40-50 days after induction is recommended to help minimize
fruit damage in the field. Underbrushing and clearing of surrounding areas will destroy their
habitats. Adults are also sensitive to light. Therefore, pruning discourages the insect from staying
on the trees.
Control.For insecticides to be effective, late in the afternoon spraying is recommended since adults
are active at low light intensity. The surrounding vegetation should also be sprayed to destroy
adult populations.

6 Mango Pulp weevil (Sternochetus frigidus). Adult lay eggs on young fruits and the larvae feed on
the flesh. Affected fruits fall to the ground. Damage is not visible externally however; the feeding
larvae destroy inner tissues. The pest is found in Palawan which put the province under quarantine.
Prevention. Adults stay away from light. Therefore, pruning is a practical means to discourage
movement of insect to mango trees. Fruit drops should be collected and properly disposed or by
burying them half meter below the ground to prevent the insect from completing its life cycle.
Bagging of fruits is also recommended at 55 to 60 days after induction.
Control. At present, the control measure for the pulp weevil relies on the use of insecticides
sprayed on fruits at 15 days interval.

7 Scale insects. Several species of scale insects have been reported to attack mango. The most
common are green scale (Coccus viridis); coconut scale (Aspidiotus destructor); shield scale (Pulvinaria
polygonata); wax scale (Vinsonia stillifera); oriental scale (Aonidiella orientalis) and tropical scale
(Hermiberlasia palmae). On bearing trees, high populations of scale insects cause blackening of the
canopy due to the growth of the fungus favoured by fluid excretion “honeydew” of the insect. A
 thin black papery film that covers the affected parts reduced the photosynthetic activity of the
leaves.
Green but fully developed mango fruits are susceptible to scale insect infestation. Damage is
confined to areas near the fruit stalk or pedicel. It is manifested as white yellow spots in contrast
to the green color of the fruit. Scale insect damage is only superficial, but fruit quality is greatly
affected.
Prevention.Red ants carry and distribute young scale insects to different parts of the tree. To
prevent spread and infestation, ants should be destroyed by spray application of recommended
insecticides. Bagging of fruits at 55 to 60 days after induction is a practical way of preventing
damage from scale insects. The paper bag should be sealed properly at all sides and should remain
intact up to harvest. Control. Spraying of insecticides is not recommended at near maturity. Prune
infested parts preferably during summer. These should be placed in pits constructed at one corner
of the orchard. Allow branches to dry until the parasites escape. Burn the remaining debris.

Diseases of flowers and fruits

1 Athracnose . The disease is caused by the fungus, Colletotrichum gloeosporoides. It occurs in all
mango growing areas and is considered as the most serious fungal disease of mango in the
Philippines. It attacks the different parts of the tree but major damage occurs at flowering and after
harvest. The disease is most serious during the wet season.
Symptoms on the flowers start as tiny black necrotic spots formed at the buds, florets, pedicels and
on the main and secondary stalks of the panicle. The disease forms brown streaks and result to
blighting of the flower clusters or entire inflorescence. Later, the flowers blacken and dry up. On
the fruits, infection occurs during fruit setting until are more half grown. The disease remains
dormant in immature green fruits and symptoms only develop when the fruit starts to ripen. Thus,
anthracnose is also called a post harvest disease. The latent infection is characterized by circular,
brown to black sunken spots on the fruit surface.
Prevention. The development of the disease is facilitated by high relative humidity within the tree
canopy. Prune trees after harvest to allow better light penetration, god air circulation and prevent
disease development. Practice sanitation by removal of dead and diseased branches and leaves,
brisking is also done to remove infected floral parts and morning dew deposits on the flowers
thereby reducing the sources of inoculums.
Control. Apply recommended fungicides to prevent or reduce flower and fruit infections. During
early inductions, fungicides can be mixed with inducers to suppress germination of fungal spores.
Bagging of fruits with materials saturated with fungicides reduces fruit infection. Subject newly
harvested fruits to hot water treatment at 52°C to 55°C for 10 minutes. Avoid the use of dry banana
leaves and rice straws as packing materials as they may contaminate the fruit with the fungus,
Aspergillus which causes fruit rot.

2 Stem end rot – It is considered next most serious post harvest disease to anthracnose, prevalent
during transport and storage. Infected fruit rots completely within 4-5 days and losses due to the
disease vary from 3-5 percent. This is a caused by the fungus Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Diplodia
natalensis). The germinated spores enter the fruit via exposed surface of the pedicel or bruised
portion of the ski. The damage is characterized by the appearance of dark discoloration starting
from the pedicel end of ripening fruit. Under warm and moist conditions, the lesion progress
rapidly and extends towards the distal end of the fruit. The affected skin turns dark-brown to
purplish black and the flesh becomes soft and watery.
Prevention. Prune dead/infected branches, leaves and pedicels to remove sources of inoculum.
 Spray recommended fungicides to prevent the incidence of the disease. Harvest fruits with about
1-2 cm of the pedicel retained and avoid bruising the fruit during harvesting and handling.
Control.Dip newly harvested fruits to hot water at 52°C to 55°C for 10 minutes. Fruits should be
packed properly in appropriate boxes or crates with lining and proper ventilation. Do not use
banana leaves or dried straws for lining.

3 Scab. It is considered as minor disease, mango fruits are seldom spared from the attack of the
fungus. This is caused by the fungus Elsinoe mangiferae Brit and Jenkins. On young fruits, infection
appears as grayish-brown spot with dark irregular margin. Affected fruits fall to the ground. As
the spots enlarge, the center cracks forming raised-fissured corky tissues. Generally, lesions are
skin-deep and do not penetrate the flesh, however, heavily-infected fruits have low market value.
Large spots may also affect the inner tissues. In moist weather, velvety, grayishbrown masses of
spores are produced in contrast to the pinkish anthracnose. Scab also attacks the leaves, twigs, as
well as the main and secondary branches of the panicle.
Prevention. Prune and collect damaged leaves and branches to reduce fungal spores. Apply
protectant fungicides a week after bud break, fruit setting and during fruit enlargement. Bag fruits
to reduce incidence of scab; bag should be properly shielded.
Control. Apply copper fungicides. Avoid mechanical injuries on fruits as they become more
susceptible to the fungus.

4 Sooty Mold. The causal organism is non-pathogenic because it feeds on the tissue surface and does
not enter the host. The fungus grows and gets its nourishment from honey dew, the excreta of
hoppers, mealy bugs, scales, and other sucking insects. The fungus grows as a thin, profuse, black
papery layer on mango leaves. Although no direct damage is done, the photosynthetic activity of
the leaf is adversely affected due to extensive growth of the fungus over the leaf area. The normal
flowering habit of the tree is affected. The fungus does not completely cover the surface of the fruit,
but it appears as irregular black spots starting from the base of the fruit. In some instances, stains
appear tear-like as the rain washes the spores down the fruit from the pedicel or twig. Affected
fruits are not fit for export.
Prevention. Destroy sucking insects by spray application of recommended insecticides. Bag fruits 45-55
DAFI.
Control. Control the insects which produce the honey dew. Wash and brush with water and soap the fruits
with sooty molds after harvest.

Gummosis (Root Rot, Crown Rot)- Infection is due to the fungus, Phytophthora palmivora, largely confined
to the bark and is conspicuous in the form of gum exudation. The decline cause of gummosis is slow,
although it can be very rapid on a susceptible host and under favourable conditions of temperature and
moisture. Gummosis attacks the trunk near the soil, larger main roots, and the fibrous or feeder roots. The
first symptom is a profuse gumming on the surface of the affected bark. The infection extends both
upwards and lateral. When scraped, affected part is brown in contrast to green healthy tissues.
Prevention. Prior to sowing, sterilize potting media to reduce source of infection as fungus is soil inhabiting.
Plant seedlings in well-drained soil and avoid injuring the root and the trunk cultivation. Practice proper
cultural management to ensure healthy and vigorous plant.

Control. Scraped infected bark and disinfect exposed wood by spraying 1% potassium permanganate
solution. Use standard trunk paint consisting of 2.5% Captan+2.5% Cupravit. If necessary, drench soil with
Ridomil (100mg/L) or Aliette to control disease.
 HARVESTING AND POST HARVEST HANDLING

Harvesting and postharvest handling are critical operations in preserving the quality of fruits, as such
utmost care should be emphasized
in these aspects.

Maturity indices. Maturity indices play an important role in determining the final quality of fruits to be
harvested. Only mature mangoes should be harvested to ensure better physical appearance and good
quality when fully ripe. On the other hand, immature fruits exhibit a greater tendency to loose moisture,
inferior quality and lack the aroma and flavor characteristics. To determine fruit maturity, a combination
of visual, computational and chemical methods may be used.

1. Days from flower induction (DAFI) is one of the most common ways and basis of
determining maturity of fruits. When trees are induce to flower early in season,
(August to November) the expected harvesting dates vary from 120 to 130 DAFI.
However, fruits mature earlier when induction is done late in season (December to
April) and harvesting is from 110 to 115 DAFI. Weather conditions such as
temperature and light intensity are important considerations.
2. The following physical attributes of the fruit are also a good indicator that fruits are
mature for harvests. a. Flattening of shoulders and fullness of cheeks.
b. Presence of “bloom” or powdery deposits present on the peel/ skin of the matured fruits.
c. Formation of yellow green color near pedicel and yellowing of pulp or the flesh.
3 Flotation method, a procedure to determine maturity of fruits which involves dipping of mango
fruits in 1 percent salt solution. Those that floats are usually considered immature while those that
sink are mature. In practice, a day before harvest 12 fruits are randomly picked.
Place them in 1 percent salt solution (100 g salt in 10 li water). If 9 fruits (75%) submerged in water
(sinkers), the entire fruit is ready for harvest.
4 Determining the total soluble solids (TSS) of the fruits. At harvest the fruit should have 7-8 oBrix
to be considered mature for harvest while at ripe stage, fruits with >15 oBrix TSS means that these
were harvested mature.

Harvesting. Mango fruits should be harvested at the proper stage of maturity to avoid problems
associated with moisture loss as well as shriveling of fruits. When immature fruits are harvested, these
ripen with inferior quality, lacking in aroma and flavor. The skin does not develop into full color and
the fruits are susceptible to physiological and pathological disorders.

Methods of harvesting
a. Handpicking is still the best method of harvesting fruits. In handpicking, harvester may use a
cutter shear to cut the pedicel of the fruit. In the absence of such, the harvester should pull the fruit
downward when harvesting in order that there would be a remaining pedicel on the fruit, thereby
minimizing latex flow.
b. Picking pole with cutting edge and soft net/basket is recommended in harvesting matured fruits
beyond reach. Most often, the harvester has to climb the tree with his pole and collect the fruits.
Harvested fruits should be placed in a small basket with linings and carefully lowered down for
subsequent transfer to suitable containers. Bruising associated with improper handling should be
avoided in order to maintain the good quality fruits. This is done by harvesting only 3 to 4 fruits at
 a time. Baskets that carry the fruits should also be lined with newspaper. Subsequent transfer of
fruits should be avoided.

Harvest fruits between 9:00 A.M. to 3:00 P.M. This is done to allow the tree and fruits to dry, minimizing
latex flow which causes staining of the fruit skin when fruits are harvested early in the morning.
Leaving short pedicel (2.0 - 5.0 cm) on the fruit helps/reduce and divert latex flow away from the fruit
surface. Inverting fruits with pedicel down on newspaper or suitable materials also minimize latex
staining of fruits.

Harvesting considerations

1. After harvest keep the fruit bags until sorting and washing
2. Keep harvested fruits in a shaded area and avoid contact of fruits on the ground
3. Collecting baskets (kaings) must be lined with newspaper, do not use banana leaves or rice stalks
4. The use of plastic crates lined with newspaper is encouraged

Minimizing latex stain

1. Trim stem close to the shoulder

2. Allow latex to drip for 20-30 minutes (stem-end down)
3. Dip freshly de-stemmed fruits in 1% alum solution

Postharvest Handling

a. Sorting, grading and classification. Sorting and grading operations are essential in the mango
commodity system to determine the marketability of the products. These activities can be done
either in the farm or packinghouse, manually or through the use of mechanical sorters. Injured,
undersized fruits and those with obvious defects should be sorted out in the farm to minimize
subsequent handling of the fruits for packing.
Harvested fruits are inspected and sorted as to size and quality (marketable and non-marketable.
Marketable fruits should be further classified into different sizes as follows: extra large (375 gm or
more), large (290 to 356 gm), medium (242 to 298 gm), small (190 to 240 gm) and super small (160
to 189 gm). Extra care should be considered in handling the fruits to avoid mechanical injuries. It
is also advisable to place graded fruits in suitable containers to minimize too much handlings.
Fruits should not be stocked/piled on the ground to avoid contamination from diseases
particularly fruit rot.

b. Packaging. Packaging is usually done in the farm after harvest for local market, however for
domestic and export market, packing is done in a packinghouse. One of the most important
functions of packaging is to protect and deliver the fruits to the consumers in the best possible
condition. Good packaging is necessary to preserve the quality of the produce. Mangoes are easily
bruised or crushed and once damaged, the rate of deterioration is increased and the self life is
shortened.

When bamboo basket (kaing) is used, this should be lined with newspaper and protected with
wooden planks during transport to provide protection for the fruits against compressiondamage.
It varies in sizes from big ones weighing 50 kg to small sizes weighing 35 kg. Bruising and other
 fruit injuries are common in fruits placed in kaings. To minimize this problem, bamboo baskets
should be lined with newsprint‟ s and over loading should be avoided. Organic materials such as
rice straw and banana leaves should not be used as they may contaminate the fruit with the fungus,
Aspergillus which is easily transferable to this fruits.

Plastic crates, wooden crates and fiber cartons are packing containers for export market. These are
durable, long lasting and provide maximum protection for the fruits. However, these are also
expensive compared to bamboo baskets. On the other hand, fruits intended for export are packed
following the specific requirements of importing countries. In general, fruits are either placed in
cell type boxes or wrapped singly at 4 to 10 kg capacities per packaging. Fruits may also require
specific treatment as needed such as hot water treatment (HWT) and vapor heat treatment (VHT).

Postharvest treatments. To minimize infection of diseases (anthracnose and stem-end rot) and to
disinfest harvested fruits from insects (fruit flies) postharvest treatments are essential. In addition,
several importing countries also require specific treatments to kill the different stages of fruit flies which
might be carried during shipment.

a. Hot water treatment (HWT). In order to minimize infection from anthracnose and stem-end rot
which soon develop after harvest, hot water treatment (HWT) is recommended. Dip newly
harvested fruits (less than 24 hrs after treatment) in hot water (52 to 55 C) for 10 min. This is
followed by hydro-cooling in tap water for another 10 minutes prior to air drying. Hot water
treatment will remove latex stain provided fruits are treated immediately after harvest. Rinse
in running water for 10 min, air dry and pack.
For HWT to be effective follow the temperature requirements strictly. Temperatures below are
ineffective and do not kill the fungus while the temperatures above can cause peel scalding. The
time required for dipping the fruits should be also strictly observed.
b. Modified hot water treatment. It is also used to disinfect fruits from anthracnose and stemend
rot, however the amount of treatment time is lesser compared to HWT. Newly harvested fruits
are dip in hot water at a temperature of 60 oC for 1 minute, followed by air drying then packing.
c. Extended hot water dip treatment (EHWT). Fruits for export to China are treated using
extended hot water dip treatment for fruit fly disinfestations. Fruits are dipped in heated water
until pulp temperature reached 46°C and held for 15 min. This is followed by air cooling for 10
min, hydrocooling for 30 min, air drying and packing. The total treatment time is 2 hrs.
d. Vapor heat treatment (VHT). This is used to disinfest the fruit from fruit fly eggs and larvae
and a requirement of countries like Japan, Australia and USA. Fruits subjected to VHT are held
for 1 hour at relative humidity of >90percent and exposed to a temperature of 46°C for 10 min.
The treatment normally requires 4 hours duration. After which, the fruits are wrapped
individually and placed in carton boxes.
e. Irradiation. It is an alternative to VHT but specifically designed to disinfest mango against
mango seed and pulp weevils by subjecting the fruit to irradiation using 300 Gy of Cobalt 60.
According to researchers, the use of irradiation in fruit disinfestations is rapid, convenient and
safe, however the facility is costly.

Ripening. Natural ripening of fruits at room temperature is still the best. Usually it took 5 to 10 days
from harvest to reach full ripening of fruits. Mixing of ripe and unripe fruits is also practice by the
farmers for even and transfer ripening. On the other hand, most retailers hasten ripening of mango
 fruits by placing calcium carbide, (CaC2) at the rate of 5 to 6 gm per kg of fruit. Carbide is wrapped with
newspaper and placed with the fruits in the container.
However, best results are obtained by allowing the fruits to ripen naturally at half-ripe stage and treat
with carbide at 1.25 g/kg fruit. This modification in the treatment results to the complete ripening of
fruits 8 days after harvest.

Storage. Mango should be stored in an area free from decaying plant waste, foul smell and must be fully
sanitized to avoid contamination. Low temperature storage can extend the green shelf life of mango.
However, chilling injury becomes a problem during prolonged storage. At 12 to14 °C at 85 to 95%
relative humidity, „Carabao‟ mango can be stored safely for three weeks but an additional 5 days is
required at room temperature to fully ripen the fruits.

For distance markets the Postharvest Training and Research Center of UPLB has developed a technology
for long term storage of fruits using Controlled Atmosphere (CA). The packed fruits are stored at a room
with 6% oxygen and 4% carbon dioxide. The temperature in the room must be maintained at 13 oC. CA
could retard fruit ripening up to 28 days.

Transport. Careful handling during transport of fruits is essential to minimize damage due to bumps. It
is also important not to overstocked the vehicle and the fruits are covered against sunlight and
unexpected rain. For long distance travel especially using RORO facilities, refrigerated van is
recommended for it is more convenient and practical.

CASHEW PRODUCTION GUIDE

In the Philippines, cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is called kasoy or balubad

in Tagalog or Balogo in Ilokano. It originated from north-eastern Brazil and was
brought to the Philippines in the 17th Century. In 2008, top cashew nut
producing countries were Vietnam (1,190,000 mt), India (665,000 mt), Nigeria
(660,000 mt), Côte d‟ Ivoire (280,000 mt) and Brazil (243,253 mt).

The cashew plant is an evergreen tree that grows up to 12 meters tall, with a
dome-shaped crown or canopy bearing its foliage on the outside, where flowers
and fruits are found.

The growth of the taproot reaches a depth of 1.5 – 2 times the height of the plant
during the first 4 months. Extensive lateral roots are formed later and reach far
beyond the canopy spread of the tree during the first year of growth.
In mature trees, the root volume is generally confined within the tree canopy.
Very few laterals are formed beyond the 6 meter drip-line of the tree.

The fruit has a kidney-shaped nut, about 3 cm x 1.2 cm attached to a much

enlarged and swollen pedicel or receptacle forming the fruit-like cashew apple.
The cashew apple is pear-shaped, 10-20 cm x 4-8 cm, shiny, red to yellow, soft
and juicy. The seed is kidney-shaped, with reddish-brown testa, two large white
cotyledons, and a small embryo. The kernel remaining after the removal of the
testa is the cashew nut of commerce.

Cashew is one of the many fruit species in the Philippines that is gaining
importance both in agriculture and commerce. This promising fruit crop has a
strong export potential. Its commercial production could be an important source
of income for many Filipino farmers in the countryside. Cashew is practically
grown throughout the country. In 2010, there were 28,114 hectares planted to
cashew with 3,783,210 bearing trees. Total production reached to 134,681.24 mt.
Preliminary estimate on the average production was P479.00 per hectare (Bureau
of Agricultural Statistics).

The present production of cashew is mainly for local consumption although there
is a big potential market abroad for the kernel and other cashew products.
Unfortunately, except for a few enterprising individuals very few have invested
capital in exploiting the potential of the cashew tree as an industrial crop.

The cashew industry when fully developed and industrially exploited can help
alleviate many of our socio-economic problems by way of offering employment to
the many unemployed Filipinos. A cashew cottage industry for instance, can
easily absorb idle manpower in the rural areas since only the normal skills of the
workers are required in processing many cashew products.

7. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

The cashew tree is a very versatile crop that has many economic uses. The uses of
the cashew tree, particularly the fruit, are varied and profitable. As an edible
product, the cashew fruit or “apple” can be eaten as fresh fruit and can be
processed into jams, candies, juice and juice blends and chutneys. The juice
extract can be processed into wine that are of high export value. The apple is also
utilized as animal feeds. The cashew nuts or its kernels are consumed primarily
as “dessert nut” used in bakery goods and confectionary and as flavoring
ingredient for ice cream.

The shell of the nut is known to be a good source of an important liquid known in
commerce as “cashew nut shell liquid” (CNSL). CNSL is a dark brown, sticky
liquid extracted from the honeycomb structure of fresh shells. It is one of the few
major economic source of natural phenols. This phenolic compound when
properly processed yield chemicals which when added to other chemical products
resulted to industrial products with great diversity of uses for typewriter rollers,
automobile brake lining, clutch facings (exceedingly resistant to high friction and
temperature), magneto armatures for airplane, floor tiles and cold-setting
cements. CNSL is also used in the preparation of laminating resins, varnishes,
baking enamels, adhesives, inks, paints and for finishing and waterproofing for
paper and cardboards.

The cashew tree has been found to be a suitable reforestation species. When
planted in critically denuded areas, the tree can substantially reduce soil erosion,
slow down the flow of water and minimize flash floods.
 8. PRODUCTION

Cashew is a drought resistant crop. It can grow successfully in areas with a very
distinct dry season or where the annual rainfall is as low as 50 cm. It can
likewise grow well in areas with high levels of rainfall (as much as 350 cm
annually) provided the soil is well-drained.

VARIETIES

At present, only few cashew varieties had been identified. These varieties are as
follows:
1. Guevarra (Acc. No. 1849)
This variety is a local seedling selection from Western Luzon Agricultural
College (WLAC) in San Marcelino, Zambales. It is a prolific bearer which
produces yellow apple with a medium nut containing about 2.7 g kernel.

2. Nagbayto (Acc. No. 1851)

This is a seedling selection from WLAC in San Marcelino, Zambales. It is
moderately prolific. Its apple is yellow and the nut contains about 2.9 g
kernel.
3. Makiling (UPL-Cs-1)
The first locally named cashew cultivar which originated from Rio Frio,
Columbia. This variety is fairly productive and produces a big, red skinned
apple with a large nut containing about 3.2 g kernel.

The National Seed Industry Council (NSIC) also approved several varieties of
cashew namely:
1. Farinas (NSIC 95 Cs 01)- owned by Federico Fariñas of San
Marcelino, Zambales
2. Dayap (NSIC 95 Cs 02) – owned by Alvino Dayap of San Antonio,
Zambales
3. Makiling (NSIC 97 Cs 03) – owned by Dept. of Horticulture-UPLB
College, Laguna
4. Zambales Beauty (NSIC 01 Cs 04) – owned by RMTU, San
Marcelino, Zambales
5. Magsaysay (NSIC 01 Cs 05) - owned by RMTU, San Marcelino,
Zambales
6. DLR (NSIC 01 Cs 06) - owned by RMTU, San Marcelino, Zambales
7. Gene (NSIC 01 Cs 07) - owned by RMTU, San Marcelino, Zambales
8. Red Princess (NSIC 01 Cs 08) - owned by Institute of Plant Breeding,
UPLB-CA
 There are NSIC-accredited cashew
NSIC 1995 Cs02 Dayap Alvino Dayap, San Antonio, Zambales

NSIC 1995 Cs01 Fariñas Federico Fariñas , San Marcelino,

Zambales

PSB 1991 Cs01 Guevara/WLAC 501 Mr. Noli Corpuz, Western Luzon Agric'l
Colleges, New Lawin, San Marcelino,
Zambales

PSB 1991 Cs02 Mitra/R2T4-QP Palawan Seed Farm, Palawan

PSB 1991 Cs03 R2T3-QP Palawan Seed Farm, Palawan

NSIC 2001 Cs04 Zambales Beauty RMTU, San Marcelino, Zambales

NSIC 2001 Cs05 Magsaysay RMTU, San Marcelino, Zambales

NSIC 2001 Cs06 DLR RMTU, San Marcelino, Zambales

NSIC 2001 Cs07 Gene RMTU, San Marcelino, Zambales

NSIC 1997 Cs03 Makiling UPLB

NSIC 2005 Cs08 Red Princess UPLB

In addition to the above mentioned varieties were those approved and released by
the Philippine Seed Board (PSB) namely:
1. Guevarra - owned by Institute of Plant Breeding/Western Luzon
Agricultural College
2. Mitra (R2T4-QP) - owned by Palawan Seed Farm
3. R2T3-QP - owned by Palawan Seed Farm

SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

1. Soil – Cashew is a very hardy plant and can grow well on almost any
type of soil. It is reported to grow successfully on soils so shallow and
impervious where other fruit trees species have failed. It also grows well on
sandy soils as in the experience in Zambales. However, a deep (at least 3-4
m) loam soil with adequate moisture and good drainage offers the best
opportunity for higher yield.
 2. Climate – Cashew is a drought resistant crop that it can grow
successfully in areas with a very distinct dry season or where the annual
rainfall is as low as 50 cm. It also grows well in areas of much higher
rainfall (as much as 350 cm annually) provided that the soil is welldrained.
A climate with a distinct wet and dry season and a temperature ranging
from 26 0C to 32 0C and dry atmosphere ranging from 70-85 percent
relative humidity offers the most suitable condition which is favorable for
flowering and fruit setting.

3. Elevation – Cashew can be grown successfully at lower elevation

ranging from 700-800 meters above sea level particularly in areas with
Type 1 climate. Flat to rolling lands of second growth forest where the soil
is too poor for other fruit crops can be planted advantageously to cashew.

CULTURAL PRACTICES OF CASHEW

A. NURSERY SITE

The nursery site should be well-drained and exposed to sunlight. It should have a
good source of irrigation water for the maintenance of the plant materials. It
should be protected against stray animals.

B. NUT SELECTION

Nuts for planting should be obtained from mother trees of known performance.
They should be fully matured and of high density (heavy) grade to ensure good
germination and vigorous seedlings.

Seeds are water tested; those that sink are chosen since they have higher viability
and germinate quickly.

C. SOWING THE SEEDS

Cashew seeds expire easily. Dried and newly collected seeds must be
sown/propagated as soon as possible to prevent loss in viability. They are sown
on individual polyethylene bags containing an equal mixture of fine sand and
organic matter.

Seeds are sown 5-10 cm deep with stalk end facing upward in a slanting position.
This prevents the emerging of cotyledons at the soil surface from being destroyed
by rats, ants, snails and birds.

D. CARE OF SEEDLINGS
Seeds will germinate within 1 to 2 weeks after sowing. Excessive watering should
be avoided. If seedlings are weak and stunted, urea solution at the rate of 10 tbsp
per gallon of water should be applied.

The seedlings must be properly taken care of until they are ready for field
planting or for use in asexual propagation (grafting). Seedlings are ready for field
planting when they have a height of 20 - 50 cm.

E. PROPAGATION

Cashew can be propagated sexually or asexually. Sexual propagation is done by

sowing the seeds directly on individual polyethylene bags. It should be done
during the dry season so that the seedlings could be planted in the field at the
start of the rainy season.

Asexual propagation can be done through airlayering, inarching, marcotting or

grafting. Grafting is the best method for large scale asexual propagation of
cashew. With cleft grafting, the rootstock is cut in traverse section (crosswise) and
the remaining stem is cut longitudinally (lengthwise). The scion taken from a
selected mother tree is cut into the shape of a wedge and is inserted in the
rootstock. The union of the scion and the rootstock is tied with a plastic strip to
ensure good grip.

Up to 100 percent success has been obtained with 10-week old seedlings.

The use of young seedlings of about two months old result in more rapid takes,
and the plants are ready to be planted at the age of 3 ½ months.

E. LAND PREPARATION

For commercial purposes, the land should be thoroughly prepared. Plow the area
2-3 times followed by harrowing until the desired tilth of the soil is attained. It
should be done before the start of the rainy season. For backyard or reforestation
purposes, just underbrush the area and if possible collect all cut grasses, shrubs
and other rubbishes. These can be used as mulch for the newly planted
seedlings. The soil should be cultivated properly in order that the seeds may be
sown with the required depth or that holes may be dug deep enough to bury the
ball of seedlings.

F. DISTANCE OF PLANTING

Distance of planting varies according to the purpose for which the trees are
planted. For reforestation, 3m x 3m is recommended to encourage early shading
and to aid in smothering weeds.
For commercial plantings 6m x 6m can be used. A wider spacing can be adapted
if intercropping is planned. A high density planting gives more kernel per hectare
up to 7 years. Low density planting gives less per hectare but more per tree.

F.1 Quincunx (15m x 15m)

An alternative and easier method is the quincunx arrangement and should

also be tried.

F.2 Square

The simplest recommended planting distances are 9m x 9m at the less

fertile lower slopes and 10m x 10m at the more fertile lower slopes.

G. LINING, STAKING AND DIGGING HOLES

Rows of cashew should be properly laid out by placing markers between rows and
between hills in a row.

The holes should be dug a month before planting of seedlings. The holes should
have a dimension 20cm x 20cm.
 H. PLANTING TIME

In places with distinct dry and wet seasons, planting is best done at the start of
the rainy season.

I. PLANTING

There are two methods of establishing cashew that may be employed. These are
direct seeding and transplanting of seedlings or asexually propagated materials.

In direct seeding, 2 to 3 seeds are planted 5-10 cm deep with the stalk end facing
upward and in a slanting position. This prevents emerging cotyledons at the soil
surface from the ravages of field rats, ants, snails and birds.

Seeds are planted 30 cm apart in a triangular position when 3 seeds are used.
The seeds will germinate 1-2 weeks after sowing provided that the soil has
sufficient moisture.

Thinning should be done leaving only the most vigorous plant to develop 1-2
months from germination. Thinning is preferably done during the start of the
rainy season.
Always take note that when transplanting seedlings or asexually propagated
materials, remove carefully the polyethylene plastic before setting the seedlings in
the holes or remove the bottom portion of the bag to give way for the expansion
and growth of the root system.

Fill the holes with surface soil first and firm the soil at the base of the seedlings
carefully allowing the roots to remain in as natural as possible.

FIELD MAINTENANCE

A. WEEDING AND CULTIVATION

The plants should be cultivated and free from weeds at a distance of 1 meter
around the trunk. The orchard should be weeded as often as necessary. Cut
grasses should be left in the area between the hills to dry and to be used later for
mulching. Mulching helps conserve moisture around the plant during the
summer months, keep down the weeds and increase the amount of humus in the
soil when it decays.

B. IRRIGATION

Irrigation is needed during the first dry season. In the subsequent years, when
the root system has already been established and has reached the layer with
sufficient moisture, irrigation is applied only when necessary. For better yield, it
is advisable to irrigate the field regularly especially during summer.

C. INTERCROPPING AND COVERCROPPING

A considerable part of the land is available for intercropping during the early
years after the establishment of the cashew orchard.

To provide sufficient protection from heavy growth of weeds and grass, the spaces
between rows may be used for planting cash crops. This would enable the grower
to earn additional income.

Annual crops can be interplanted between rows of cashew provided they are not
closer than 2 meters from the cashew tree.

When growing of intercrops are no longer feasible, the field should be planted to
leguminous covercrops. The planting of covercrops will prevent further soil
erosion, conserve moisture, and add organic matter to the soil. The area within 1
to 1 ½ meters from the trunk should be kept free from weeds and covercrops
should not be allowed to cling to the tree.
 D. PRUNING

Little pruning is practiced in cashew. However, it may be necessary to prune

regularly to get the desirable shape of the tree and to facilitate cultural
operations.

It is also necessary to remove the diseased and infected branches and

unnecessary water sprouts.

Cut wounds should be properly treated with chemicals (coal tar) to facilitate
healing and avoid infections.

E. FERTILIZATION

It is advisable to apply fertilizers especially when soil analysis dictates specific soil
nutrient deficiencies.

The general recommendations are the following:

1. Seedlings – At planting time apply complete fertilizer (14-14-14)

before the seedlings are set in the holes at the rate of 200-300 g/plant.

2. Young trees – Apply complete fertilizer at the rate of 300-500 g/tree

plus Urea (45-0-0) at the rate of 200-300 g/tree.

3. Bearing trees – Apply complete fertilizer (14-14-14) at the rate of 1.5

to
3.0 kg/tree.

Recommended rate of fertilizer application is applied two times a year. One half of
the total requirement per tree should be applied at the start of the rainy season
and the remaining half should be applied toward the end of the rainy season.

On established trees, fertilizer should be dug with a depth of 5-10 cm. The
fertilizer is then distributed equally. Cover the holes/canal properly with soil to
prevent the fertilizer from evaporating or from being washed out by heavy rains.

9. CROP PROTECTION

CONTROL OF PESTS

Among the major pests of cashew are:

 A. Twig borer (Niphonoclea albata N./ N. capito P.) - This insect pests
are common during the dry season. The adult beetle girdles the small
branches causing them to dry up or break and drop to the ground. Its
creamish larvae bore into the pith of the branches. As they feed, they move
downward until they pupate. All affected twigs and small branches may
eventually die.

Control Measures: To prevent or minimize damage, spray the whole canopy

with Karate at ¾ to 1½ tbsp per 16 liter water and other pyrethoids.
Repeat application after one month. Infected portions have to be pruned.

B. Mealybugs (Gray Mealybugs – F. virgata) – These pests feed on the

flushes by sucking the plant sap. Affected parts turn yellow, dry up and
eventually fall. Mealybugs also excrete a sticky fluid known as „honey dew‟
where the sooty molds grow. The latter covers the leaf area producing
black papery film on the surface. Sooty molds affect the photosynthetic
activity of the leaves.
Control Measures: Pruning creates an environment that is not favorable for
the growth of mealybugs. Mealybugs have symbiotic relationship with red
ants. They provide food for the red ants through their excreta (honey dew).
In return, ants offer protectionand distribute the insect to the different
parts of the tree. Spray the red ants with Malathion (1½ to 3 tbsp per 16
liter water), Decis (1 to 5 tbsp per 16 liter) and Karate (¾ to
1½ tbsp per 16 liter) to prevent the spread of mealybugs

C. Thrips (Red-banded thrips – Selenothrips rubrocinctus Glard) - These

pests suck the sap of young leaves and shoots. When severe infestations
occur, the tree is weakened and the leaves and fruit may fall prematurely.

Control Measures: Both young and adult insects are sensitive to light.
Prune crowded branches to allow light penetration, which create an
environment less favorable for their development. Many insecticides are
effective in the control of thrips, provided these are sprayed in fine mist
and sprayed in fine mist and sprayed underneath the leaves where they
hide

D. Leaf Miner (Acrocercops syngramma M.) - Young plants in the

nursery and in the orchard are more affected by these pests. Caterpillars
of this silvery gray moth mine through the tender leaves, thus, severely
damaging them.

Control Measures: Spray recommended insecticides at manufacturer‟ s

recommended dosage as soon as infestation is detected on new leaves.
 E. Tea Mosquito (Helopeltis antonil S.) - A reddish brown mirid bug
which normally appears at the time of emergence of new growth and
panicles. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from tender nuts.

Control Measures: Spray insecticides at manufacturer‟ s recommended

dosage on new flushes and inflorescence preferably in the afternoon. A
third spray may be done at the time of fruit setting to reduce immature
fruit drops.

F. Saw-Toothed Grain Beetle (Cryzaephillus surinamensis L) - This pest

is known to attack the nuts during storage.

Control Measures: Nuts should be thoroughly dried and placed in air tight
containers. Surface treatment is recommended. For finished products,
fumigation is recommended.

G. Slug Caterpillar (Lamantridae spp.) - The caterpillar feeds on the

leaves causing semi-defoliation.

H. Termite - Termites attack the roots and the trunk of cashew trees.
They burrow on the bark of roots and branches especially of old trees.
They build their soil mounds or nest on dead parts of the tree. Control
Measures: Paint or brush the trunk with used diesel oil to discourage the
movement of termites from the soil to the upper parts of the tree. Prune
crowded branches to allow light penetration. This will provide unfavorable
environment for the multiplication of the insect. Termites have soft bodies
and die upon exposure to sunlight. Insecticides can be sprayed to control
termites. Be sure to destroy the earthen tunnels before applying
insecticides. For termite mounds, make a hole on one side, deep enough to
reach the nest and pour kerosene.

I. Scale insects – Leaves of cashew are readily infested by this pest

causing them to dry and fall. At high populations tree canopy turns black
due to the growth of sooty mold.

Control Measures: Young scale insects are carried and distributed by red
ants. To prevent infestation, destroy red ants by spraying Malathion at 1.5
tbsp per 16 liters water, Decis at 1-5 tbsp per 16 liters water or Karate at
¾-1.5 tbsp per 16 liters water. Prune and burn heavily infested plant parts
and leaves.

CONTROL OF DISEASES

The major diseases of cashew are as follows:

A. Dieback or Pink Disease - This disease is caused by fungus
Corticium salmonicolor B. that usually occurs during the rainy season.
Affected shoots initially show white patches on the bark; a film of silky
thread or mycelium develops. Later, the fungus develops a pinkish growth
which is the spores that make the bark split and peel off. Affected shoots
start drying up from the tip.

Control Measures: All possible sources of inoculum should be removed.

Affected shoots are pruned. The tree should also be sprayed with fungicide
at manufacturer‟ s recommended dosage.

B. Anthracnose - This disease is caused by the fungus Colletotrichum

gloeosporioides that usually infect tender leaves, shoots, inflorescences,
young fruits (apples) and young nuts. This disease is most prevalent when
there is excessive rainfall coinciding with the appearance of new growth
and flowering. Infected parts in its early stage show shiny, watersoaked
lesions which later turn reddish brown. At the lesion site, resinous
exudation can be seen. As the disease progresses, the lesions enlarge in
size, all affected tender leaves wrinkle and the young apples and nuts
become shriveled. Inflorescences become black.

Control Measures: Prune crowded branches to allow light penetration and

good air circulation that will create an environment unfavorable for disease
development. Remove all infected parts (source of inoculum) before
spraying the tree with fungicide at manufacturer‟ s recommended dosage
of application. Ring cultivation can lessen relative humidity underneath
the trees, which discourage germination of spores.

C. Damping-off - This disease is caused by fungus Fusarium. This

disease normally occurs in the nursery and affects cashew seedlings
especially when the soil medium gets too wet.

Control Measures: Since the fungus is soil inhabiting, sterilize the potting
media by pouring boiling water to reduce the source of infection before
bagging the seedlings. Water the plants only when necessary. Avoid
planting the seedlings in water logged areas.

D. Gummosis (Phytophthora palmivora) – This fungal disease causes

stem bleeding, crown and root rot.

Control Measures: Plant cashew in well-drained soil. Spray Ridomil MC at

100 g per 16 liters of water.
 E. Leaf Spot Disease (Pestalotia sp) – is characterized by the formations
of an ash-white covering on the surface of the attached figure. The
pathogen infects young growing tissues on all aerial parts of the cashew
tree including shoots, leaves, flowers apples and nuts. Infected young
leaves are deformed, infected flowers often become necrotic, fail to open
and frequently abscise.

Control Measures: Cultural control measures include sanitation and

thinning of cashew trees.

HARVESTING AND POSTHARVEST HANDLING

MATURATION PERIOD

Some cashew trees start to bear few fruits after 2 to 3 years from planting. During
the 4th or 5th year, harvest can already be considered profitable. Full bearing
capacity of the tree is reached in the 10th to 15th year and continues for another
20 years or more. The tree may have a life span of 30 to 40 years or more.

MATURITY INDICES AND HARVESTING

Harvest season of cashew may start at the month of February up to June

reaching its harvest peak at the month of May. Cashew trees bear flowers as early
as November up to February or March. The fruits (apples) are ready to be
harvested when they become yellow or red and the nuts turn ash gray in color.

Harvesting cashew is normally done manually. This is done either by collecting

the fallen fruits or by using a pole with a wire hook attached to its end. If the
apples are to be used, the pole should be provided with a net or cloth bag to its
end. Nuts are removed/detached from the apple and dried for two or more days
under the sun.

PACKAGING

Wipe ripe fruits with the use of soft rag after harvesting. After which, individual
fruit is put in a cellophane and placed on winnowing basket/kaing for sale in the
market. Individual cellophane prevents bruise/damage in order that the sap will
not leak.

For each product like fresh juice, cashew liquor and roasted white kernel are
packed according to the kind of processing.

DRYING OF CASHEW NUTS

Nuts should be dried under the sun immediately after harvesting. The first few
days after harvesting are critical leading to irreparable damage if nuts are not
dried properly.

Spread out the cashew nut on clean, sun-warmed drying grounds or in any
suitable container in layers not more than four inches thick. The nut should be
constantly raked with a wooden tool for uniform drying. Use a wooden scoop to
prevent and lessen damage to the nuts. Drying may take two to three days so the
nuts should be heaped and covered overnight. Heap while the nuts are still warm.

Cashew nuts to be stored for longer time must be dried for about two to three
days to reduce its moisture content to about 7 percent. Properly dried nuts
produced a brittle, rattling sound when shaken together.

STORAGE

Dried nuts should be stored properly. They are kept in sacks or bags for use
throughout the year. Storage experiment have also indicated that nuts kept about
70 percent relative humidity at 27 0C are subject to the attack by microflora
including members of the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium,
Pascilomyces, Penicillium and Rhizopus which results to discolored kernels. The
maximum safe moisture content of raw nuts for storage has been found between
8.2 to 9.2 percent, this being in equilibrium with surrounding air at 70 percent
relative humidity at 27 0C.

To ensure safe storage under any circumstances, the storeroom must have a
sound roof, walls and dry floor. It should be kept clean so as not to attract insect
pests.

10. PROCESSING

PROCESSING OF CASHEW NUTS

Cashew nut kernels are the chief products of economic importance obtained from
the cashew nut tree.

A. Kernel extraction

Cashew processing starts from the recovery of kernels from raw nuts.
Mechanized equipment for kernel extraction have already been developed
and are being utilized in other countries but these are not yet available
locally.
In the Philippines there are several methods of extracting or shelling kernels
from cashew nuts, however most operations are done by hand.
A.1.1 Roasting

Roasting renders the shell brittle and loosens up the kernels inside. In
the Philippines, the open-pan roasting method is used for small quantities
of kernels. Here, the raw nuts are placed in a shallow container over an
open fire with constant stirring until the shell gets brittle.
Another roasting method is the placement of the raw nuts in a wire
mesh container suspended over a low burning fire until all the nuts are
brown. Water is splashed over the nuts to cool them after which they
are carefully pounded to extract the kernels.

A.1.2 Shelling

The roasted nuts, while still warm are cracked or pounded carefully
with a wooden mallet or a small hammer and the kernel is extracted
manually using any pointed device. In some countries, shelling
machines are used.

In shelling roasted nuts, the use of wood ash is extremely important.

The nuts, the sheller‟ s hands, the shelling mallet and the striking post
should be dusted with wood ash or cooking oil. Wood ash protects the
shellers fingers from the irritating action of the CNSL and helps keep
the kernel clean.

A.2.1 Shelling without roasting

Most of the cashew processors use an improvised nut cutter called

„kalukati‟ in shelling. This consists of a blade with one end attached
to a steel platform held in place by wooden support. The dried nut is
placed in a steel platform with the concave side down. Then the blade
is gradually lowered until the nut is cut longitudinally into halves,
exposing the kernel. The kernel is then extracted from the shell with
the use of a pointed device. This practice requires agility and speed
since a worker can shell two sacks (50 kg) of raw nuts per day.

B. Drying
The shelled kernel should be dried either under the sun or placed in an
oven to loosen the skin and facilitate the removal of the testa.
Sundrying is hardly adequate but it produces a fine white kernel
without risk of scorching. Small processors dry the shelled kernels
under the sun for two to three days. Artificial drying is essential for
factory operations where shelled kernels are dried in an oven at 50 – 55
0C for 6 to 8 hours.
 The drying operation reduces the moisture content and kills the insects
present should there be any infestation.

Dried kernels are brittle and susceptible to breakage so careful

handling is necessary.

C. Peeling

Peeling refers to the removal of the brownish, thin covering of the

kernel called testa either by hand or with the use of knives. Hand
peeling is preferred to avoid kernel damage like chips, cuts and
blemishes. Peeling is followed by winnowing or the application of air
pressure to get rid of the testa and recover all cashew kernel pieces

D. Sorting and grading

This involves separation of kernels into certain grades. The simplest

operation involves separation into wholes, pieces, browns and refuse.
Classified as refuse are the very fine pieces which cannot be peeled
while the badly diseased kernels and pieces are the browns.

PROCESSING OF CASHEW KERNELS

Processed cashew kernels available locally are either in plain roasted form or
salted, deep fried. They are packed in aluminum foil or in oriented polypropylene
(OPP) foil at 100 g per pack and are vacuum-sealed.

Some local processors packed whole roasted white kernel in one kilo, ½ kilo and
¼ kilo in cellophane and properly sealed. These are distributed to cashew
processors for further processing.

Classification and Grading

In the absence of a local standard, the Philippines follow the international

standard, wherein cashew kernels for exports are generally sorted and classified
into the following grades;

1. cashew kernels (whole)

2. scorched cashew kernels (whole)
3. dessert cashew kernels (whole) and
4. cashew kernels (white pieces)
PROCESSING OF CASHEW APPLES

The swollen peduncle of hypo carp, commonly known as cashew apple, is

considered as a „false fruit‟ . The spongy pulp has a must-like fragrance. Fairly
juicy and sweet, the ripe cashew apple can be eaten as fresh but is not popular
due to its astringent taste.

Researchers at the Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) found that its juice can be
made into fine fruit wine. Moreover, with improved processing techniques to
remove its astringent and acrid substances, a number of products can be
prepared from the fruit such as juice, jam, pickles and candies.

RAMBUTAN PRODUCTION GUIDE

Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum Linn.) is a fruit of minor importance but very

wellknown because of its attractive colors and exquisite taste. Over a considerable
period, rambutan has acquired immense popularity as a seasonally available fruit in
many countries of tropical Asia, and it is widely grown in both home gardens and
commercial orchards. It has been cultivated in Thailand and Malaysia and is now one
of the leading economic fruit crops of Thailand, the major rambutan producing country
in the world (Tindail, 1994).

The rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.), a tropical fruit tree that belongs to
Sapindaceae family includes about 125 genera and more than 1000 species of shrubs
and trees which are widely distributed throughout the tropics and warm regions. In the
Philippines, this family is represented by about 33 genera and 124 species. The name
rambutan is derived from the Malay word “rambut” which means “hair” and generally
describing rambutan as a hairy fruit. In the Philippines, rambutan is also locally known
as “usan”, “usau” or “usare”. Lychee (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) and longan (Euphoria
longana Lam.) are common botanical relatives of rambutan that also produce edible
fruits.

Rambutan is a native of the Malay Archipelago and has spread and distributed in all
countries in tropical Asia. It has been introduced in the Philippines in the form of seeds
during the prehistoric times and was early found wild in Palawan, Sulu and Basilan. It
was once only a wild fruit in the Southern Philippines until good varieties were
introduced making this fruit better known in the country. It has been grown mainly as
a backyard tree until asexually propagated plants of outstanding cultivars from Jakarta,
Indonesia were introduced which then made commercial orchards to be set up in some
places, notably Laguna, Davao, Oriental Mindoro and Bukidnon. These cultivars were
the “Seematjan”, “Seenjonja” and “Maharlika” which are now grown in commercial scale
in many parts of the Philippines.
 Recent statistic report revealed that the Philippines has a total area of 5,743.08 hectares
planted to rambutan with a volume of production of 12,743.16 metric tons (BAS, 2010).
Among the sixteen regions of the country, CALABARZON and SOCCKSARGEN ranked
first and second, respectively, in terms of area planted and volume of production (Table
1).

Table 1. Area planted to rambutan and volume of production by region,

Philippines (BAS 2010).
Region Area Planted Volume of Production
(ha.) (ton)

CAR 32.00 43.30

Ilocos Region 35.11 69.20
Cagayan Valley 65.00 433.65
Central Luzon 8.00 27.00

CALABARZON 1628.00 4384.35

MIMAROPA 675.00 361.96

Bicol Region 16.00 20.87

Western Visayas 73.12 194.43

Central Visayas 44.60 83.67

Eastern Visayas 17.00 16.56

Zamboanga Peninsula 385.00 923.99

Northern Mindanao 185.75 368.86

Davao Region 739.00 1833.06

 SOCCSKSARGEN 1357.00 3844.15

CARAGA 455.00 117.60

ARMM 27.00 20.51

Total 5743.08 12743.16

11. Botanical Description

The rambutan is a medium-sized tree. Plants of seedling origin grow from 1220
m high or more and have a mainly erect habit with a straight, high-branched trunk and
a dense, relatively compact structure. Asexually propagated trees are much smaller,
growing to 4-12 m high and have either erect or lax and spreading forms. The trunk
diameter may vary from 40-60 cm. The branches which form a relatively compact crown
are covered with numerous lenticels.

The alternate and compound leaves have a robust, reddish brown, much thicken
rachis 7-30 cm long and 2 to 4 pairs of leaflets. The leaflets are 10-20 cm long and 210
cm wide, sub-opposite or alternate, short-stalked, elliptic to obovate with obtuse or
bluntly acuminate apex, thinly leathery, smooth and dark green above and pale green
and glaucous beneath. The petioles are thick and 0.4-1.0 cm long. The young leaves
are soft, light green or pinkish, and hairy along the veins.

The widely branched, many flowered inflorescences are produced mostly on shoot
tips, erect, rusty pubescent, and are 15-20 cm long. The flowers are greenish white,
short-petioled, apetalous, faintly odorous, and are covered with very fine short hair. The
pedicels are thin, greenish yellow and densely rusty pubescent. The calyx is cupshaped,
4- to 6-lobed, yellowish green and rusty tomantose outside and beset with short white
hair within.
The flowers are either male, with only the stamens being well developed, or the
hermaphrodite. The hermaphrodite maybe either basically female, with small stamens
and anthers which do not dehisce or male, with undeveloped stigmas.

Male trees that bear only the male flowers are not productive and are usually
propagated through seeds. The male flowers are borne in clusters on terminal panicles.
They are greenish yellow without any petals. There is no functional ovary and flowers
with 5, 6 and 7 stamens are found in each panicle. An average sized panicle has
approximately 3,000 buds, and at the peak of its blooming period, up to 500 flowers
may open each day.

The hermaphrodite flowers are borne on the same panicles as of the male flowers
and which are also arrange in same manner but with only 3-5 buds being produced in
each node. Each panicle may contain 200-800 flowers. An average panicle may bear
approximately 500 flowers and, at peak blooming, approximately 100 flowers may open
each day. The predominantly female flowers have a well-developed bilocular ovary
topped with a bifid stigma.

The fruits are produced in terminal, loose cluster of 10-13 fruits. They are globose
or ovoid, about 4-5 cm long and 2.5-3.7 cm wide and turns from green to various shades
of yellow or red as they ripen. The fruit is surrounded by short to long, soft spines. The
pearly white translucent aril or the edible portion of the fruit varies its flavor from very
sweet to distinctly acid, maybe thin or thick, and maybe dry to very juicy. It adheres to
the seedcoat which may or may not be easily separated from the seed. The single seed
is oblong or ovoid, flattened, 2.5-3.5 cm long and 1.0-1.5 cm wide.

12. Economic Uses

Rambutan fruit is commonly eaten out-of-hand after merely tearing the rind open, or
cutting it around the middle and pulling it off. The peeled fruits are occasionally stewed
as dessert. They are canned in syrup on a limited scale. In Malaya, a preserve is made
by first boiling the peeled fruit to separate the flesh from the seeds. After cooling, the
testa is discarded and the seeds are boiled alone until soft. They are combined with the
flesh and plenty of sugar for about 20 minutes, and 3 cloves maybe added before sealing
in jars (Morton, J. 1987). However, in the Philippines, these can be consumed similarly
as fresh or in excess, peeled and placed in a refrigerator to prolong shelf life. The seeds
are sometimes roasted and eaten although they are reputedly poisonous when raw.
There are traces of an alkaloid in the seed, and the testa contain sapponin and tannin.
The seeds are said to be bitter and narcotic. The fruit rind also is said to contain toxic
saponin and tannin. Rambutan is also rich in nutrition (Table 2).

Table 2. Nutritional composition of rambutan per 100 g edible

portion.
Constituents Quantity Constituents Quantity

Water (g) 82.9 Fiber (g) 1.1

Protein (g) 0.9 Vitamin A (IU) 4

Fat (g) 0.1 Vitamin C (mg) 31

Carbohydrates (g) 14.5 Energy (kJ) 264

Source: PROSEA 2 – Edible Fruits and Nuts)

Some parts of the plant such as roots, leaves, fruits and seeds have medicinal uses.
Eating five fruits in a day can seriously decrease the chance of cancer. Rambutan fruit
is very effective in lowering blood pressure. It is also said to heal dysentery and diarrhea
effectively. The leaves are also used as cataplasm that cure headaches and the bark as
astringent for treating diseases of the tongue. The roots are boiled and used as
medication for fever.
 The edible fat or oil contained in the seeds is suitable for culinary purposes and in the
manufacture of soap and candles.

The wood is hard, heavy, red to reddish-white and is very durable. It is used in building
construction although it is liable to split during drying.

The rambutan tree is an attractive tree – in foliage, flower and fruit – and thus make a
beautiful ornamental in the home garden.

13. Varieties

As mentioned earlier, three outstanding varieties from Jakarta, Indonesia were first
introduced in the country such as the „Maharlika‟ , „Seematjan‟ and „Seenjonja‟ which
adapted well under Philippine conditions and at present are accepted as standard
varieties. These varieties are described as follows:

1. ‘Maharlika’ – The tree has a beautiful broad crown and produces

mediumsized to large, globose fruits 4.3-5.1 cm long, 3.5-4.6 cm wide and
2945 g in weight. The red spines are widely spaced, pliable, fine and 1.01.2
cm long. The pericarp is thin and remains yellow for a long , then changes to
red.
The aril is about 0.5 cm thick, pearly white, firm, medium juicy, subacid to
sweet and with rich and very good quality. It is loosely attached to the seed
with part of the seedcoat adhering. The edible portion is about 50% of the
fruit by weight. The seed is oval to oblong, compressed laterally, about 2.5-
2.7 cm long and 1.5-1.8 cm wide.

2. ‘Seematjan’ – The tree has an open crown and long, flexible branches.
The fruits are large, dark red when ripe, ovoid or egg-shaped, 4-6 cm long,
3.2-4
cm wide and 35-52 g in weight. The spines are fine and about 1.8 cm long.
The pericarp is thin. The aril is shiny, pearly white, thick, firm, very sweet.
Medium juicy to slightly dry and separates easily from the seed with greater
parts of the seedcoat adhering to the flesh. Quality is excellent. The edible
portion is about 48% of the fruit by weight. The seed is oblong to ovoid,
slightly compressed laterally and about 2.3-3.0 cm long and 1.3 -1.6 cm wide.

3. ‘Seenjonja’ – The tree is smaller than the other 2 varieties and has a lax
crown. The fruits are small, 3.8-4.2 cm long, 2.5-3.5 cm wide and 18-23 g in
weight and nearly ovoid. The pericarp is thin, dark wine red with fine spines
about 0.8-1.0 cm long. The aril is translucent, rather thin, very sweet, juicy,
melting and adheres very firmly to the seed. Quality is good. The edible
portion is about 40% of the fruit by weight. The seed is oblong, about 2.6 cm
long and 1.3 cm wide.
 Other outstanding varieties introduced in the Philippines from Thailand which
originally came from a seedling tree from Penang, Malaysia and are now popularly and
widely grown in the country:

1. ‘Rongrein’ – The tree is medium-sized, with a rounded crown, leaves oval

in shape, short and thin, with rounded apex and short petiole. The fruits are
relatively large, 50-55 mm long; 38-40 mm wide and weigh 40-50 g, the shape
is ovoid to globose (Fig. 1). The pericarp is thin, with long, coarse spinterns
which changed from green to dark red at ripening, remaining green at the tips.
The aril is pearly white, thick with a good flavor and easily separates from the
seed. The single seed is oblong to elliptic and laterally compressed. The total
soluble solids ranged from 18-21oBrix.

2. ‘Sri Chompoo’ – The tree has a dense crown and develops a large canopy.
Leaflets are elliptic and larger than those of Rongrein. The globose fruits are
large, 50 mm long and 39 mm wide and weigh 28-35 g (Fig. 2). The pericarp
is thin and pink to pinkish red or dark when ripe. The aril has a good flavor
and the seed coat separates easily from the seed. The total soluble solids vary
from 18-20oBrix.

Listed below are outstanding selections of rambutan varieties found in the

country and registered in the Philippine Seed Board (PSB) or presently called as the
National Seed Industry Council (NSIC), to wit:

1. Aguilar 1 (NSIC 2003 Rm 07) – This variety was owned by the Aklan State
University, Banga, Aklan. The tree is strong with a spreading growth habit.
It bears fruit annually from September to October with an average yield of 225
kgs for full grown trees. The globose to ovoid fruit is large, 4.7 mm long, 3.9
mm wide, and weighs 32.3 g. The tough and leathery pericarp or skin is thin
at 2.88 mm, weighs 14.18 g and turn reddish orange when ripe. The aril is
pearly white, smooth and firm, thick, juicy, sweet and has a superior eating
quality. It has 21.9 o Brix total soluble solids. The slightly flat seed is small,
2.3 mm long, 1.3 mm wide and weighs 3.42 g. The fruit has an edible portion
of 45.54%.

2. Roja (NSIC 2003 Rm 06) – This variety was owned by Mr. Mario Tenorio
of Calauan, Laguna. The tree is strong with semi-erect growth and a prolific
bearing habit. It bears fruits annually from July to September with an average
yield of 70-80 kgs. The oblong fruit is large, 50.40 mm long, 45.60 mm wide,
and weighs 45.85 g (Fig. 3). The pericarp that turns red when ripe is leathery
and thin (2.7 mm) with long spines. The white flesh is smooth, sweet and
juicy. It has a total soluble solids (TSS) of 20.88 o Brix. The oblong seed
weighs 3.61 g with a length of 29.35 mm and a diameter of 16.25 mm. The
fruit has a an edible portion of 55.94%.

3. Amarillo (NSIC 2003 Rm 05) – This variety was owned by Dr. Ponciano
Batugal of UPLB, College, Laguna. The tree is strong with a semi-upright
growth habit and has a prolificacy of bearing. It bears fruit annually from
July to December and yielded 50-60 kgs at 10 years old. The oblong fruit
weighs 34.12 kgs with 52.65 mm length and 36.89 mm diameter (Fig. 4). The
attractive yellow skin is thin and leathery with long spines. The white flesh is
smooth, sweet and juicy. It has a total soluble solids (TSS) of 22.25 oBrix.
The oblong seed weighs 2.32 g with 25.40 mm length and 14.60 mm diameter.
The fruit has an edible portion of 60.67%.

4. Maharlika (PSB 1992 Rb 03) - Fruit is globose, medium-sized to large, 4-

5 cm long and 3.5-4.5 cm wide, and weighs about 30-45 g (Fig. 5). Skin is
thin, with short fine spines and turns from yellow to wine red when ripe. Flesh
is pearly white, firm, thick, medium juicy, sweet, and with rich flavor and very
good eating quality. It separates readily from seed but with a greater part of
the seed coat adhering to the flesh. Seed is oval to oblong and is compressed
laterally.

5. JMG-R3 (NSIC 1995 Rm 01) – The tree which came from seed of unknown
source was originated by Mr. Jaime M. Goyena, Sr. of Lamot II, Caluan,
Laguna. At 15 years old the tree is 7 m tall, strong with spreading growth
habit and prolific. It bears fruits regularly on July to September. The ovoid
fruit is large, 5 cm long, 3.9 cm wide, and weighs 41.3 g (Fig. 6). The skin
that turns red when ripe is tough and leathery, 3.3 mm thick and has shorter
spines. The thick, pearly white flesh is smooth and firm, very sweet, juicy and
easily separates from the seed. Its total soluble solids (TSS) is 27.2 oBrix. The
seed weighs 2.8 g with 2.5 cm length and 1.5 cm diameter. The fruit has an
edible portion of 42.2%.

6. JMG-R5 (NSIC 1995 Rm 02) - The tree was originated from seed of
unknown source by Mr. Jaime M. Goyena, Sr. of Lamot II, Caluan, Laguna.
At 15 years old the tree is 7 m tall, strong with spreading growth habit and
very prolific. It bears fruits regularly on July to September. The ovoid fruit is
large, 5.5 cm long, 4.4 cm wide, and weighs 50.0 g (Fig. 7). The very attractive
skin that turns deep red when ripe is tough and leathery, 3.8 mm thick and
weighs 25.4 g. The thick, pearly white flesh is smooth and firm, very sweet,
very juicy and easily separates from the seed. Its total soluble solids (TSS) is
26.0 oBrix. The flat seed weighs 2.9 g with 2.6 cm length and
1.6 cm diameter. The fruit has an edible portion of 43.4%.
7. Goyena R13 (NSIC 2002 Rm 04) - The tree was originated from a
seedling by Mr. Jaime M. Goyena, Sr. of Lamot II, Caluan, Laguna. At 15
years old the tree is 10 m tall, strong with spreading growth habit and very
prolific. It bears fruits regularly on July to October. The fruit is ovoid in
shape, 47.0 mm long, 40.2 mm wide, and weighs 36.9 g (Fig. 8). The deep red
skin when ripe is tough and leathery, 3.81 mm thick and weighs 17.0 g. The
thick, pearly white flesh is smooth and firm, sweet, moderately juicy and easily
separates from the seed. Its total soluble solids (TSS) is 20.94 oBrix. The seed
is oblong, weighs 2.69 g with 22.8 mm length and 15 mm diameter.

8. Acc. Sp. (NSIC 1996 Rm 03) - This variety was originated through seed
by Mr. Cirilo R. Balagapo, Jr. of Tacloban City. The tree is very prolific and
high yielding. At 4 years old, it yielded 220 kgs per year. It has a high edible
portion and the testa does not adheres to the flesh (Fig. 9).

9. DES 1548 (PSB 1992 Rb 07) – This variety is a local selection of the
Bureau of Plant Industry‟ s Davao Experiment Station (DES) which is now the
BPIDavao National Crop Research and Development Center (DNCRDC). The
fruit weighs 27 g with an edible portion of 37% and a total soluble solids (TSS)
of18.00 oBrix (Fig. 10).

10. DES 1550 (PSB 1992 Rb 04) - This is a selection of BPI-DES or

BPIDNCRDC introduced from Thailand. The fruit weighs 30 g with an edible
portion of 49% and a total soluble solids (TSS) of 16.00 oBrix (Fig. 11).

11. DES 1551 (PSB 1992 Rb 05) - This is a selection of BPI-DES or

BPIDNCRDC introduced from Thailand. The fruit weighs 30 g with an edible
portion of 52% and a total soluble solids (TSS) of 19.00 oBrix (Fig. 12).

12. DES 1554 (PSB 1992 Rb 06) - This is a selection of BPI-DES or

BPIDNCRDC introduced from Thailand. The fruit weighs 35 g with an edible
portion of 49% and a total soluble solids (TSS) of 18.00 oBrix (Fig. 13).

13. Seematjan (PSB 1992 Rb 02) - This variety originally came from
Indonesia and was registered in the Philippine Seed Board through Mr.
Rodrigo F. Dizon of Bago Oshiro, Davao City in collaboration with BPI-
DNCRDC. The fruit is large, 38 g in weight with an edible portion of 43%, and
sweet with a total soluble solids of 19.00 oBrix (Fig. 14).
Culture and Management
Soil and Climatic Requirements
Rambutan can be grown successfully in a wide range of soil but thrives well on deep,
clay-loam or rich well-drained sandy loam rich in organic matter with soil pH ranging
from 4.5-6.5. Areas with an evenly distributed rainfall and short dry season is
generally preferred. Good soil drainage is essential. Hot regions with temperature
ranging from 22-30OC is favorable. It grows well in an elevation of 500-600 m above
sea level.
Preparation of Planting Materials
Select well-developed seeds from mature ripe fruits for rootstock. Remove
mucilage by rubbing with fine sawdust, ash or old newspaper, wash and air dry. Sow
seeds using coco coir, sand, or saw dust or loamy soil in seed beds. In 24 days, the
seeds germinate and having two false leaves is appropriate for pricking in 7‟ ‟ x11‟ ‟
or10”x 8”x 002 polyethylene bags. Put shading materials in open area to avoid stress
and water regularly or as the need arises. Apply 20-30 g of Urea fertilizer or starter
solution one month after transplanting. Rootstocks are ready for asexual propagation
or cleft grafting in 6-8 months.
Asexual Propagation
Cleft grafting is the most popular method of asexual propagation in rambutan used
among propagators in the Philippines as it is less wasteful of propagating materials
and requires lesser mastery of techniques than inarching, marcotting and budding.

Steps in cleft grafting:

1. Chose a healthy seedling rootstock about 6-8 months old or 7-10 mm in
stem diameter.
2. Cut off the shoot of the rootstock and make a vertical cut about 2.0 – 2.5
cm. to make a V-shaped opening for the scion.
3. Get a scion from selected outstanding tree with stem size approximately
matching that of the rootstock.
4. Cut the basal end of the scion into a gently sloping wedge about 2 cm long.
5. Insert the scion onto the opening of the rootstock.
6. Wrap the graft union and the budstick with thin plastic strip and cover
with ice candy wrapper.
7. Six months after grafting the plant is ready for field planting.

Notice: It can be approach grafting, patch budding or marcotting.

 Grafted Rambutan seedling
Land Preparation
For backyard planting, dig a hole large and deep enough to accommodate the root
system of the planting material. For medium to large scale operation where the land
has been previously cultivated, the land should be thoroughly prepared - one plowing
and one harrowing is usually enough. For areas that have not been planted before,
clear or underbrush and remove all tree stumps, woody shrubs, perennial weeds and
large stones. Plow and harrow the area several times to loosen the soil, however, doing
twice or thrice maybe enough. Complete the plowing and harrowing operations several
months before planting.
Planting
Lay-out and stake at a distance of 10 m between hills and 10 m between rows with a
plant population of 100 trees per hectare or at a distance of 8 x 10 m with 125 trees
per hectare following either the square or triangular system of planting. Prepare holes
30 cm in diameter and 30 cm in depth. In each prepared hole, place 1 kg of organic
fertilizer or composted animal manure 1-2 months before planting. Plant the seedlings
by slowly removing their plastic bags without breaking the ball of soil and then set in
the previously prepared holes with their stems straight and properly aligned with the
other plants in all directions. Carefully cover the hole with top soil and press gently.
Plant at the onset of the rainy season to ensure that sufficient water is available to the
plants for a longer period. Water the plants immediately after planting if no rain is
expected.

56
 A rambutan tree was planted my house in Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya.
Care and Maintenance

1. Shading
Provide temporary shade to the newly field planted rambutan seedlings to protect
them against the intense heat during dry period until such time they are already
wellestablished. Coconut fronds supported with four stakes arranged in a square
around the plant is adequate.

2. Intercropping
During the early years, cultivate the spaces between trees in newly established
rambutan orchards by intercropping with annual food crops. This has the
advantage of producing a profitable yield before the rambutan trees bear fruits and
at this early stage of the orchard, food crops such as beans, leafy vegetables and
rootcrops will not compete with the young rambutan trees. Aside from the added
income that will be generated, the intercrops also serve as shade to the young trees.
Rambutan trees can also be profitably grown under coconut and may also be
intercropped with coffee and cacao.

3. Cover-cropping
When it is no longer feasible to grow food crops as intercrops, due to the
development of the tree canopies, leguminous cover crops such as the tropical
kudzu or the Centrosema pubescens can be planted. Establishment of cover crops
between rambutan trees gives the orchard several benefits: soil erosion is prevented;
soil moisture is retained and the trees will benefit from the additional nitrogenous
compounds formed due to the activity of the nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium and other
57
 bacteria; reduce orchard maintenance cost; prevent the growth of weeds; and
reduce pest infestation.

4. Mulching
The application of dried weeds, grasses and other organic residues as a mulch around
the base of both young and mature rambutan trees is a common means of retaining
soil moisture, preventing weed growth, reducing soil temperature and through
incorporation of decayed residues, soil fertility is increased. Place the mulches
around the base of the tree 10-15 cm deep, leaving the area around the base of the
trunk without mulch.

5. Irrigation and Drainage

Rambutan is a drought sensitive plant that requires plenty of water during its growing
period. Water the plant constantly during the first dry season after planting for
this is the most critical period of the plant. Provide irrigation even if the trees are
already established and bearing, especially during the dry season for leaf necrosis
which is a characteristic of potassium deficiency is aggravated by moisture stress.
Plant cover crops and apply mulches for these are helpful means of conserving
moisture in the soil.

6. Fertilization
Prior to crop establishment, it is important that the field or the area to be planted will
be analyzed for its soil fertility so as to know the appropriate fertilization scheme of
a certain crop. Get soil samples, air dry and pulverized, then submit to the Bureau
of Soils for analysis. However, in the absence of soil analysis, the following
fertilization schedule can be applied to rambutan (Table 3).
Table 3. Fertilization schedule for rambutan.
Year Kind of Fertilizer

Organic Complete (14- Urea (45- Muriate of Potash

14-14) 0-0) (0-0-60)
1 1kg/tree 50 g/tree 200 g/tree

2 4 kgs/tree 300 g/tree

3 10 kgs/tree 500 g/tree

4 20 kgs/tree 700 g/tree 200 g/tree 200 g/tree

5 30 kgs/tree 1 kg/tree 300 g/tree 300 g/tree

6 30 kgs/tree 2 kgs/tree 500 g/tree 500/g tree

7 30 kgs/tree 2 kgs/tree 700 g/tree 700 g/tree

8 and 30 kgs/tree 2 kgs/tree 1 kg/tree 1 kg/tree

onwards

58
 Prior to field planting, apply organic fertilizer basally on prepared holes. Based on
the fertilization schedule presented in Table 3, side-dress organic fertilizer such as
chicken dung or cow manure at least once a year and inorganic fertilizers in two
equal installments. Start the application of inorganic fertilizers one month after
planting and every 6 months thereafter. Fertilization rates are increased gradually
as the trees grow bigger.

7. Training and Pruning

Generally, matured rambutan trees rarely require extensive pruning, however, they
have a tendency to form a dense central crown if unpruned. Thus, in the early
stages of growth, it is essential to ensure that the eventual framework of the
branches will grow in a manner which will produce optimum yields. Train the
young trees to develop a strong framework by allowing 2 or 3 wide-angled branches
in the main trunk, and later allow lateral branches to develop from these main
branches.
A popular system of training used particularly in Thailand and Malaysia is yearly
pruning of the dominant or apical shoots and lateral branches during the early
stages of growth resulting to a formation of a very compact and relatively lowgrowing
bushy tree. By this system, harvesting is relatively easy and wind damage to the
branches is rare.
Once the main framework of the tree has been established, pruning is limited on
removal of water sprouts, infested and dead branches or twigs, those that are
crossing with other branches and those low-lying branches which are likely to bend
in the ground as they become heavy with fruits. After harvesting, prune the
remaining panicle to induce a vigorous canopy regrowth.
6. Weed Control
Weeds are serious problem in many orchards as they compete with young trees
in the nutrients and moisture available in the soil. They can be controlled by
mechanical and chemical means. Use mechanical grass-cutter, grasshook, sickle
or slashing bolo to underbrush the orchard. Maintain tree sanitation by regular
ringweeding. Use of herbicide is the fastest way of controlling weeds, however, it
may lost the essential microorganisms in the soil. Cover-cropping and mulching
are also very effective means of controlling weeds and besides they can enhance the
fertility of the soil.

14. Pest and Disease Management

Insect Pests
Fruit Borer (Cacao Pod Borer), Conopomorpha cramerella Sn. This is known as
the most serious pest of cacao in South-East Asia which is also found infesting the
rambutan fruits. No external symptom could be seen in a fruit but when the rind is
removed, the aril and sometimes the seed are seen to be covered with unsightly larval
59
exudates. The insect laid eggs singly on the surface of the fruit and hatch within a
week. The larvae penetrate on the fruit skin and feed on the rind, the aril and
occasionally on the seed. The usual point of entry is near the top of the fruit, close to
the peduncle. The larvae are sometimes found tunneling between the rind and the aril.
Infestation is likely to increase as fruit ripening progresses.
As the fruits reach maturity, spray at intervals of 14 days, trichlorphon, carbaryl or
pyrethrins at a concentration of 1%. At least 2 weeks should elapse between the final
spray application and consumption (Shamsudin and Chettanachitara, 1987).
Leaf-eating Loofer (Catterpillar), Oxyodes scrobicula Fabr. This is an important
pest in many rambutan producing areas. Leaves and young shoots are eaten by the
young caterpillars. Mature caterpillars eat both the young and the mature leaves.
Control the pest by spraying with insecticides such as Malathion, Carbaryl or Pyrethrin.
Thrips (Thrips spp.). This pest makes young shoots stunted and young leaflets
become curled, florets often fall and severely reduces fruit setting. When young fruits
are attacked, the spinterns are stunted and turn brown. Severe thrip infestations
usually occur early in the dry season. Control the pest using systemic insecticides
that will not damage the inflorescences.
Mealy Bug (Planococcus citri Risso or P. lilacinus Ckll.). This pest is common on
rambutan in the Philippines. The young mealy bug (crawler) feeds on the sap exuded
by the fruit. At maturity, they become fairly static, secreting a white, floury mass
which covers the body surface and gradually spreads over the surface of the fruit skin
and spinterns. The white secretions later become blackened due to the proliferation of
the Sooty Mould fungus (Meliola nephelii) which feeds on the secretions. This can be
controlled or prevented by good cultural practice but chemical application to control
ants which promote the spread of the mealy bugs is necessary if the infestation is
severe. This include white oil emulsion and lime-sulfur (Shamsudin and
Chettanachitara, 1987).

Mites (Tetranychus spp.). Development of clusters of yellow spots on both the upper
and underside surfaces of the leaves is a symptom and damage caused by the minute
green and the red mites. Inflorescences may also be infested affecting fruit set. Leaves
turn red, wither and fall. Spraying with pesticide such as Dimethoate is necessary
only when infestation is severe.

Diseases
Powdery Mildew (Oidium nepheli Hadwidjaja). This is a common disease of
rambutan that usually infects the plant in all stages of growth, particularly the young
and actively growing vegetative and reproductive parts which are more susceptible
compared to those matured ones. The spores are air-borne that particularly infect the
young leaves, inflorescences and young fruits. The mycelia appear as a white-yellow
dusty deposit on the leaves and inflorescences. Floret drop may follow infection of
flowers. Infected fruits also exhibit a white dust-like deposit due to mycelial growth on

60
the skin, and stunted spinterns that later become brown. Normally, infected fruits do
not drop but remain on the tree in a stunted condition.
Follow good orchard management including pruning and effective weed control, for
penetration of air and sunlight within the tree canopy and removal of possible host
plants, can reduce the incidence. Spraying with fungicides such as Benomyl and
Mancozeb are effective control of the fungus especially when applied during the early
stages of infection.

Vein Necrosis (Xanthomonas nepheliae Barr.). Affected trees have either dried
leaves or are lefless. Infected trees can be easily recognized by the presence of dark
necrotic areas along the veins and angular spots on the leaf blades. Leaf buds and
young leaves are particularly susceptible. Outbreak of the disease generally coincide
with wet periods. Affected trees should be uprooted and burned.
Sooty Mold (Meliola nephelii). This is a fungal infection came after insect damage
and often transmitted by wind. The leaves and fruits damaged by the sucking insects
such as mealy bugs, scales and red mites may become infected with the fungus. Both
leaves and fruits develop a black, sooty mold on the surface because the fungus uses
the sugars in the “honeydew” excreted by the insects as food. The fruit aril is not
affected but the external quality of the fruit is not good and unacceptable in the market.
Good cultural practices can reduce the level of insect infestation. However, for serious
outbreaks, chemical spraying to control ants, scales, mites, and mealy bug infestation
using carbaryl and mineral oil supplemented with benomyl and other fungicides is
effective.
Leaf Spot (Phomopsis sp.). Necrotic spots with yellow margins appear on the leaves
which later turn brown. The lower mature leaves are most likely to be infected. Control
the disease by spraying with fungicides such as mancozeb.
Through integrated pest and disease management approach, these pests and diseases
problems on rambutan can be controlled or prevented.

1. Cultural control - Regular pruning or removal of dead twigs and

branches, and water sprouts to allow air sunlight to penetrate within the
tree canopy so as to minimize or prevent the incidence of pests. Maintain
the cleanliness or sanitation of the tree by regular weeding to eliminate
weeds that may become hosts of insect pests.

2. Biological control - This is the use of biological control agents or

beneficial insects that may help protect the plants against harmful insect
pests. An example are the ladybird beetles which are voracious predators of
aphids,mites, scales, mealybugs, whiteflies and small caterpillars.
3. Chemical control - Apply chemical control whenever necessary. Make
sure that chemicals or pesticides to be sprayed are safe to the environment,
compatible or not harmful to the beneficial insects present in the orchard,
for they might kill or eradicate those biological control agents. Carefully
61
 apply chemicals with well calibrated spray equipment to avoid crop damage,
excess residues and off-site pollution, and rotate the kinds of chemical to be
used to avoid pest’s resistance.

4. Monitoring - Regular monitoring on the status of the crop is very

important to determine when the pest’s problem occurred and the damages
done, and so that immediate action would be undertaken.

15. Harvesting and Postharvest Handling

Asexually propagated trees may start to bear fruits 3-4 years after planting while
seedling trees on the other hand, may take 5-6 years.
Rambutan fruits are already ripe when they change their skin color from green to
yellow or red. However, determination of the optimum time for harvesting is
complicated by the fact that fruit maturity of rambutan is not uniform since clusters
on the same tree and even fruits within a cluster do not ripen evenly. On any given
tree, a period of 30 days is required for all the fruits to attain maturity. Thus,
harvesting is done selectively or by priming which may give the advantage of extending
the market season and avoiding surplus of fruits of mixed maturity. For a
mediumsized rambutan orchard, harvesting 3 times per week is usually practiced.
For short trees, harvest rambutan fruits manually by cutting the clusters using a
sharp knife or pruning shear and for tall trees use a long pole with a hook on the top
end. Gather harvested fruits in kaing or big bamboo basket and bring to a shaded
area where they will be sorted. Sort out or grade the fruits based on size and degree
of ripeness. Pack fruits in ventilated cartoon boxes or kaing lined with banana leaves
or old newspapers.
16. Storage
Ripe rambutan fruits under ordinary room condition are highly perishable and seldom
remain marketable after 3 days from picking. To prolong the marketability of the fruits
for about 8 days, place them in a sealed or perforated polyethylene bags. However,
fruits may still be marketable for 12 days in sealed polybags and 10 days for perforated
ones if placed in a storage temperature of 50oF. Lower temperatures cause chilling
injury of the pericarp and spines although eating quality remains acceptable. A relative
humidity of 95% is best for the storage of rambutan since lower relative humidities
may cause the fruits to shrivel and decay.
17. Marketing

Rambutan is usually marketed as fresh fruits in by weight basis from the

farmers/fruit growers to the wholesalers/traders, retailers and consumers. Since
rambutan fruits are highly perishable, these are commonly sold in the local markets.

The most common practice of marketing rambutan fruits is by contract wherein the
contract buyer is either responsible in managing the rambutan trees while fruits are
still unripe until such time they are harvested, or contract buyer buys only the fruits
when ripe and also takes charge of the harvesting operation. By these systems of
62
marketing, the tree or orchard owner does not incur any harvesting and marketing
costs. Other marketing options are to sell the fruits directly to traders or wholesalers
who came to the farm at farmgate price; deliver the fruits in fruit stands at wholesale
price; or the owner market or retail the fruits directly to the consumers.

18. Costs and Return

Tables 4 and 5 show the estimated volume of production and the estimated costs
and returns of a one-hectare rambutan orchard for a period of ten years. Appendices
1a and 1b show the establishment and management operation costs from preparation
of planting materials up to marketing.

LANZONES PRODUCTION GUIDE

The lanzones (Lansium domesticum Correa) is one of the most wholesome fruits in the
tropics.In the Philippines, it is a very popular dessert fruit because of its sweet to
subacid taste that consumers do not seem to tire of eating. However, the milky juice
which exudes from the skin and its bitter seeds sometimes deter people outside the
tropics from eating lanzones.

The crop originated from the Malay peninsula and had been introduced in the
Philippines during the prehistoric times. It has spread to many parts of the country
covering Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Recent statistics showed that the Philippines
has an area of 20,504.8 hectares planted to lanzones consisting 2,131,196 bearing trees
63
which produced 49,500 metric tons in CY 2010 (Table 1).Among the sixteen regions of
the country, the Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) ranked first in
terms of area planted, number of bearing trees and volume of production. Although
lanzones is one of the most neglected fruit crops in the country, it isconsidereda
promising fruit because of itsgreat potential in the local market

Table 1.Area planted, number of bearing trees and volume of production of lanzones in
the Philippines by region, CY 2010.
Area Planted No. of Bearing Volume of Production (MT)
Region (ha) Trees
CAR 26 2,055 16.6

Ilocos Region 7.8 183 1.26

Cagayan Valley 27 2,490 84.75

Central Luzon 6 1,912 11.96

CALABARZON 4,321 492,226 1,006.72

MIMAROPA 325 10,932 156.57

Bicol Region 34 4,319 8.11

West Visayas 486 41,302 546.90

Central Visayas 98 20,399 162

Eastern Visayas 187 13,379 719.54

Zamboanga Peninsula 1,936 142,605 11,652.45

Northern Mindanao 3,345 303,855 4,779.15

Davao Region 2,123 299,868 3,951.7

SOCCSKSARGEN 1,318 79,750 930.93

CARAGA 832 22,520 193.85

ARMM 5,433 693,521 25,277.80

TOTAL 20,504.8 2,131,196 49,500

64
19. Botanical Description

The lanzones is a slender and fairly tall tree, 15-30 cm high, with a straight trunk
that measures 20-30 cm or more in diameter, slender, upright branches, and an open,
irregular crown. The leaves are compound, alternate, 30-40 cm long, and bear 5 to 7
leaflets. The lanzones is a cauliflorous plant and its many-flowered inflorescence are
borne either singly or in groups of two or more on the trunk and large, leafless branches.
The flower buds are numerous and are widely distributed. The fruits are borne in loose
or compact bunches, 10-20 cm long, with each bunch carrying 5-25 or more fruits. The
round to oval fruit is a berry with 1-3 seeds, enveloped by a fleshy aril.Some cells may
consist of aril tissue without developed seeds.The skin which is green when the fruit is
immature and which turns brownish yellow or dull straw as the fruit ripens, is fairly
thin but tough and leathery, and contains a milky juice which exudes abundantly when
the fruit is not fully ripe.

20. Food and Medicinal Values

Generally, Lanzones is cultivated for its fruits that contain 60-70% edible portion.
The fruit is always eaten fresh but seedless fruit may be bottled in syrup. The sweet to
sub-acid taste and the milky juice of the lanzones fruit contains high nutritional value
(Table 2). The sweet juicy flesh contains sucrose, saccharose, fructose and glucose
which is predominant.

Table 2.Food composition of lanzones per 100 g edible portion

Constituent Quantity Constituent Quantity

65
Edible portion (%) 68 Phosphorus (mg) 25

Moisture (%) 83.9 Iron (mg) 0.9

Food energy (cal) 57 Sodium (mg) 1

Protein (g) 1 Potassium (mg) 275

Fat (g) 0.3 Vitamin A -

Total carbohydrates (mg) 14.2 Thiamine (mg) 0.08

Fiber (g) 0.8 Riboflavin (mg) 0.04

Ash (g 0.6 Niacin (mg) 0.9

Calcium(mg) 19 Vitamin C (mg) 2

The lanzones possess some medicinal properties useful to mankind. Medicinal

uses of lanoznes are as follows:

1. A decoction of the astringent bark may be use for treating dysentery and
malaria;
2. The powdered bark may be used as a remedy for scorpion stings.
3. The resin from the bark may be prescribed for flatulence, swellings and as
an antispasmodic.
4. The dried rind of the fruit is burned to drive away mosquitoes, and
inhaling the smoke has a soothing effect on tuberculous persons.
5. Tincture prepared from dried rind is useful as an antidiarrhetic.

6. The bitter seeds when ground and mixed with water may be given to
children as vermifuge and antipyretic.

The sturdy wood can be utilized for charcoal, house post, tool handles and furnitures.

21. VARIETIES OF LANZONES

1. ‘Paete’- This variety is characterized having slender stem with upright

branches, shiny, dark green leaves. The fruit bunch is long, carrying 15-25 ovoid
thinskinned fruits which contain latex even if it is already ripe. The fruit size is
about 3.0 cm long, 2.5 cm in diameter and weighs about 14 grams. It has a
total soluble solidsof 16o Brix after 3 days from harvest. This cultivar is famous
in Camiguin, Gingoog, and Laguna Province. This variety is also common in
Davao region grown by indigenous people which they called it Buahan (Fig. 1).

66
 2. ‘Duku’ – This variety has spreading branches, often with dense dome-
shaped canopy, with roundish light green leaves. The tree bears shorter spikes,
usually with few fruits. The fruits are normally bigger and more roundish with a
thicker skin and free of latex when ripe. The fruit is about 3.5 cm long and 3.4
cm in diameter, weighs about 21 grams having 18o Brix total soluble solids. Its
thicker skin makes the fruit last for one week after harvest (Fig. 2).

3. ‘Longkong’– This variety is a natural cross between Duku and Paete

(Langsat). The leaves are shiny and dark green in color. The fruits which are
arranged in long compact clusters are aromatic, unique in taste and almost
seedless. The flesh is very sweet (18-20oBrix) when ripe. The fruit is roundish
to oblong with a fruit diameter of 3.2 cm and 3.8 cm long and weighs about 25
grams (Fig. 3).

4. Jolo – This variety is common in Mindanao most especially in Davao, Jolo,

and Zamboanga Peninsula. The fruit is bigger than Duku which is about 3.6 cm
long, 3.3 cm in diameter and weighs about 22 grams having 13oBrix total soluble
solids. It is sour compared to other commercial varieties but it is widely used as
rootstocks because of its bigger and viable seeds. This variety is also common in
the forest wherein the seeds are carried by fruit bats.

22. CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT

Soil and Climatic Requirements

Lanzones can be grown in many soil types but it perform better in sandy loam to clay
loam soil, well drained, slightly acidic (5.3 to 6.5) and rich in organic matter. It is a
tropical fruit and cannot tolerate low temperatures. It thrives in humid areas below an
elevation of 1,000 meters above sea level. Areas at sea level are best. The tree needs
ample amount of water after a couple of dry months to stimulate flowering. Sometimes
the flower buds are held dormant for 1-2 years depending on the environmental
condition.

Preparation of Planting Materials

Seed Preparation and Germination

Jolo and Duko variety of lanzones can be utilized as rootstock because of its
bigger and viable seeds. Seeds from ripe fruits are harvested and extracted after soaking
in water for 1-2 days to soften the aril. The aril and mucilages are easily removed by
scrubbing with the use of a fish net. Discard the small seeds that are less than one
gram. Soak the viable seeds in fungicide solution, air dry and sow in a shaded seedbed
or pots containing coir dust as growing medium. Seeds will germinate within 2-3 weeks.

67
Transplanting and Care of Seedlings

Lanzones seeds are polyembyonic and produce 2-3 seedlings per seed. Choose the
bigger seedling with 2 pairs of leaves and transplant in 7 X 11 polybags containing 50%
garden soil, 25% decomposed rice hulls, and 25% decomposed chicken dung. Arrange
the bagged or potted seedlings in rows and in blocks with 50%-70 % shading using fish
nets to avoid wilting and scorching of leaves. Regular watering is necessary especially
during dry period to avoid stunted growth of the seedlings. After a period of time the
plastic bags are loosened due to the decomposing rice hulls, therefore it is advisable to
add garden soil mixed with decomposed chicken dung. The seedlings can be asexually
propagated within 7-12 months from transplanting.

Method of Propagation

A. Sexual Propagation

Lanzones may be propagated by seeds; in fact most farms with matured-bearing trees
in Laguna, Oriental Mindoro, Jolo, Basilan, Zamboanga, Osamiz, Misamis Oriental and
Davao Region are seedlings derived materials. In using seeds as planting materials for
production purposes, the seeds should be selected from desirable mother trees that
bear sweet fruits and a regular bearer. A good example for seedling tree is using seeds
of Duku and Longkong. The disadvantage of planting a seedling is the longer period of
juvenility that most seedling derived plants bear flowers within 10-15 years from
planting.

B. Asexual Propagation

Lanzones are commercially propagated by cleft grafting utilizing an 8-12 months old
rootstock and a scion from registered mother trees. Cleft grafting is best done towards
the end of the rainy season to avoid higher mortality in the nursery. Cleft grafted
seedlings with plastic cover during rainy days have higher survival rate which is the
same as during dry period. Cleft grafted plants bear flower within 7-8 years from
planting.

Other methods of asexual propagation in lanzones are: marcotting, stem cutting,

inarching and top working. Some commercial nursery operators are also doing modified
atmospheric propagation (coffee tube grafting/conventional cleft grafting) wherein the
leaves of the scion are still intact and inserted into the rootstock by wedge or cleft
grafting. The joint or union of the rootstock and the scion are tied with a plastic to
enhance union and callus formation. The propagules are stored in bulk inside a plastic
tunnel or plastic bags for 2-3 weeks.

68
Field Establishment and Management

Land Preparation

Land preparation is done during the dry season or before the onset of the rainy season
to expose the soil from sunlight by deep plowing and harrowing especially when the
farm is open and or under coconut trees. As soon as the land is ready, layout stakes
based on the distance of planting to be used. Under coconut trees, lay-out stakes at
the center of the squares to form a quincunx planting system.

In open field, the distance of planting varies depending on the variety to be

planted. For Longkong, the distance can be 6 m by 6 m having a population of 300
plants per hectare. For Duku, Paete, Jolo and the sexually derived plants will be wider
at 8 m by 8 m apart with a population of 156 plants per hectare. After staking, dig out
holes 2-3 days before planting. The sizes of the holes are at least 2-3 times largerthan
the size of the seedling bag. During holing, take soil samples for analysis that will be
used as basis for fertilization.

Planting

Planting is best done during the rainy season. Before planting, check the holes if there
is stagnant water. Drain water or construct canals to exit water to the main stream.
Mix organic fertilizer such as chicken dung or vermicast with the top soil from the dug
holes at 50:50 ratio. Prior to planting, put 50% of the mixture at the bottom of the hole
and use the remaining 50% to cover the hole with the planting material. In planting,
remove the plastic bag that holds the plant without breaking the ball of earth. This is
done by cutting the bottom and the side of the plastic bag using a blade or knife and
set the plant in the hole with care.

Shading

Newly planted seedling requires shade to protect them from direct sunlight which
causes sun scalding, scorching, and leaf abscission that result to death of the seedling.
Shades can be coconut fronds, fish nets and banana leaves with tree guards to protect
69
the plants from stray animals like goats, cows and carabaos. During drier months, it is
advisable to cover or wrap the stem of the lanzones with banana leaf sheath to minimize
transpiration.

Watering/Irrigation/ Drainage

Newly planted lanzones should be watered regularly during dry period. For bearing
trees, irrigation is also necessary to enhance flowering. The root system of matured
lanzones is very shallow and when the tree is water stressed for a couple of months and
followed by rainfall or irrigation, flowering occurs. Irrigation should be continued until
the flowers develop into fruit, otherwise the flowers will be aborted.

Good drainage is needed in promoting growth and maintaining the vigor of the tree. It
insures deep and extensive root development, aeration and prevents stagnation of water
especially in low-lying areas during rainy period. Construct drainage canals in between
rows of the tree with a diameter of 1.0 m (top), 0.5 m (bottom) with a depth of 0.5 m.
Maintain the drainage system from time to time for efficient exit of water during heavy
rains.

Intercropping, Cover cropping and Mulching

Lanzones is compatible if grown under coconut, banana and cacao. When lanzones are
still young, and space are still available for intercropping; sweet potato can be used as
cover crop. Leguminous crops like Kudzu can also be used to provide source of organic
nitrogen, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and control the growth of weeds.

Mulching is also important during dry period. The used of chopped banana pseudo
stem, coir dust, coconut husk, and rice hull can mitigate the effect of long dry period.
These materials are laid down on the soil surface and around the tree trunk (Fig. 4).
After a period of time this materials will decomposed and will serve as food nutrients to
the lanzones trees.

Fertilization

As a standard procedure, soil sampling must be done before using any inorganic
fertilizer. This is to determine the requirement of the soil and plant for its growth and
development. Lanzones is a slow growing tree that it requires ample amount of organic
fertilizer to sustain the soil condition. During planting, apply basally decomposed
chicken dung, cow dung or vermicast at the rate of 5 kgs per tree mix with the top soil
removed during holing and put it back to the holes. After 3 months from planting, apply
Ammonium phosphate (16-20-0) at the rate of 50 g per tree and repeat in quarterly
basis during the first year of growth.In the second year, broadcast dolomitic limestone
around the trunk at 200 g per tree. One month after, apply 200 g per tree of complete
fertilizer, i.e. 14-14-14 or 16-16-16 and repeat every quarter. Organic fertilizer in the
form of chicken or cow dung or vermicast must be applied every 6 months at the rate
of 5 kgs per tree. Cover the fertilizer by mulching using coir dust or rice hull at least 2
inchesthick to protect from erosion especially during rainy season.On the 3rd, 4th and
5th year after planting, apply 4 times yearly 250 to 500 g per tree of complete fertilizer
and 5-10 kilograms of organic fertilizer twice a year. On the 6th year, the soil should be
70
sampled for analysis. If the soil becomes acidic due to organic application, it is advisable
to apply calcium or limestone before the next schedule of fertilization. The plant in this
period is about to initiate flower buds but it will be dormant in 1-2 years depending on
the climatic and soil condition. Spray foliar fertilizer with grade analysis of 13-0-46 or
potassium nitrate at the rate of 2 kilograms per 200 liters of water. Spraying should be
done in the late morning (8:00-10:00 am) when the intensity of sunshine is low to
prevent the leaf from scorching.

On the 7th to the 10thyear onwards, the treesare already productive, the dosage of
inorganic fertilizer should be increased to 1-3 kgs per tree per quarter. The application
of organic fertilizer should be also increased to 10-20 kgs per tree every six months.
After application of fertilizers, mulching should be done.

Training and Pruning

Sexually propagated plants tend to grow erect when they are not top pruned during
vegetative stage. A seedling tree should be cut back when it reaches one meter high to
enhance development of jorquettes. This jorquettes will be the primary branch that will
allow secondary branch to produce flowers and fruits. Tertiary branches and water
sprouts should be removed otherwise if left unattended this will grow into big branches
and competes with the main branches for fruit production. Pruning of excess branches
also allows air circulation and sunlight penetration inside the tree that prevent growth
and development of pests and diseases.

For grafted plants, water sprouts that grow below the graft union should likewise be
removed. If not, this will grow faster than the scion and emerge as a seedling rootstock.
Asexually propagated plants tend to produce its own jorquettes even if they not top
pruned at vegetative stage. Eventually, secondary branches should be removed to
provide space of the primary branches and trained to grow downward to open space for
air entrance. All wounds incurred during pruning should be painted with water base
paint (latex) to prevent from fungal infection. Dead branches, twigs damaged by twig
borers should be removed and burned. If not, this will cause death of the tree by boring;
tunneling the soft core of the twigs and branches and eventually the tree dies.

Flower and Fruit Management

Flower Induction

For seedling grown trees, flowering usually starts at the age of 10-15 years while grafted
trees at 7 years from planting. The flowering season differ from each region. In Luzon,
especially in Southern Tagalog, the flowering season is from April to June, and in
Mindanao is in January to April. Flower buds are sometimes dormant for 1-2 years
and make it alternate bearer depending on the environmental and nutritional condition
of the tree.

71
Lanzones can be enhanced to produce flowers by irrigation, flooding or watering after
a period of dry spell. When the tree are stress after exposure to dry period for 30 days
and followed by irrigation, dormant buds emerge to produce profuse flowers.

Flower Thinning

Lanzones produces 3-5 flower clusters which result to overcrowding and production of
small and deformed fruits. Thin out flowers by removing the outershorter cluster buds
retaining at least 1-2 clusters. In this case, flower thinning promotes the development
of remaining flower into a well formed and large bunch of lanzones fruits.

Fruit setting and development

Lanzones fruits are considered parthenocarpic. The fruits develop even without
undergoing pollination. This is the reason why fruits of some varieties of lanzones are
seedless. Fruit setting and seediness in lanzones is enhanced due to the presence of
ants during flowering. After fruit setting, corn sized fruits abscised due to hormonal
deficiencies. Foliar spraying of hormones like Gibberellic Acid (GA), IndolebutyricAcid
(IBA) or Naphthalineacetic acid (ANAA) at 5 parts per million (ppm) during flower bud
and fruit formation improved fruit setting and retention.

23. CONTROL OF PESTS, DISEASES AND OTHER PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Insect Pest

Ants, mealy bugs, aphids, mites, bark borers, twig borer, fruit flies scale insects
and fruit bats seriously infest lanzones trees during its growth cycle. Ants and mealy
bugs have a symbiotic relationship for their co-existence. The most serious pest in
lanzones that greatly affect production are the bark borer and scale insects.

The bark borers are larvae of green and caterpillar moth that stay in the bark
and feed on the spongy tissue and cause scabbing formation. In this aspect, the larvae
make a tunnel or excavation on the lower part of the bark and feed. This destroys and
damages the bark surface where flower buds emerge (Fig. 5) . Damaged surface, if not
controlled cannot produced fruits within 2-3 years. The pest can be controlled by
sanitation or removal of the infested barks and exposing the tunnel to sunlight.
Spraying with contact insecticide is an option. Introduction of Trichogramma could
suppress the population of the larvae. Birds also act as predator against the larvae of
bark borers. The infested bark can be painted or sprayed with Kocide to control scab
for the next cycle of flower buds emergence.

Twig borer is also a problem in Lanzones (Fig. 6). This is very common on trees
that are left unattended in the field without any pruning. The overcrowding of branches
makes it conducive to the emergence of borers. This can be prevented by sanitation,
and if infestation is severe, use of systemic insecticide is necessary. Insecticide can be
sprayed on foliage, or drench on the soil for efficient utilization and effect of the chemical.

72
 Scale insects (mussel scale) are also important and new emerging pest in
lanzones (Fig. 7). They feed on the lower surface of the leaf, suck the leaf tissues which
cause death and the foliage abscised which lead to the death of the tree (Fig. 8). Before
defoliation, fertilize the trees with organic and inorganic fertilizer at 50:50 ratios and
cover the fertilizer with mulching materials like coir dust and rice hulls.

Scale insects can be prevented by sanitation through gathering of fallen dried leaves,
use of trans-laminar systemic insecticide and biological control agents like the coccinelid
beetles, Chilocorus nigrita (Fig. 9) and Chilocorus circumdata (Fig. 10). Burn falling leaves
are to suppressed the cycle of the scale insects, and spray or drench systemic insecticide
to the ground roots to prevent the development of scale in the leaves. So far, drenching
is better so as not to kill the predator that also controls the scale insects. The predator,
Chilochorus nigrita can be released in the lanzones trees when there is an incidence of
scale insect infestation. Another control measure is by spraying cold water solutions
using Potassium Nitrate (Kristal K, Multi K) or Urea (460-0) at the rate of 2 kilos per
drum.

Fruit bats are also considered as pest in Lanzones. They are considered as nocturnal
pest that attack the ripe fruit of lanzones at night time that causes bruising of the
lanzones skin and the fruit to abscise. Bagging the fruit bunch with fish nets, and
hanging of barriers like dried coconut fronds, bamboo twigs, banana plastic bags for
bagging, and empty cans and other scare crows is economical and effective in preventing
bat damage of lanzones fruits.

Diseases of Lanzones

A. Pathogenic disease

The most serious disease of lanzones is root rot, a fungus that attacks the
bearing and non-bearing trees. This is common in low- lying areas where water
are not well-drained during heavy rains. The fungus enters the roots through
injuries and infection starts in the lateral roots and move towards the main root
going up to the main trunk. The disease can be prevented by providing good
drainage, sanitation and drenching of fungicide such as Ridomil.

Another disease affecting the lanzones is the scabbing of the bark that makes the bark
crack and bulged wherein caterpillar moth can laid its eggs on the bark and
where larvae feed on the surface of the bark that affects the flowering of lanzones.
The scabbing can be control by spraying Copper Fungicide together with
insecticide.

B. Non-pathogenic disease

Fruit cracking is one of the most important problem in lanzones during maturity
and ripening. This problem is usually observed on trees that are stressed due to
water shortage during dry period and suddenly followed by rain. The splitting or
cracking is due to osmotic pressure in which there is absorption of water in roots

73
 and translocated to the fruits. When the tree is starved with water, the fruit skin
is turgid and when rains fall, the fruit cracks. To prevent this malady, the tree
and fruits should be sprayed with water to moistened the skin of the fruits and
irrigate or water the base of the trunk when fruits are about to mature and ripen
during dry spell. Importantly, the base of the trunk should be mulched before
dry spell to conserve moisture to prevent the tree from water stress. Trees with
maturing fruits should be sprayed weekly with fresh water in the foliage and
fruits during dry periods.

24. HARVESTING AND POSTHARVEST HANDLING

Harvesting is usually done when all the fruits in the cluster or fruits in the tree
are fully ripe. The best index to check for the proper maturity and ripeness of lanzones
is the color of the fruit stalk. When the color of the fruit stalk changes from green to
brown, the fruits are already ripe or when the skin of the fruits turns brownish yellow.
Some buyers harvest their lanzones by priming or by selecting the ripe fruits and
retaining the fruit with sting of green. At this stage, the fruit taste sour. It is advisable
to harvest the fruit when there is enough sunlight and free of moisture during packing
In harvesting, a sharp knife or pruning shear should be used by cutting off the base of
the fruit stalk or bunch (Fig. 11).

Treatment of Fruit Bunch, Sorting, Packaging and Storing

At harvest, the bunches are dip in water with powder soap for 5 minutes to
remove the ants staying in the fruit. The ants will float and should be removed and the
fruits will be air dried before packing in cartoons or crates. Non-marketable or damaged
fruits must be sorted out. Fruit of lanzones are highly perishable. Its shelf life is so
short and it needs packaging materials to extend its freshness and palatability for one
week. The fruit bunch can be wrapped in newspaper and enclosed in plastic bags and
stored in the refrigerator’svegetable section.

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25. MARKETING

Marketing Channels

Market flow for lanzones is relatively simple (Fig. ). Lanzones is mainly marketed
as fresh fruits in by weight basis from farmers to wholesalers/traders, retailers and
consumers. Since lanzones fruits are highly perishable, these are commonly sold in the
local markets.

Farmer
Fig.12.
Marketing
channels for
Wholesaler/Trader Retailer lanzones.

Marketing
Consumer Practices

The most
common practice
of marketing lanzones is by contract before the fruits ripen. The number of fruiting
trees is counted and the fruits are estimated by kilograms and the price is agreed upon
by the buyer and the farmer. Sometimes middlemen act as negotiator with the farmer
before going to the trader or buyer. The buyer assumes the responsibility of taking care
of the tree until harvesting. The agreed amount will be paid in full before the trader will
harvest the fruit.

Other marketing options are as follows:

1. Farm owner will harvest, sort and pack the fruits and sell at farm level or
let buyers pick the fruits at farmgate price. With this system of marketing,
the farmer spent the least marketing cost.

2. Farm owner will harvest, sort and pack the fruits and sell in wholesale
basis or deliver the fruits to wholesaler-retailers. Increase in marketing costs
is expected to be incurred with this system of marketing since the fruits will
be transported to other places.

3. Farm owner will harvest, sort and pack the fruits and sell or retail the
fruits directly to consumers. With this marketing system higher costs is
expected to be incurred since aside from the fruits will be transported to other
places, space for selling the fruits will be rented and the time to be spent is
quite longer than the other marketing options.However, a better income of
the farmer is expected.

75
26. COSTS AND RETURN ANALYSIS

Given the proper care and management, asexually propagated lanzones trees starts
bearing in 7th year. Based on the Davao National Crop Research and Development
Center’s (DNCRDC) observations on the yield performance of lanzones, the estimated
volume production and the costs and return of a one-hectare lanzones orchard was
computed for comparison of farmer’s economic benefits derived from planting the three
commercial varieties and marketing systems being practiced (Table 3, 4a-4c and
Appendix 1a-1b).

Nowadays, the Longkong variety offers higher market price compared to Duku and
Paete (Tables 4a-4c). Thus, better income is to be expected from this variety provided
the trees are properly managed and free from severe pests and disease infestations.

Variation in farmer’s income is also visible on the different marketing systems.

Retailing the fruits directly to consumers offers the best income for the farmers (Tables
4a-4c)

Table 3. Estimated volume of production of a one-hectare lanzones orchard.

Yield per Tree Ave. Yield per Hectare Marketable Yield per Hectare
Year (kgs) (kgs) (kgs)
7 5-10 1530 1454
8 10-25 3570 3392
9 25-50 7650 7268
10 50-80 13260 12597
11 80-100 18360 17442
12 100-150 25500 24225
Assumptions:
1. Population density = 204 trees
2. 10% Non-marketable yield (rejects)

GUYABANO PRODUCTION GUIDE

76
27. GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Soursop (Anona muricata Linn.) Also known as guyabano is belonging

to the Family Anonaceae, other familiar fruits beside guyabano are atis (Anona
squamosa or sugar apple), anonas (Anona reticulata or custard apple), and
atemoya (Anona). Leaves are smooth, shiny, oblong-obovate to oblong. It is a
small tree about 5 to 7 meters in height. The flowers are large, yellowish or
greenish yellow and solitary. There are six large, fleshy or leathery petals in two
series. They are heart-shaped, with pointed tip, and up to 5 centimeters in length
and 3 centimeters in breadth. In the center of the flower is a cone-shaped mass
of many carpels which will form the fruit, and below this are very numerous
stamens. Fruit is ovoid, up to 18 centimeters long, covered with small scattered,
soft spine like processes. Skin is thin, and the pulp is soft, white, and fleshy,
with an agreeable, but rather sour flavor.
Based on BAS crop statistics of 2003; a total land area of 3,016 has. Were
planted to guyabano with the following as the five leading producing regions:
Western Visayas (705 has.); Region! V-A (643 has.); Cagayan Valley (400 has.);
Central Visayas (169 has.); and Central Luzon (165 has.).

28. Medicinal Value

The guyabano fruit is used as a cure for cough, scurvy and fever. It contains
Vitamin A, calcium, phosphorous and rich with vitamin B and C. It also contains
11.62 percent sugar, mostly glucose and fructose.
The green fruits and seeds can induce vomiting, remedy dysentery and arrest
secretion or bleeding. The sap of the young leaves may be applied directly on
pimples to induce suppuration. The sap is also considered parasiticidal. An
alcoholic extract of the leaves, when distilled with steam, yields a small amount
of essential oil. The portion of alcoholic extract which is soluble in water
contains a large amount of potassium chloride together with dextrose tannis,

77
 amorphous products, and a small amount of an alkaloid substance which
could not be crystallized. The leaves and roots also cure colic and convulsions.

29. CROP VARIETIES

There are two strains presently grown.

Aguinaldo – Fruit, 1kg; peel, yellow green; flesh, juicy, sub-acid, 78% of fruit
weight; seeds, 70 per fruit
Davao – Fruit, 1.7 kg; peel, light green; flesh, moderately juicy, pleasantly
subacid, 82% of fruit weight; seeds, 82 per fruit.

30. CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT

The soursop is adapted to areas of high humidity and relatively warm

temperature; temperatures below 5 °C (41 °F) will cause damage to leaves and
small branches, and temperatures below 3 °C (37 °F) can be fatal. The fruit
becomes dry and is no longer good for concentrate.

31. Soil and Climatic requirements

The plant grows in any kind of soil, but a fairly deep, friable soil of volcanic
origin is conducive to growth and fruiting. It grows better on soil with pH ranges
6.1 to 6.5. It thrives very well from sea level up to 500 meters above sea level. It
is best to plant them at the start of the rainy season.

32. Propagation

Guyabano is usually propagated by seeds. However, selected trees of

inherent characters may also be propagated asexually by marcotting, inarching,
grafting and budding.

of
Method Planting Maturity Yield
Propagation Distance (Years)1 (Ton/hectare)2

3-4 meters
apart 2-3
Grafting, 3.7

Inarching,

marcotting,

78
Budding
Note:
1. Refers to time from field setting to first harvest. Asexually
propagated plants generally mature about twice earlier than plants grown
from seeds.
2. Computed on the bases of distances of planting given for each crop.

33. Nursery Practices

1. Seed Preparation and Germination

The seeds to be used as source of planting materials should be obtained
from outstanding mother trees with a characteristic of hardy, prolific and
regular bearer and its fruits be medium-sized to large, well formed, few seeded
and excellent quality. Seed from the fruit should be cleaned in tap water and
allowed to air dry. They may be stored for quite some time but it is best to plant
them directly. They are sown in seed boxes or flats containing fine and/or sandy
soil of about 2.5 cm distance and 1 cm deep. The seedbed is provided with shade
and watered regularly to keep the medium moist at all times. Fresh seeds
germinate from 20 to 30 days with 85 to 90 percent germination.
2. Care and Transplanting of Seedlings
Seedlings are watered regularly and if insect pests and diseases become
a problem sprayed with insecticide and fungicide. They may be transferred in
individual container when the seedlings are 3-4 inches high or the first set of
leaves has matured. The soil medium to be used should be clay loam preferably
mixed with sand or compost. The newly transplanted seedlings are placed under
partial shade area and, when well established, they may be exposed to the sun
for hardening. They should be regularly watered to ensure continuous growth.
Seedlings are ready for field transplanting when they are 6 to 8 months old or
about 15 cm tall.

34. Nutritive mineral content of Guyabano

Guayabano fruit is an excellent source of vitamins B and C. However, it is

deficient in Vitamin A, calcium and phosphorous.

Below is the mineral content analysis of the fruit:

Fresh Oven-dried
sample sample
Constituents Ash

79
 Per
cent
Per cent Per cent

Moisture 77.40-86.26 - -

Ash 0.61-0.85 4.46 -

Phosphorous
(P20)
0.05 0.38 8.63

Calcium (CaO) 0.01 0.04 0.25

Iron (Fe2O2) 0.001 0.01 0.25

Proteins 0.38 0.01 0.25

35. Fertilizer Application

of Recommended
Age Rate of N-P-K
Plant (kg/hectare)
Method of Application

Apply 3 inches below the

roots and 5 inches to side
250-300 gms.of seeding at planting. 8 cm
Planting Complete fert. (14-1414) below roots and 10 cm to
Time or (12-24-12) the side.

80
 Mix and apply in two equal
doses by digging along
periphery of the tree. 1st
300-500 gms. of application-start of rainy
complete fert. (14-1414) season 2nd application –
Young or (12-24-12) plus end rainy season.
trees (1-3 200-300 gms Urea (450-
years) 0)

1.5-3.0 kg complete
fertilizer plus 200-300
gms. Muriate of potash
Bearing
(0-0-60)
Trees - same as above -
* – can be omitted if soil conditioning thru compost or organic fertilizer is applied

36. Pest and Diseases

Application
Rate
(tbsp/ 5
Insecticide Method of
gals. H2O)
Insects Common/Brand Name Application
Spray
leaves,
branches &
trunks when
insects
6 ml/gal
Aphids Carbaryl/Servin 85 S water

appear.
Repeat at 7-
14 days
4 ml/gal interval if
Leafminers Marsbyl 85 WP water necessary.

Leaf
caterpillars

Beetles

81
 Mealy bugs

Tip borers

Twig
borers,
bark
borers,
ants, fruit
worms,
Fenitrothion/Sumithion 4 ml/gal
fruit flies Spray on
L water
foliage and
repeat every
2-4 ml/gal
7-14 days if
water
mites 75 WP necessary

4-6 ml/gal
water
flies, mites Ethion/Ethion 4 EL
Source: Farming Handbook

Anthracnose is the most common disease of guayabano, cause by a fungus and

transmitted by means of windsplashed rain and contact with infected fruits.
Spray flowers and developing fruits with any of the following:
• Benlate at 2-4 grams per gallon of water
• Manzate at 6-8 grams per gallon of water

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Pink disease is caused by a fungus infective material is the common mode of
transmission. Symptoms: apperance of cracks on trunks or branches and
secreations of gums; affected area covered with a thick mass of pink mycelia
during the rainy season; drying of mycelia during dry weather with color
changing to dirty white or gray eventually leading to die-back condition.

Control:
1. Prune and burn infected branches and twigs.
2. Disinfect by spraying with copper fungicide or lime sulfur mixture.
3. Keep orchard clean of any source of infections.

HARVESTING

37. Maturity

Fruits are mature when they become dark and shiny green with recurved spines
set far apart and the skin appearing to burst with pressure from within. Ripe
fruits are light yellow and soft.

POST HARVEST

38. Storage

Fruits for the factory are placed in a bodega under ordinary room temperature
and allowed to ripen with firmness until they are ready for
processing/preservation.
On the other hand, ripe fruits may be held 2 or 3 days longer in refrigerator, but
the skin blacken and become unsightly. However, the flesh and flavor are not
affected.
.

GUAVA PRODUCTION GUIDE

83
39. General Description and Economic Value

Guava (Psidium guajava Linn.) locally known as “Bayabas”, is a popular fruit in the
Philippines and found indigenous to the American tropics. It is one of the most
gregarious fruit tree species of the Myrtaceae family which has a great potential for
extensive commercial production because of its ease of culture, high nutritional value
and popularity of processed products. It is usually grown in open areas, second-
growth forests, and backyard or as part of a mixed orchard.

Botanically, guava is a small tree that reaches a height of up to 33 feet; with spreading
branches; smooth, thin, copper-colored bark that flakes off showing greenish layer
beneath; trunk reaches a diameter of 25 cm. Leaves are evergreen, borne opposite,
short-petioled, oval to oblong-elliptic, somewhat irregular in outline, 715 cm long and
35 cm wide, leathery, with conspicuous parallel veins, downy on the underside, and
aromatic when crushed. Flowers are white, faintly fragrant, borne singly or in small
clusters in the leaf axis, 2.5 cm wide, with 4 to 5 white petals which quickly shed-off,
and about 250 white stamens tipped with pale-yellow anthers. The tree excels better
than some other fruit trees in productivity, hardness and adaptability.

Its fruit exudes strong, sweet, musky odor when ripe; round, ovoid or pear-shaped,
510 cm long with 4 or 5 protruding floral remnants (sepals) at the apex; an excellent
source of vitamin C, which is substantially higher than what is found in citrus. It is
also a good source of vitamin A and other important elements. The fruit contains large
amount of citric, lactic, malic, oxalic and acetic acids and trace amount of formic acid.
The green mature guavas can be utilized as a source of pectin, which yield somewhat
higher and better-quality pectin than when ripe. The ripe fruit is usually eaten as
dessert; processed into jellies, jam, paste, juice, baby foods, puree, beverage base,
syrup, wine, dehydrated guava powder, marmalade, catsup, ice cream and other
products. It can be eaten sliced with cream and sugar and as ingredient in cakes and
pies. The sour guava fruits are used in local dishes like “sinigang”.

84
 Moreover, many parts of guava tree have medicinal and commercial uses. The
bark and leaves are rich in tannin (10% in the leaves on a dry weight basis, and 1130%
in the bark), and also used in childbirth to expel the placenta. Leaves can be made
into tea and astringent decoction to cure stomach ache; also act as vermifuge; treat
toothache when chewed; pounded leaves may be used to relieve rheumatism; can also
be used for dyeing and tanning. Its wood is moderately strong and durable indoor and
useful for carpentry and turnery. It is also a good fuel wood, and as source of charcoal.

In spite its potentials, no existing record for big planting and production of guava in
the Philippines has been reported.

Table 1. Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion of Guava Fruit.

Nutrient Content Value

Calories 36 to 50

Moisture 77 to 86 g

Crude Fiber 2.8 to 5.5 g

Protein 0.9 to 1.0 g

Fat 0.1 to 0.5 g

Ash 0.43 to 0.70 g

Carbohydrates 9.1 to 10 g

Calcium 9.1 to 17 mg

Phosphorus 17.8 to 30 mg

Iron 0.30 to 0.70 mg

Carotene (Vitamin A) 200-400 I.U.

Thiamine 0.046 mg

Riboflavin 0.03 to 0.04 mg

Niacin 0.6 to 1.068 mg

Vitamin B3 40 I.U.

85
 Vitamin G4 35 I.U.

Ascorbic Acid 56 to 600 mg (ripe fruit)

40. Soil and Climatic Requirements of Guava

Guava can be grown in almost all types of soil but thrives best on well-drained
clay loam to sandy loam soil rich in organic matter with pH ranging from 5.0 to 7.0;
elevation from sea level to 1,600 feet above sea level. Field observations indicate that
heavier fruits are produced in lower elevations. Guava can be economically grown at
elevations where pineapple, macadamia, coffee, papaya, mango, and banana are
profitably grown. However, areas of 1,800 feet above sea level are not suitable for
growing guava.

It prefers dry climate with well-distributed rainfall throughout the year,

although it is somewhat drought tolerant. For fruit production, it is recommended
that guava trees are not planted in areas with high wind velocity. It is advisable to
plant windbreaks that do not have much lateral growth along the border areas where
the prevailing wind velocity ranges from 15 to 24 km per hour.

41. Guava Varieties and Strains

1. ‘Supreme’ – a guava variety from Florida; generally high yielding and

produces a thick white flesh fruit of good quality when eaten as fresh fruit or
used for processing. Fruit shape is ovate with distinct corrugation, 6.3 cm long,
5.5 cm in diameter and weighing 65 g. The tree is moderately prolific and
regular bearing. When fully ripe, the fruit is bright yellow in color. The flavor of
86
 the inner pulp is sweet but the outer skin is slightly bitter and possesses a
distinct strawberry wine odor, which is slightly astringent. It is moderately
resistant to anthracnose and fruit fly but susceptible to leaf folder and aphids.

2. ‘Red Indian Rolfs and Ruby’ – fruit is ovate, 6.5 cm long, 5 cm in

diameter with thin, smooth, medium green skin, weighing about 75 g. The fruit
pulp is about 10 mm deep and red when fully ripe and has less pronounced
corrugation. It is large seeded, sparsely populated but very sweet, juicy,
crunchy and possesses a strong aroma. The tree is very prolific, regular bearing
but easily attack by bats, though moderately resistant to anthracnose and
oriental fruit fly.

3. ‘Seedless variety’ – this variety has a fleshy layer, which is thick with
almost no seed cavity.

4. ‘Goyena Quezo de Bola’ (NSIC 02 Gv-01)-this is NSIC guava variety

approved in 2002, a prolific yielder. It bears fruits with yellowish green skin
color, finely smooth texture with pleasant aroma. Each fruit weighs about 575
g.

5. Vietnam Guava – bears medium to big size fruits of about 200 to 1,000
g, slightly oblong to ovate; greenish yellow skin with ripe, creamy-white flesh,
moderate amount of seeds, very sweet flavor; heavy bearer; good keeping quality;
excellent when eaten fresh but could also be used for pies and other processed
products.

6. Hawaiian Strains - these are usually sour type guavas which are
excellent raw materials for processing.

CULTURAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

42. Nursery Practices

Seed germination and care of seedlings – guava seeds should be thoroughly

cleaned and air-dried right after extraction from the fruits. It is necessary to treat the
seeds with fungicides to prevent damping off.

Seeds should be planted as soon as possible to ensure high germination.

Germinate seeds in beds or boxes using a mixture of fine sand and garden soil as
growing medium. Sow them evenly in furrows 2-3 cm apart and lightly cover them
with soil 0.5-
1.0 cm deep. Water regularly preferably in the morning to keep the soil moist.

Protect seedlings against pests and diseases by spraying insecticides and/or

fungicides. Organic pesticides are highly recommended. A month after emergence or
when the first true leaves have formed, transplant seedlings in individual containers
or polybags using clay loam soil mixed with compost as growing medium. Partial

87
shading is necessary until the seedlings have established. Seedlings are ready for field
transplanting or used as rootstocks when they are six months to one year old.

Propagation – guava is commonly multiplied by seeds. However, it can also be

propagated asexually by root cuttings, marcotting, budding, grafting and inarching.

a. Seed Propagation – guava is usually propagated by seeds. Guava seeds

remain viable for many months. They often germinate in 2 to 3 weeks but
may take as long as 8 weeks. However, this method will not produce
truetotype plants. Variability in seedlings can be minimized by hand
selfpollination. Honeybee (Apis mellifera) is one of the major pollinators of
guava. The amount of cross pollination ranges from 25.7 to 41.3%.

b. Root cuttings – this is the oldest method of asexually propagating guava.

Cut about 12-20 cm long roots and induce to sprout by placing flat on the
bed and cover them with about 2 inches of fine soil, which must be kept
moist to promote germination.

c. Budding – an efficient vegetative propagation for selected varieties of

guava. Both the patch budding and forkert techniques are recommended.
The diameter of seedling stock and budwood should be from 15-25 mm.
Budwood should be mature, bark no longer green. Condition the budwood
by defoliating the leaves of selected branches 10-14 days before removing
the branches for use as budwood. During this period the buds become more
enlarged and grow more readily after budding.

d. Marcotting or Air layering –low branches of guava are bent down, with
about 12-15 cm of the branch is covered with soil and kept damp to induce
root formation.

e. Stem cuttings – stem cuttings are made from the young portion towards
the end of the branches. These are rooted using sandy loam soil medium in
a nursery house or shed. Guava stem cuttings treated with Indole Butyric
Acid(IBA)or Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) proved to be successful for
rooting and produce numerous and vigorous roots.

88
43. Land preparation

a) Plowing and harrowing - For backyard planting, land preparation may

consist of primarily digging holes about 50 cm wide and 50 cm deep. Place
kerosene can of compost before planting. For open areas, plow the field 1-
2 times alternated by harrowing to completely pulverize and expose the soil,
and eradicate weeds. It is best prior to the onset of wet season.

b) Staking – Staking is making at 5 to 7 m apart which will serve as guide

where to dig holes. About 277 guava seedlings is needed to plant a hectare.
The exact planting distance is decided according to variety, soil fertility, and
availability of irrigation facilities.

44. Planting

The best time to plant is at the onset or during the rainy season. Prior to
planting, place compost in holes. Also, harden the guava seedlings at least a week
before planting by exposing them gradually to sunlight. During planting, carefully
remove the potting containers or plastic bags, seeing to it that roots are not disturbed;
carefully place guava seedling on dug hole, cover it with fine soil until to the base of
the seedlings. Water the seedlings right away if soil moisture is not sufficient.

45. Weeding and Cultivation

Shallow cultivation around the base of the plant is recommended to prevent

root injury. Ring weed plant to eradicate competing weeds.

46. Irrigation

While guava can tolerate dry spell, supplementary irrigation during prolonged
dry periods is desirable to provide adequate water supply for the growing guava tree.

Irrigation has been shown to increase fruit production by increasing fruit size when
applied during fruit development.

47. Mulching

Cover the base of the growing guava plants with dried leaves or rice straws to
minimize growth of weeds and to conserve moisture.

48. Fertilization

Guava trees should be kept healthy through application of fertilizers from the
time they are planted until they continue to produce fruits. In the absence of definite
information regarding the fertilizer requirements of guava in the Philippines, apply
about 100 to 500 g ammonium sulphate around the base of tree twice a year. Be sure
to cover the newly applied fertilizer with fine soil. Apply fertilizer one month after
planting and 6 months thereafter or towards the end of the rainy season. Increase the
amount of fertilizer applied as the trees grow bigger. At the start of fruiting, each tree

89
 should be given about 300-500 g complete fertilizer, preferably one containing more
nitrogen and potassium per application. At the peak of fruit production (about 10-18
years, apply 2 kg or more of complete fertilizer per tree; split application may be
required to sustain growth and development as well as fruit production.

49. Pruning

Pruning is a must in guava production. This is done to have the desired form
or shape of the guava tree such as spreading or symmetrical or limited crown or to
keep number of branches. However, when the trees have established a strong
framework and started to bear fruit, little training is required. The root sprout; low-
lying branches, disease infected and other dead branches, have to be eliminated. It
should be pruned and trained within first 3 to 4 months after field planting to increase
yield and to reduce the total cost of field operations.

50. Intercropping

While the guava trees are not yet fully productive, intercropping of crops like
vegetables, legumes, root crops and other annual crops are recommended. Aside from
added income, it will also prevent the growth of weeds and loosen the soil in the
orchard. However, this intercrop should be stopped once the main crop becomes too
crowded.

51. Pests of Guava

a) Oriental fruit fly (Daucus dorsalis Hendel) is one of the major insect
pests of guava. Its larvae burrow through the ripe fruits making them unfit
for human consumption. To control this pest, bag the guava fruits, and
harvest

as soon as fruits are ripe. Infested fruits must be collected and burned or
buried to destroy the larvae and pupa of the insect pest.

b) Aphids (Aphis gosypii Glover) feeds on young growth causing the curling
of leaves. Aphids are fed upon by lady beetles and by maggots of syrphid
flies.

They are also parasitized by minute parasitic hymenopterans.Spray with

appropriate insecticides (like Malathion) to control the pest.

c) Mealy Bugs and Scale Insects - Common white mealy bug (Lanococcus
lilacinus Ckll) attacks and draws plant sap from the young shoots and fruits
of guava though its actual damage is economically insignificant, however,
the ants that it attracts are nuisance when picking the fruits.

d) Green Scale Insect (Coccus viridis Green) is a soft scale insect that infests
the young shoots, mostly the leaves. The use of entomogenous fungi is

90
 effective control during rainy season. Likewise, the use of small wasp
parasite, Coccophagus tibialis is also recommended.

e) Moth (Zuezera coffeae Nietn) of pink caterpillar bores into young upright
growing stems tunnelling on its center where it feeds and develops; stem
may suddenly die or break off. Infested stem may be saved by inserting leaf
midrib into the tunnel and pushing it in as far as it would go to kill the
caterpillar inside. If infested twigs have broken, spear or kill the larvae.

What about white fly? Many guava trees are infested with this insect

52. Diseases of Guava

a) Anthracnose or Canker caused by Gloeosporium psidii G Del. The

fungus produces two kinds of symptoms: formation of cankerous spots
throughout the fruit surface which are circular, dry and raised; in some
areas, however, infected fruits become undersized misshapen, hard and dry.

Typical sunken soft lesions usually produced by anthracnose can be

observed on ripe fruits. Under moist conditions; pinkish masses of spores
can be seen on lesion surface. It also causes dieback of plants. On the
leaves, the disease produces angular, rusty brown spots of varying sizes,
usually 2-5 mm in diameter. During the rainy season, the blight on shoots
is a common symptom.

No definite control measure is recommended although spraying of

fungicide can be done.

b) Spotting of Leaves and Fruits caused by the parasitic alga, Cepaleuros

spp, is rather severe on some types and varieties of guava in humid areas.
Spray copper fungicide to control this disorder.

c) Wilting caused by Glomremella psidii Sheld is another disease known to

attack guava. The disease causes mummification and blackening of
immature fruits.

91
53. HARVESTING

Guava fruits mature in 90-150 days after flowering. Currently, guava fruit are
handpicked. Harvesting guava requires care and usually handpicked. Harvesting of
ripe guavas cannot go on for more than 2 to 3 days during the height of the season
because of potential losses from insects and over ripening of fruits.

54. Postharvest

The picked fruit should be placed in a cool dry place away from the sun. To maintain
quality, it is best to process the fruits soon after harvest. The puree can be chilled,
frozen, or aseptically packaged. If the fruits need to be stored overnight, the fruit boxes
should be places in a covered and well-ventilated area.

MANGOSTEEN PRODUCTION GUIDE

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L) is regarded by many as one of the

bestflavored in the world. It is one of the tropical fruits where taste is much like
other known fruits and is easily accepted by the consumers in Western markets.
It is indigenous to the Malay Archipelago and its cultivation extent throughout
Southeast Asia. Small and commercial orchard have been established in these
countries Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia and Sri Lanka.
Other introduction led to small production in Australia, Cuba, Honduras,
Domican, Jamaica and Panama.

92
 In 2000, the area planted in the Philippines to mangosteen was estimated
1,354 hectares (DA-AMAS,2004). Important producing areas are in Sulu
archipelago and several provinces in Mindanao, namely Zamboanga del Norte,
Davao del Norte, Misamis Occidental, Davao City and Agusan Del Sur.

The fruit is mainly consumed fresh and can be canned, frozen or processed
in to jam, sweetened preserved, syrup and candy. This fruit is sometimes
referred to as the “Queen of Fruits” due to its nutritive value and the presence of
some compounds that offer various mangosteen health benefits
(altmedicine.about.com/od/completeazindex/mangosteen.html). The primary
active components of the mangosteen fruit are called xanthones which have
several benefits including anti- inflammatory properties, anti-allergic and
anticonvulants.

In the Philippines. people used to make a decoction of mangosteen

leaves, bark and rind which was beneficial in bringing down body temperature
and also to treat dysentery, diarrhea and urinary
disorders (www.engineeredililifestyle.org/mangosteen.html). The rind is
reported to contain 7-15 % tannin and is used to tan leather and to dye fabric
black. It is also reported used as an ingredient in soap, shampoo and
conditioner.
Table 1. Nutritional components of the fruit/100 g
edible portion (SMIARC, 2004)
Components Nutritional Value
Moisture (%) 79.7
Energy (calories) 34.0
Protein (g) 0.6
Fat (g) 1.0
Carbohydrates (g) 5.6

93
 Fibre (g) 5.1
Ash (g) 0.1
Calcium (mg) 7.0
Magnesium (mg) 13.0
Phosphorous (mg) 13.0
Sodium (mg) 7.0
Potassium (mg) 45.0
Iron (g) 1.0
Vitamin B1(g) 0.03
Vitamin B2 (g) 0.03
Niacin (g) 0.3
Ascorbic Acid ( g) 4.2

The author to provide production stats of the crop

55. Agro-Climatic Requirements

Mangosteen prefers deep, fertile, well-drained and slightly acidic clay loam
rich in organic matter. It is not adapted to limestone soils, sandy alluvial soil or
sandy soil low in humus. The plants grow well in soils with a high pH of 5.5--6.8.
The tree is adapted to heavy and well distributed rainfall of 1,200 mm or more
without prolonged dry periods. However, the plant require a short dry spell of
1530 days for flower induction. The optimum temperature is 25-35 C and
relative humidity (RH) over 80%. Mangosteen is associated with areas of low
elevation i.e less than 500 metes above sea level. It can be cultivated a higher
elevation but has a slower growth rate.

56. VARIETY
The seed of mangosteen is apomictic and the plant developed from it carries
the same characteristics of the mother plant.which explains of only one variety.
It may be grown from seeds or asexually through grafting. Normally, large (> 1
gram in weight) plump and fully-developed seeds are choose for planting. Large
seeds are associated with higher viability and survival rates. The National
Seed Industry Council (NSIC) registered two varieties of mangosteen. These are:
UPLB Sweet of Los Baños, Laguna and Roxas Purple of Caluan, Laguna.

Table 2. Characteristics of NSIC registered varieties of mangosteen.

Varietal Description UPLB Sweet Roxas Purple

Tree

94
 Age ( years after planting) 55 19
Height (m) 4 7
Growth habit Semi-spreading Semi-spreading
Regularity of Bearing Biennial Annual
Harvest seasons July-August July-August
Yield 1148
Other Characteristics Early Fruiting
Whole Fruit
Size
Weight (in grams) 87.0 65.6
Length (mm) 48.6 53.2
Width (mm) 57.0 49.2
Shape Ovate Oblong
Peel
Color Purple Purple
Texture Smooth Smooth
Thickness (cm) 7.5 6.4
Weight 61 g 46.1
Flesh
Color Snowy White Snowy White
Texture Smooth Smooth
Juiciness Juicy Moderate
Aroma Mild Mild
Flavor Sweet Sub-acid to sweet
Edible Portion 29% 27.2%
Total Soluble Solids 18.65*Brix -
Titratable acidity 9 -
Seed
Number 1 1.1
Size
Weight (g)
Total weight 8.73g
Individual weight 0.87g 1.3
Length (mm) 1.58 2.03
Width (mm) 1.25 1.29
Thickness (mm) 0.69 -
Shape Flat Flat

95
Other features of the variety : Sweet, High percentage
(>25%) of fruits is seed-less;
other fruits have only 1 or 2
small seeds and high
percentage edible portion
Prolific , sub-acid to
sweet and high
percentage of edible
portion

PREPARATION OF PLANTING MATERIALS

1. Extract seeds from fully ripe fruits. Seeds of more than 1 gram are to be
selected for good germination.

2. Newly extracted seeds must be sown right away to obtain high

percent germination.

3. Sowing is usually in a seedbed. A typical seedbed may be of wood

or cement and the sowing medium is a mixture of sand and soil in 3:1
ratio by volume. The sowing medium needs to be moisture-retentive but
well drained.

4. Seeds are planted 5-10 mm in depth and spaced 2-3 cm. apart are
covered with fine sand. Seeds will germinate more or less 30 days after
sowing.

5. Seedlings are pricked to the polyethylene bags using same mixture

as germination media while the cotyledon are still attached to the
seedlings.

6. Water the seedlings regularly after pricking.

7. Seedlings are ready for field planting in 24-36 months to minimize

maintenance expense in the field as young seedlings require utmost care.

Asexual Propagation

Cleft grafting is widely used methods of asexual propagation. A healthy

shoot is taken as the scion from a selected mother plant still in active growth
and is then inserted into a healthy rootstock.
Healthy rootstocks of about 30-35 cm. in height and are usually obtained
from selected plants with consistent fruit size and heavy bearing. These
rootstocks are selected from plants which are propagated from seedlings and
which are about 2 years of age. At this stage, the stem diameter of the rootstocks
should be about the same size as that of scions (1.6-2.0 cm.), so that cambium
tissue of each can match closely.
96
 Step in cleft grafting:

1. A two years old rootstock is chosen from seedling propagated from

seeds.

2. The shoot is cut off and a vertical cut 2.0 – 2.5 cm. is made down
the middle of the stub to make a V-shaped opening for the scion.

3. A scion (about 6-12 cm) is obtained from another plant with stem
size approximately matching that of the rootstock.

4. The basal end of the scion is cut into the gently sloping wedge about
2 cm. long.

5. The scion is inserted onto the opening of the rootstocks.

6. The completed graft is then wrapped with grafting tape and cover
with ice candy wrapper.

Can the author provide illustration?

57. ESTABLISHMENT IN THE FIELD

1. New land clearing can be done by underbrushing / removal of large

plants together with their roots. Plowing followed
by harrowing/rotavation is sufficient to attain the desired tilth.
High rate of organic matter in the soil are recommended. Organic
matter may be incorporated into the planting sites 1-2 months prior to
planting.

97
 2. Stakes at a distance of 10 – 8 meters between rows and between
hills. Planting holes are dig with a minimum size of 12x12x12” and
organic matter may be incorporated 1-2 kg one to two months prior to
planting. Wooden sticks are used to support the seedling in the initial
stage.

3. Field planting should be done anytime of the year if water source is

available. However, the best time for planting at the onset of the rainy
season. Provide shade to the newly transplanted seedlings. Shade is
maintained 1-2 years and this is gradually reduced to allow full sun
exposure.

4. Slow growth makes the seedlings vulnerable and they can be

quickly overtaking by weeds, hence weeding is necessary. Irrigate and
mulch the seedlings with coconut husk or grasses to conserve moisture
during dry period. Intercropping with short duration crop such as
banana to provide shade to mangosteen seedlings.

58. MAINTENANCE OF THE ORCHARD

Mangosteen trees pass through a juvenile phase which can last anything
up to 12-20 years, although good husbandry result in trees fruiting at 5-7 years
after planting.

1. Pruning

For non-bearing trees, no pruning is needed except to remove broken

or dead branches. For mangosteen plants which are about 8 years
or more, small inner branches are pruned from old, unproductive
plants to stimulate bearing.

2. Fertilization

Application of a nitrogenous fertilizer produces faster vegetative

growth of the plants. Fertilizer can be applied in a ring around the
base at the edge of the canopy.

Application of foliar fertilizer is needed and may be applied singly

or mixed with pesticide materials to save on labor cost.
The following rates of application for mangosteen is shown in Table
3.

Table 3. The following rate of application for Mangosteen are

recommended (ATI-FTC, Tupi, South Cotabato)
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 Kg. Tree/Year of Commercial Fertilizer
Age of
Trees 45-0-0 14-14-14 0-0-60
(years)

1 0.22 0.35 -

2 0.44 0.70 -

3 0.56 1.40 -

4 - 2.80 -

5 - 3.60 -

6 - 4.20 0.30

7 - 5.70 0.30

8 - 7.10 0.30

9 above - 8.50 0.50

The rate increases as the size of the tree increases. Make the
necessary changes should soil analysis require.

The growth of mangosteen can be enhanced and floral initiation with

subsequent fruit development can be manipulated through nutrient
fertilization of Sulfur and Calcium. A formulation of SQL (sulfurquick
lime) foliar fertilizer and spray bearing trees within the range of 1:55
concentration in 19 ppm to 1:35 concentration (30 ppm) coupled
with regular NPK fertilizer program to produce offseason and more
number of fruits (Saldivar, 1996).

3. Irrigation

Irrigation system is recommended to supply water during dry months.

The mangosteen root system lack root hairs .and the plant requires
a constant and abundant supply of water in the soil. A continues dry
period of at least one month followed by heavy rain can imposed
plants to induce flowering but mangosteen can flower twice a year or
sporadically and erratically. Regular watering is then required during
fruit growth and development. Insufficient amount of water can slow
down fruit development.

59. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

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 A major physiological disorder called gummosis is found in mangosteen.
This is evidenced by the oozing of latex as yellow spots on the fruit surfaces or
skin. Physical damage to the latex vessel can be caused by sucking insects,
strong winds and rough harvesting or handling. Fruits exposed to strong sun
may also exude latex.

60. PESTS AND DISEASES

Mangosteen does not appear to suffer from serious attacks of major pests
and diseases as shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Insect Pests and Diseases of Mangosteen and their Control:

Insect Pests Damage Control Measures

1. Thrips They prefer to feed on the Spray Dimethoate two to

tender, young plant three times at weekly
tissue such as flower intervals.
buds, opening blooms
and unopened leaves.

2. Tussock Caterpillar Larval stage eat on the Spray Malathion or

(Eupterote favia) young leaves Fenvalerate

3. Mites Attack the fruit surface, Spray Profenefos or

deface the fruits with Acrezid
small bites and make it
unattractive for market
4. Mealybugs Attack on young flushes Spray Carbaryl or
and fruits Dimethoate
Diseases

1. Sooty mold Attack on young leaves Improving aeration and

sunlight penetration by
pruning overlapping
branches will reduce
infection.
Spray with common
fungicides

2. Anthracnose Leaves Spray with common

fungicides
3. Bacterial Leaf Sheath Leaves Spray common fungicides

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61. HARVESTING AND POSTHARVEST HANDLIGN

Fruits are at the edible, ripe stage when the skin has darkened to a reddish
–purple, no latex remain in the skin and the flesh segment easily from the skin,
and soluble solids content from 17 to 20%.

A. Maturity indices

1. 113-119 days from flower opening (Anabesa,1992)

2. Change fruit color from green to pinkish purple

B. Harvesting Methods

Not all fruits will reach maturity or ripen at the same time. Harvesting
should be performed every second or third day to obtain top quality fruit
with the degree of ripeness demanded by market.

Fruit can be harvested by:

a) Handpicking / picking of fruits individually

b) Use of long pole with a net at end
c) Harvest in the early morning or late afternoon

C. Postharvest Handling

Mangosteen fruits may have various degrees of injury as a result of

harvesting and in field handling before the fruits reach the packing house.
Such injury should be minimized in subsequent handling, including long
distance transportation, to avoid further damage and loss in quality.
Mechanical damage in mangosteen is reduced by careful handling
avoiding any compression.

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 Market experts emphasize that growers must understand how to harvest,
pack, store and transport they’re so the consumers will receive a product
of high quality. Therefore, growers, shippers, carriers and receivers should
be familiar with quality standards and strive to reduce postharvest losses.

Harvested fruits are transported to the packing house to prepare the fruits
before being transported to local market. A packing house can be a simple
shed constructed from locally available materials. A chart showing the
typical packing house operation.

1. Sorting: Remove unmarketable fruits (immature, over ``

mature and damaged fruits) and foreign matter.

2. Grading: The fruits are sorted according to quality and size before
packing.
Fruit sizes

a. small (16-18 fruits/kg)

b. medium (12-14 fruits/kg)
c. large (8-10 fruits/kg)
d. Packing: The selected fruits should be placed in wooden
crates or packed in corrugated cartons.

3. Storage: Mangosteen fruits can be stored in cool temperature

of 8-10 C for 8 weeks.

62. YIELD

Under optimum conditions, mangosteen trees begin to fruit 6-8 years after
planting. The yield varies from tree to tree and from season to season. The trees
tend to bear in alternate years. An estimated light crop is 100 fruits per plant
while a heavy crop is 500-600 or more fruits per plant. Yield of 200 -800 fruits
per full grown have been reported in places with good soils and up to 2,000 fruits
per tree have been noted. In Davao National Crop Research and Development
Center (DNCRDC) the yield increases from average of 10-20 fruits per tree after
the 5th year to more than 1,000 fruits per tree after the 15th year as shown in
Table 5
.
Table 5. Estimated production of mangosteen in DNCRDC.

Age of tree (year) No. of fruits/year

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 5 10-20
6 30-60
7 70-90
8 100-150
9 200-300
10 350-500
11-14 500-900
15 year onward 1,000-1,500

PRODUCTION GUIDE FOR CAIMITO

The caimito (Chrysophyllum cainito Linn.) is relatively a minor fruit which is valued
not only for its luscious fruit but also for its physical and aesthetic attributes. It is a
spreading and very ornamental-looking tree, with graceful branches and richly colored
foliage that provide shade and beauty to the environment. It is one of the physically
tough trees with resistance to strong winds and typhoons although its leaves are easily
damaged by those climatic conditions.

The caimito (Chrysophyllum cainito Linn.) belongs to the family Sapotaceae, the family
which consists of shrubs and trees of wide distribution mostly in tropical regions. In the
Philippines and in some English-speaking countries, the caimito is commonly known
as starapple, most likely because of its fruit has the shape and size of an apple, and
when cut crosswise through the middle, its seeds spread out starlike. It is also known
as golden-leaf tree since the beneath surface of its leaves are velvety, silky and
goldenbrown when mature, though silvery when young. Sometimes, it is called as
milkfruit because of its white and milky juice.

Caimito is indigenous to the West Indies, spread over tropical America and now it is
cultivated throughout the tropics. In South-East Asia, it is most frequent in the
Philippines, Thailand and Southern Indo-China. Wester (1912) stated that caimito was
introduced in the country between 1902 and 1907 by W.S. Lyon, the first horticulturist
of the Bureau of Plant Industry. It has become widely distributed throughout the
country and successfully grown from Batanes to Sulu, especially in the provinces of La
Union, Tarlac, Bataan, Pampanga, Bulacan, Batangas, Cavite and Laguna. Caimito is
grown mostly as a backyard tree or as a component of mixed orchards. The Philippines
had an area planted to Caimito of 7,600 hectares in 1998 and a volume of production
of 25,389 tons (BAS, 1999).

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63. Botanical Descriptions

Caimito, a hermaphroditic or self-pollinated is an evergreen, thick-crowned, attractive

tree growing up to 10-15 m high or more and with a canopy spread of 6-9 m wide or
more (Fig. 1). The numerous branches are slender and hanging and the young growths
are copper colored covered with fine hairs. The leaves are ovate oblong, 6-18 cm long,
3-8 cm wide, pointed at the tip, blunt or rounded at the base, leathery, light to shiny
dark green on upper surface and velvety, silky, russet or golden brown beneath (Fig. 2).
The prominent lateral veins make an obtuse angle, almost perpendicular to the midrib,
parallel to each other and run from the midrib towards the edge of the leaf. The petioles
are 1.5 cm long. The flowers are purplish white, small, inconspicuous and borne in
clusters at the leaf axils of the current season’s shoots. There are 5 sepals and a tubular
corolla with 5 lobes. They also have sweet fragrant smell.

The fruit is oblong to round, 5-10 cm long, 5-7 cm in diameter and weighs 140260 g or
more each (Fig. 3). The skin is smooth and somewhat glossy, thick and leathery and
light green or yellowish green to dark purple when ripe. Each fruit contains 8-10
translucent white segments. The flesh is soft, creamy or purplish, translucent, juicy,
melting and deliciously flavored. Each fruit segment usually encloses a seed, but due
to abortion, only 4-8 seeds are formed per fruit. The seeds are ovate to elliptical,
somewhat flattened, about 2 cm long, 1-2 cm wide, hard, dark brown, glossy and
smooth except for a prominent scar on the central surface.

64. Uses and Nutrient Value

The fruits are delicious as a fresh dessert fruit; it is sweet and best served chilled. The
fresh fruit is also often added to salads and may also be used as an ingredient of

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icecream and sherbet. Caimito fruit has 51-70% edible portion and the tough rind is
inedible.

Table 1. Food composition of caimito per 100 g edible portion.

Types
Constituents
Green Purple

Moisture (%) 82.6 80.5

Food energy (cal) 67 72

Protein (g) 0.7 1.3

Fat (g) 1.1 0.6

Total carbohydrates (g) 15.3 17.4

Fiber (g) 0.7 Trace

Ash (g) 0.3 0.2

Calcium (mg) 17 14

Phosphorus (mg) 13 9

Iron (mg) 0.4 0.2

Sodium (mg) 8 -

Potassium (mg) 145 -

Vitamin A (I.U.) 10 Trace

Thiamine (mg) 0.02 0.01

Rivoflavin (mg) 0.02 0.01

Niacin (mg) 0.8 0.9

Ascorbic acid (mg) 7 6

The bark, leaves, latex, fruit and seeds possess medicinal properties. The bark
decoction is good for dysentery and the infusion is tonic and refreshing. The leaf
decoction is used for diabetes, hypertension and cancer treatments. The latex is good
for abscesses and the dried latex is a drastic anthelmintic. The ripe fruit, because of its
mucilaginous character, is eaten to sooth inflammation in laryngitis and pneumonia.
The fruit is also a remedy for diabetes while the seed is a tonix, febrifuge and
antidiarrhea.

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The reddish-brown wood is suitable for construction purposes, and the mature
branches are used as a medium to grow orchids. The tree is much appreciated as an
ornamental.

65. Varieties

There are two distinct types of caimito, the purple and the green fruited. Both are green
when immature but when they ripen, the first one (purple type) turns purple (Fig. 4)
while the other one (green type) remains green or changes to yellowish-green
(Fig. 5).

There are two varieties of caimito in the Philippines registered in the National Seed
Council (NSIC), the RCF Purple (NSIC 1995 Cm 01) which originated from seed of
unknown source by Dr. Roberto E. Coronel of Los Baños, Laguna and the Rabanal
(NSIC 2000 Cm 02) which originated from seedling by Mr. Sixto R. Pascua of Batac,
Ilocos Norte (Fig. 6 & 7). Both varieties are generally characterized to have fruitful trees
with large purple and delicious fruits and easy to propagate by cleft grafting.

Table 2. Morphological and horticultural characteristics of RCF Purple and Rabanal

caimito varieties.
Va riety
Characteristics RCF Purple Rabanal
Tree
Age (year) 35-40 53
Height (m) 10 20
Growth habit spreading spreading
Growth and vigor strong strong
Fruiting season January-February March-May
Regularity of bearing annual regular
Yield (fruits/year) 2,000-2,500 1,000
Whole Fruit
Size
Weight (g) 331.4 379.7
Length (cm) 8.3 8.8
Width (cm) 8.5 8
Shape globose globose
Skin
Color purple purple
Texture Smooth and shiny Smooth and shiny
Thickness (mm) 7.9 3.7
Weight (g) 153 106.4
Flesh : 69.6%
Color creamy white to purple creamy white to purple

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 Texture soft and melting smooth and fine
Juiciness Juicy Juicy
Fibers None none to scanty
Aroma mild mild
TSS (ºBrix) 13.2 18.9
Flavor sweet and creamy very sweet and creamy
Edible portion (%) 51.1 69.6
Seed
Number 6.8 7.5
Size
Weight (g) 8.2 8.8
Length (cm) 2.3 2.3
Width (cm) 1.6 1.5
Shape flat flat
Color black

66. Culture and Management

Soil and Climatic Requirements

The caimito grows successfully on almost any type of soil. It can grow in shallow sandy
soils or in poorly drained clay soils. For best performance, a deep, fertile and welldrained
soil is preferred. A slightly acidic soil condition (pH 5.5-6.0) is desirable.

The caimito is a hardy plant and thrives well on almost all types of climate in the
Philippines. It thrives best in warm and humid places at low and medium altitudes
where the dry season is not very pronounced. In places with prolonged dry season, the
tree suffers from water stress as evidenced by the wilting and abscission of leaves. The
fruit shrivel and become less juicy upon ripening.

Seed Preparation and Germination

Select seeds from healthy, sound and ripe fruits. Extract, washed thoroughly with
water and sow in seed boxes or seedbeds containing garden soil mixed with coir dust.
Plant the seeds about 1 cm deep and about 2-3 cm apart and water regularly to keep
the seedbed moist all the time. The seed will germinate in 18-40 days after sowing. The
seedbed should be located in a partially shaded area to protect the seeds and the
emerging seedling from injury due to direct exposure to sunlight.

The caimito seeds can be stored after cleaning for some time and retain their viability
by allowing them to air-dry for a couple of days, stirring them now and then to ensure
uniform drying and then store in clean, dry containers until planting time.

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Establishment and Care of Seedlings

When 3-5 leaves have developed, transplant the seedlings individually in a 7 x 11”
polyethylene bags containing a mixture of 70% garden soil + 30% organic matter or
compost as potting/bagging medium to hasten growth of seedlings. Make sure that the
bags have small holes at the bottom to drain excess water. Provide partial shade to
newly bagged seedlings until such time they are already established. Regular watering
and spraying with fungicide and insecticides is necessary to protect the seedlings
against pests and diseases. They can be used as rootstock after 6-8 months.

Propagation

Caimito may be propagated sexually by seeds and asexually by marcotting, inarching,

grafting and budding.

Apparently, a tree propagated by seeds exhibit a high degree of variability with respect
to plant and fruit characters; take a longer time to bear fruits; and tend to grow into a
large tree. Whereas in an asexually propagated tree, the genetic makeup of the tree is
known or its true varietal identity is evident; bears fruits early; and the tree size is
smaller than a sexually propagated tree. Thus, asexual propagation is recommended
to multiply outstanding trees.

Cleft grafting is the commonly used method of asexual propagation by fruit growers
and nursery operators. It has been used successfully not only to propagate outstanding
caimito trees but also to transform undesirable trees to desirable varieties. This is a
method of plant propagation by which a healthy shoot called scion or bud stick is taken
from a selected mother tree and then inserted into a healthy rootstock to grow together
as one plant. The scion and rootstock must be compatible for them to unite permanently.

Steps in cleft grafting:

1. Chose a healthy seedling rootstock about 6-8 months old or 7-10 mm in

stem diameter.

2. Cut off the shoot of the rootstock and make a vertical cut about 2.0 – 2.5
cm. to make a V-shaped opening for the scion.
3. Get a scion from selected outstanding tree with stem size approximately
matching that of the rootstock.
4. Cut the basal end of the scion into a gently sloping wedge about 2 cm.
long.
5. Insert the scion onto the opening of the rootstock.
6. Wrap the graft union and the budstick with thin plastic strip and cover
with ice candy wrapper.

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Complete union of the scion and the rootstocks is attained after 21 days and within 7
months after grafting, the grafted plants are large enough and ready for transplanting.

67. Land Preparation and Planting

Clear the land before laying out. Plow deeply and harrow twice to attain good soil tilth.
Lay-out stakes at 10 m between rows and 12 m between hills. Dig holes on places
occupied by the stakes. Prior to planting, put at least 500 g to 1 kg organic fertilizer or
animal manure in each hole. Plant at the onset of rainy season. At planting, remove
the bag or container of the planting material and gently set in the prepared holes, then
cover with top soil which is then pressed firmly around the stem. The plant material
should be matured with no signs of flushing to avoid planting shock due to exposure to
sunlight. Water immediately the newly transplanted trees and provide temporary shade
in case dry period will come after planting.

A caimito tree was planted in Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

68. Intercropping and Covercropping

Utilize fully the spaces between the rows of caimito trees while they are not yet
productive by planting cash crops such as corn, pineapple, root crops and vegetable
crops to provide shade, added income, and minimize the growth of weeds. Other fruit
trees and plantation crops such as banana, lanzones, rambutan, coffee and cacao may
also be utilized as intercrops.

Growing of perennial leguminous crops between caimito trees is beneficial for they serve
as source of nutrients as they decompose enriching the soil with nitrogen and humus,
they control growth of weeds and soil erosion.

69. Irrigation

Water is necessary for newly planted caimito trees to ensure survival and uninterrupted
growth. Water the plants regularly during long dry period especially when trees are on

109
flowering and fruit development stages to prevent flower and fruit abscission. The fruit
quality especially its juiciness will also be affected if water is inadequate.

70. Fertilization

Soil analysis is necessary to know the fertilizer requirement of the caimito trees.
However, in the absence of soil analysis, the general fertilization practice to ensure the
healthy growth of young caimito trees, nitrogen with phosphorous fertilizer should be
applied. Organic fertilizer can also supplement the nutritional needs of the plants. Do
basal fertilization with 0.5-1 kg of chicken or cow manure. For non-bearing trees, apply
150-200 g Ammonium Phosphate (16-20-0) twice a year. When the tree is about to
flower, apply twice a year 500 g complete fertilizer with high nitrogen and potassium to
promote yield, size and quality of fruits. For full grown trees, about 3 kg or more
complete fertilizer may be applied in two split application.

71. Training and Pruning

When the trees are still young or approximately one meter tall, pruning should be done
to train them to a desirable height and shape of the canopy. This is done by allowing
only 2-3 primary branches to develop the secondary branches that will form the desired
canopy shape. Once the trees have attained their workable height and shape, maintain
the trees by regular pruning and removal of water sprouts and infested twigs to allow
penetration of sunlight and air circulation within the canopy and prevent the emergence
of pests and diseases.

72. Control of Pests

The common pests that attack the fruit are as follows: twig borers, carpenter moth,
mealy bugs, scales, fruit flies, ants and bats. This pest can be controlled by chemical
application except for bats that are nocturnal and can be waylaid off by scarecrows like
hanging of colored plastic bags on bearing branches.

73. Control of Diseases

Considering that caimito is a sturdy tree, the fruit is resistant to diseases. There is no
common disease in fruits except for sooty soft rot which can be controlled by contact
fungicide and can be prevented by sanitation and pruning.

110
74. Harvesting

Caimito trees starts to bear fruits at the age of 5-6 years for seedling trees while grafted
trees flower as early as 3-4 years. The flowering starts in the month of June to December
and harvesting is from late December to March or April. Full grown trees usually bear
1,000 fruits per tree depending on the season, locality and the management practices.

For evergreen varieties, the fruit is ripe when it changes its color from dull green to
light green and the purple variety, from dull green to purple. Usually the ripe fruits are
soft when slightly press by hand. Ripe fruits should not be left in the tree longer than
necessary for they are attacked by fruit flies, birds and bats.

Caimito fruits do not ripen at the same time, so selective harvesting is done. Harvest
the fruits manually by climbing the tree or using a ladder. Pick the fruits by cutting the
pedicel or stem to avoid wounding the base of the pedicel and prevent early rotting of
fruit. For fruits that cannot be reached by hand, use bamboo pole with net attached to
catch the fruits. Pick only the ripe fruits for those harvested unripe will never turn ripe.
Place harvested fruits in a basket attached to a rope which is then lowered down to the
ground once filled-up.

Sort harvested fruits on the ground and separate damaged fruits. Clip off the stem so
as not to leave a stub that may injure other fruits. Pack fruits in bamboo baskets, kaings
or boxes lined with banana leaves. Dispose or market immediately for the fruits are
highly perishable.

75. Cost and Return

Tables 3 and 4 show the estimated volume of production and the ten-year
estimated cost and return of a one-hectare caimito orchard, respectively. It is
also shown in Appendix 1a and Appendix 1b the estimated costs of production
of planting materials and the estimated establishment and management costs
of a one-hectare caimito orchard for a period of ten years.

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 AVOCADO PRODUCTION GUIDE

Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) known as 'aguacate' in Spanish ,

'alligator pear', 'Palta pear', 'Midshipman’s butter', 'avocado' in English, and
'abokado' in the Philippine vernacular belongs to family Lauraceae; hence it is
related to the cinnamon tree, camphor, and sassafras. It is considered as one of
the most nutritious fruit in the world.

76. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CROP

In the Philippines, two distinct types of avocado exist, namely the greenfruited
and the purple-fruited types however, the purple-fruited varieties are preferred
by the consumers. Table 1 shows the country’s average from 2005-2010 area
planted with avocado, number of bearing trees and the volume of production by
region

Table 1. Area Planted with Avocado, Number of Bearing Trees and Production by
Region (mean of 2005-2010 figures from BAS).

Region Area (ha) Number of Production

bearing trees (tons)
CAR 225 21,690 1,292
Ilocos 240 25,165 1,882
Cagayan Valley 788 95,869 5,573
Central Luzon 172 18,146 588
CALABARZON 503 65,627 1,557
112
 MIMAROPA 284 27,097 1,724
Bicol Region 818 82,759 1,396
Western Visayas 460 45,851 999
Central Visayas 434 39,390 3,469
Eastern Visayas 150 16,226 656
Western Mindanao 427 20,206 881
Northern Mindanao 201 14,925 750
Southern Mindanao 139 14,923 1,244
Central Mindanao 120 8,577 340
CARAGA 376 32,559 869
ARMM 89 8,391 1,330
Total 5,426 537,401 24,550

77. Usages of the Crop and Nutritional Profile

Creamy rich avocado is considered the world's healthiest fruit, because of its
nutrient contents such as vitamin K, dietary fiber, potassium, folic acid, vitamin
B6, vitamin C, copper, and reasonable calories in it (Table 2).

Table 2. Nutritional facts per 150 g avocado flesh.

Nutritional facts from 150g of avocado flesh (Lifestylekarma, 2012)

Nutrient Amount
Protein 3.0 g
Potassium 727mg
Calories 240 g
Carbohydrates 12.8 g
Vitamin K 31.50 mcg
Vitamin A 219 IU
Folate 122 mg
Dietary fiber 10.1 g
Vitamin C 15 mg
Vitamin E 3.1 mg
Vitamin B6 0.4 mg

78. Medicinal Uses

The fruit skin is antibiotic; is employed as a vermifuge and remedy for dysentery.
The leaves are chewed as a remedy for pyorrhea. Leaf poultices are applied on
wounds. Heated leaves are applied on the forehead to relieve neuralgia. The
113
aqueous extract of the leaves has a prolonged hypertensive effect. The leaf
decoction is taken as a remedy for diarrhea, sore throat and hemorrhage; it
allegedly stimulates and regulates menstruation. It is also drunk as a stomachic.
In Cuba, a decoction of the new shoots is a cough remedy. If leaves, or shoots of
the purpleskinned type, are boiled, the decoction serves as an abortifacient. The
seed is cut in pieces, roasted and pulverized and given to overcome diarrhea and
dysentery. The powdered seed is believed to cure dandruff. A piece of the seed,
or a bit of the decoction, put into a tooth cavity may relieve toothache. An
ointment made of the pulverized seed is rubbed on the face as a rubefacient—to
redden the cheeks. An oil extracted from the seed has been applied on skin
eruptions.

79. VARIETIES

Avocado is botanically divided into 3 races: Mexican, West Indian and

Guatemalan.

Table 3. List of avocado varieties approved by the Philippine National Seed

Industry Council (NSIC).

Name Characteristics

1. NSIC 95-Av-02 Prolific yielder, (500-700 fruits/season) bear fruit both during
(Parker) the late season & off season; fruit of excellent eating quality,
(Fig. 1) possessing flesh texture (smooth & firm) w/ scanty fiber with
flavor buttery & nutty; high edible portion of 87.0%. a fruit
weighs 561.4 g

2. NSIC 97-Av-03 Yield, 300-400 fruits/season. Significant small seed (about 9%

(RCF Morado) of the total fruit weight skin easily peels off; testa does not
adhere to the flesh with high edible portion (80.8%). A fruit
weighs 391.5 g

3. Cepillo Green The fruit pyriform and weighing 700 grams. The skin is green
(Fig. 2) and intermediate in thickness (0.9 mm). The seed is
intermediate in size (90 g). The flesh is dark yellow and is 80%
of the whole fruit by weight.

These are the NSIC-accredited avocado varieties

NSIC 1995 Salcedo Alejandro Tabayocyoc, Bua-bua ,
Av08 Salcedo
Eastern
Samar
114
 NSIC 1995 Cepillo Atty. Gualberto Cepillo, Balagtas,
Av05 Green Batangas
City

NSIC 1995 Rambu Isabelo Ramos, 1 Banna, Ilocos

Av09 Norte

PSB 1991 De Leon Jose de Leon, Talisay,

Av1 Batangas

PSB 1991 Calma Jose de Leon, Talisay,

Av2 Batangas

PSB 1991 Tacloban Ma. Elisa A Pernejo, Juan Luna St.,

Av3 Selection Tacloban
City

NSIC 1995 Parker Robert Parker, Limcauco St., Cabuyao,

Av06 Laguna

NSIC 1995 RCF Roberto Coronel,Mt. Makiling St., Los

Av07 Morado Baños,
Laguna

PSB 1992 Bat-Av-0-3 or Bat- Teodoro V. Katigbak, Malabanan,

Av4 000192 Balete,
Batangas

Other avocado varieties in the country are the ‘Cardinal’, ‘Calma’, ‘Uno’,
Accession 240, and Accession 227.

CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT

80. Soil and Climatic Requirements

Soil – it can be grown over a wide range of soil types provided with adequate
drainage. For best production, deep, fertile, well-drained soils, particularly sandy
115
or alluvial loam soils and have a pH of neutral or slightly acid are suited for
avocado.

Climate – a climate with alternating wet and dry season and with minimum
annual rainfall requirement of 750 – 1,000 mm is recommended.
It does not thrive well in places exposed to strong, excessively hot and dry winds.

Elevation - Generally, avocado can grow well from sea level to about 1,500 m in
places with short or no dry season. Where dry season exceeds 4 to 5 months,
irrigation is very important.

Seed Selection and Germination – seed used should be obtained from healthy
and vigorous trees. Select large seeded fruits especially when intended for root-
stocks to maintain seedling quality. It is recommended to plant it at once. If in
case it cannot be planted/propagated immediately, store it in the moist sand or
sphagnum moss. Seeds are sown with the pointed ends up and with about one-
fourth of their length above soil level. Germination starts 2-3 weeks from planting
or sowing.

Care of Seedlings – the seedlings planted in containers should be provided with

temporary shade. Direct exposure to sunlight may injure the seeds and the
emerging one. Water the seedlings regularly and if the need arises, spray it with
the recommended dosages of pesticides to control pests.

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Propagation – avocado can be propagated either sexually (by seeds) or asexually
(by marcotting, inarching, grafting, and budding). However, propagation through
seeds is not recommended for the resulting plants do not come true-to-type.
a. Marcotting. This is an option, however, it is laborious, slow and
some varieties do not respond well to this method. Besides, it takes 4 to 5
months of marcot to produce roots.
b. Inarching. It gives a very high percentage of success as good results
can be obtained in both dry and wet seasons. A relatively slow process, it
takes 8 to 62 weeks or more to separate the inarches from the tree.
Inarching is recommended for small scale propagation only.
c. Cleft Grafting. This is recommended for larger scale propagation.
Use rootstock about 6 to 12 months old with a stem as large as pencil.
Select mature budstick with a well-developed terminal buds.
d. Shield Budding. It is also recommended for larger propagation.
This method is fast and resulting plants are precarious, low spreading and
uniform. Seedling stock for this purpose should be about 23 – 30 cm tall
and its stem is pencilsize. Select mature budwood to facilitate easy
bending.

81. LAND PREPARATION

Backyard Planting – dig a hole wide and large enough to accommodate the ball
of the planting material.

Orchard Plantation – prepare the land thoroughly by plowing 2 to 3 times

followed by two or more harrowing until good tilt is attained. Stake the field with
the recommended distance of planting.

Planting – transplant the planting materials when they are about 50 cm tall. The
recommended distance of planting is 9 meters apart accommodating 125
seedlings per hectare. Align the trees in all directions and finally pack the base
of the plant to let the root system recover early.
Planting can be done anytime of the year but the best time is during the onset of
the rainy season. If planted during dry season provide the seedlings with
irrigation and partial shade.

Irrigation - Young trees (2-3 years old) are very sensitive to heat and water
should be given regularly (every two weeks).

Fertilization - in the absence of soil analysis, the general recommendation is to

apply 100-200g ammonium sulfate or 50-100g urea per tree one month after
planting. Apply the same amount six months thereafter. Reduce the
recommendation when supplemented with manure or compost. Apply 500g of
14-14-14 per tree twice a year at the start of fruiting. For full bearing trees (15-
20 years old) at least 2kg complete fertilizer per tree per year. Half the amount
should be applied at the start of the rainy season and the other half at the end
of the season.

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Pruning - Requires little training but decayed or dead braches should be removed.
Varieties with vertical growth can be pruned to encourage horizontal growth,
however, it should be minimized when the trees start to bear fruits.

Intercropping and covercropping - use vacant spaces in between the main crop
by planting bananas, papaya, pineapple, vegetables, cereals and other short-
season crops. Replace it with leguminous cover crops when intercropping is no
longer feasible.

82. Pests and diseases control

Other Notes for the author- (1) try to find organic pesticides that can be used in
preventing and or controlling the major insect pest and diseases of avocado.

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83. Harvesting

Fruit maturity is indicated by the appearance of reddish- streaks on stem-end

(purple varieties), change in color from green to light green in green varieties and
production of a hollow sound when tapped with fingers. Harvesting should be
done using a picking pole with a wire hook and a net basket attached to its end
to avoid injury of fruits.

Fruits should be placed in basket or box lined with packing materials (dried
straw, banana leaves) for local market or individually wrapped with soft paper
and packed in single layered boxes for long distance shipment.

84. Costs and Return

Given the proper care and management, avocado trees bear fruits 4 years
from field planting. The estimated cost of producing the planting materials, field
establishment and management up to marketing is shown in Appendix 1a-1b.
The estimated volume of production of avocado per tree, productivity per hectare
and the value of production per hectare is shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Estimated volume of production of avocado per tree, producitivity per

hectare and value of production per hectare.
Year Productivity/Tree Productivity per Hectare % Marketable Gross Value of
(No. Of fruits) Fruit (kgs) Production (P)
(No. of fruits) (kgs)

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 4 30 3,750 2,063 1,857 27,855.00

5 70 8,750 4,813 4,332 64,980.00

6 120 15,000 8,250 7,425 111,375.00

7 200 25,000 13,750 12,375 185,625.00

8 300 37,500 20,625 18,563 278,445.00

9 400 50,000 27,500 24,750 371,250.00

10 500 62,500 34,375 30,938 464,070.00

Assumptions:
1. 125 trees/ha
2. Bearing stage starts at year 4
3. Average weight of fruit = 550g/fruit
4. 10% non-marketable fruits or rejects
5. Farm gate price = P15.00/kg

Table 5 shows the costs and return of a one-hectare avocado orchard. No

income is expected from year 1to year 3. The orchard is expected to start
generating a little income on Year 4 and boosts on the succeeding years provided
that proper care and maintenance is employed.

DURIAN PRODUCTION GUIDE

85. Introduction

Durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.) belongs to the genus Durio and the family
Bombacaceae, which is best known for showy flowers and woody or thin-shelled pods
filled with small seeds and silky or cottonlike fiber. It is the most important native fruit
of southeastern Asia and neighboring islands. Widely known and revered in southeast
Asia as the "king of fruits", the durian is distinctive for its large size, unique odor, and
formidable thorn-covered husk.

The durian, native to Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia, has been known to the Western
world for about 600 years. The 19th-century British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace
famously described its flesh as "a rich custard highly flavoured with almonds". The flesh
can be consumed at various stages of ripeness and is used to flavor a wide variety of
savory and sweet edibles in Southeast Asian cuisines. The seeds can also be eaten when
cooked.
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 86. Description

The durian tree, reaching 27 to 40 meters in height in tropical forests, is usually erect
with short, straight, rough, peeling trunk to 1.2 meters in diameter, and irregular dense
or open crown of rough branches, and thin branchlets coated with coppery or gray scales
when young.

The fruits are ovoid or ovoid-oblong to nearly round, 15 to 30 cm long, 12.5 to

15 cm wide, and up to 8 kg in weight. The yellow or yellowish-green rind is thick, tough,
semi-woody, and densely set with stout, sharply pointed spines, 3- to 7-sided at the
base. Handling without gloves can be painful. Inside there are 5 compartments
containing the creamy-white, yellowish, pinkish or orange-colored flesh and 1 to 7
chestnut-like seeds, 2 to 6 cm long with glossy, red-brown seedcoat. In the best fruits,
most seeds are abortive. There are some odorless cultivars but the flesh of the common
durian has a powerful odor

Some fruits split into 5 segments, others do not split, but all fall to the ground when
mature.

87. Related Species

There are estimated to be 28 species in the genus Durio in Malaysia. Only 5 species in
addition to the durian bear edible fruits. These are D. dulcis Becc., in Sabah and
Indonesian Borneo; D. grandiflorus Kost., in Sabah, Sarawak, and Indonesian Borneo;
D. graveolens Becc., in peninsular Malaya and all of Borneo and Sumatra; D. kutejensis
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Becc., all over Borneo, and ranked second to the durian in edibility; and D. oxleyanus
Griff., in peninsular Malaya and all of Borneo and Sumatra. All five are cultivated in
Brunei and a few to some extent in Malaysian Borneo.

It is believed that some of the other species, especially D. malaccensis Planch. and D.
Wyatt-Smithii Kost., which are very closely allied to D. zibethinus, may be useful in
breeding for pest- and disease-resistance and other characters.

There is evidence that natural interspecific cross-pollination is going on because a

hybrid of D. zibethinus and D. graveolens has been found in northeastern Indonesian
Borneo, and some trees of normally white-flowered D. malaccensis have been discovered
in Johore State with reddish flowers, perhaps from cross-pollination by the pink or
redflowered D. lowianus King and D. pinangianus.

88. Production Statistics

As of 2010, the area planted to durian in the Philippines was estimated at a total of
18,837.75 has., with a total of 774,772 bearing trees. Of these, a total of 11,409.00
has. or 60.56 percent with a total of 492,121 bearing trees are found in the Davao
region.

The volume of production in 2010 was estimated at 77,548.50 mt., with 55,606.33
mt, or 71.70 percent, coming from the Davao region. Of these, 1 mt. were exported and
4,653 mt. were as feed and/or waste, leaving a total net food disposable of 72,894 mt.

89. Uses of Durian

Durians are sold whole, or cut open and divided into segments, which are wrapped in
clear plastic. The flesh is mostly eaten fresh, often out-of-hand. It is best after being well
chilled in a refrigerator. Sometimes it is simply boiled with sugar or cooked in coconut
water, and it is a popular flavoring for ice cream.

Durian flesh is canned in syrup for export. It is also dried for local use and export.
Blocks of durian paste are sold in the markets. The unripe fruit is boiled whole and
eaten as a vegetable.

The seeds are eaten after boiling, drying, and frying or roasting. In Java, the seeds may
be sliced thin and cooked with sugar as a confection; or dried and fried in coconut oil
with spices for serving as a side-dish.

Young leaves and shoots are occasionally cooked as greens. Sometimes the ash of the
burned rind is added to special cakes. Nutritional Value of the Durian Fruit
Value:(per 100 gram of the Minerals Vitamins
edible part)

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Water - 64.990 gram Calcium, Ca - 6 mg Vitamin C, ascorbic acid - 19.7
Energy - 147 kcal Iron, Fe - 0.430 mg mg
Energy - 615 kj Magnesium, Mg - 30 mg Thiamin - 0.374 mg
Protein - 1.47 gram Phosphorus, P - 38 mg Riboflavin - 0.2 mg
Total lipid (fat) - 5.33 Potassium, K - 436 mg Niacin - 1.074 mg
gram Sodium, Na - 1 mg Pantothenic acid - 0.23 mg
Carbohydrate, by Zinc, Zn - 0.28 mg Vitamin B-6 - 0.316 mg
difference - 27.09 gram Copper, Cu - 0.207 mg Vitamin A, IU - 45.000 IU
Fiber, total dietary - 3.8 Manganese, Mn - 0.324 Vitamin A, RE - 5.000
gram mg mcg_RE
Source: US Department of Agriculture

Toxicity

The seeds are believed to possess a toxic property that causes shortness of breath.

90. Other Uses

Rind: The dried or half-dried rinds are burned as fuel and fish may be hung in the
smoke to acquire a strong flavor. The ash is used to bleach silk.

Wood: The sapwood is white, the heartwood light red-brown, soft, coarse, not durable
nor termite-resistant. It is used for masts and interiors of huts in Malaya.

Medicinal Uses: The flesh is said to serve as a vermifuge. In Malaya, a decoction of the
leaves and roots is prescribed as a febrifuge. The leaf juice is applied on the head of a
fever patient. The leaves are employed in medicinal baths for people with jaundice.

Decoctions of the leaves and fruits are applied to swellings and skin diseases. The ash
of the burned rind is taken after childbirth. The leaves probably contain
hydroxytryptamines and mustard oils.

The odor of the flesh is believed to be linked to indole compounds which are
bacteriostatic. Eating durian is alleged to restore the health of ailing humans and
animals. The flesh is widely believed to act as an aphrodisiac.

91. Adaptation

Durian is adapted to sandy loam and clay loam, with high organic matter, reasonably
deep and slightly acidic soil, pH of 5.6.

Durian grows in lowland tropics in elevation up to 800 meters above sea level with
optimum temperature of 25-35 0C and 80% relative humidity.

Recommended Varieties

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92. NSIC Registered Durian Varieties and their Characteristics

Varieties Fruit shape Fruit Maturity Peel Color Percent Aroma Flesh TSS

Size (# of Edible Color

(kg) days) Portion

Chanee Cylindrical 2-4 110-115 Greenish 35-40% Moderate Golden 25

(Fig. 1) brown

Monthong Elongated 2-5 120-125 Golden yellow 25% Moderate Creamy 27

(Fig. 2) yellow

Atabrine Ellipsoidal 2-4 105-115 Greenish 25% Strong Naples 25

(Fig. 3) brown yellow

Mamer -do- 1-2 105-115 -do- 25% Strong Barium 25

(Fig.4) orange

GD 69 Obovate 2-4 113-118 -do- 36% -do- Canary 26

(Fig. 5) yellow

Alcon Round 1-2 90-110 -do- 35% -do- Yellow 27

Fancy
(Fig. 6)

Lacson Obovate 3-6 115-120 Brownish 35% -do- Mimosa 27

Uno green yellow
(Fig. 7)

Arancillo Ovoid to 1-3 115-120 -do- 38% -do- Chrome 27

(Fig. 8) Cylindrical yellow

Puyat Cylindrical 3-5 120-125 Greenish 40% -do- Chrome 27

(Fig. 9) brown yellow

Oboza Cylindrical 3-4 120-125 Green 21% Moderate Yellow 26

Duyaya Cylindrical 3-5 120-125 Green brown 31% Weak Yellow 27

(Fig. 10)

SMIARC Ovoid to 2-3 115-120 Brownishgreen 28 Moderate Barium 27

#2 cylindrical yellow

93. Methods of Propagation

It is reported that, in some countries, seedling durian trees have borne fruit at 5 years
of age. In India, generally, they come into bearing 9 to 12 years after planting, but in
South India they will not produce fruit until they are 13 to 21 years old. In Malaya,
seedlings will bloom in 7 years; grafted trees in 4 years or earlier.

In durian, inarching can be accomplished with 50% success but is not a popular
method because the grafts must be left on the trees for many months. Selected cultivars
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are propagated by patch-budding (a modified Forkert method) Grafted trees never grow
as tall as seedlings; they are usually between 8 to 10 m tall; rarely 12 m.

94. Preparation of planting materials

The following are recommended:

a. Use fully developed seeds from mature/ripe durian fruits of the

recommended varieties.
b. Germinate the seeds in seed box or seed bed with coco peat, fine river sand
or saw dust as germination medium.
c. Prick the germinated seedlings into 6 x 10 in. x 0.0025 or 7 x 11 in. x 0.003
PE bags as growing medium containing 1 part each of garden soil, fine river sand
and compost at 9-12 days after germination and place them in the nursery with
a net cover with 70 percent sunlight penetration.
d. Water them immediately after planting in polyethylene bags, then water
them every 2 to 3 days thereafter or as the need arises.
e. Seedlings are ready for grafting at 21-30 days old using hypocotyl grafting;
epicotyl side grafting at 2-4 months old; cleft grafting for 5-months and patch
budding for 8 months & older rootstock.
f. Gradually reduce nursery shade from 30% to full sunlight two months
before field planting.

Can the author provide illustration for hypocotyl grafting and patch budding?

95. Cultural Management Land

Preparation

a. Clear and remove all stumps and grasses.

b. Plow twice and harrow thrice to loosen the soil.

Distance of Planting

a. 8 x 8 meters = 156 plants/ha.

b. 10 x 10 meters = 100 plants/ha.

Preparation of Holes and Planting

a. Dig holes measuring 30 cm wide and 30 cm deep. Deeper and wider holes
are recommended for heavy soil types.
b. Remove the plastic bag and plant the seedling into the hole without
breaking the ball of soil. Prune spiraled roots to enhance root branching.
c. Plant the young seedlings at their dormant stage.
d. Cover the hole with soil-manure mixture and gently press the surface of
the soil.
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 e. Plant during the rainy season.

Maintenance

Provide temporary shade to the newly planted durian seedlings for a period of two
weeks to a few months depending on weather condition to enable the plants to
recover from transplanting shock and to shade it from strong sunlight.

Fertilization

a. Apply as basal 50 grams (5 tbsp.) of complete fertilizer (14-14-14) or based

on soil analysis and cover with thin layer of soil.
b. Periodic application of fertilizers should be based on soil or plant tissue
analysis.

Intercropping

Grow seasonal crops between rows of durian before they become productive.

Weeding

Ring weeding should be done regularly and before fertilization.

Pruning

a. Pruning improves air circulation which results in decreased relative

humidity, thus, reducing the incidence of pests and diseases.
b. Removing low-lying branches prevents splashing during rains which help
prevent pathogens from coming in contact with the branches and leaves of the
durian trees.
c. Prune/remove dead, broken or diseased branches and water shoots to
obtain desired canopy shape and to enhance production of fruits.

Mulching

Mulch the trees with rice straw, dried leaves, cut grasses, or coconut husk during
the dry season.

Irrigation

Water the trees during the dry season. Cut banana pseudostems could also be used
as mulch especially in areas where source of water is a problem since these have
high water content.

Pollination

The durian has a high rate of self-incompatibility, thus hand-pollination is

recommended to ensure a much higher percentage of fruit setting.

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Fruit Thinning

a. Normally, fruit thinning is done 4 to 6 weeks from flower opening

b. The small and misshapen fruits are removed, leaving 1 to 2 fruitlets per
cluster. The recommended number of fruits per tree are as follows:

Age of tree (yrs) No. of fruits per tree

4 5
5 15
6 25
7 40
8 55
9 70
10 85
Propping

a. Use bamboo or wooden poles

b. Tie the branches upward to the main trunk or to an external support such
as wire network in an orchard.

Harvesting

a. Well-cared durian trees start bearing fruits as early as five years old.
b. The common practice to wait until the fruit drops. However, picked
matured fruits before they fall ripens in 3 to 5 days, thus allowing transport to
distant markets Maturity Indices

a. The fruits can be harvested and allowed to ripen in 106 -108 days from
flower opening for local cultivars (Accessions 916, 806, etc.); 112-113 days for
Chanee; and 125 days for Monthong.
b. Emits a dull and hollow sound when tapped.
c. Color of the pericarp is light brown with yellowish green
d. Strong aroma
e. Very pliable spine
f. Very distinct suture (Fig. 11)
g. Sweet with full characteristic durian flavor.

96. Major Insect Pests and Disease And Their Control

Insect Pests

1. Fruit borer
a. Conogetes punctiferalis (Figs. 13 & 14)
• Rare in local clones

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 • Dominant in Arancillo, Chanee and Monthong

Eggs are laid singly on the fruit spines

• Entry points are at the fruit peduncle, base or side
• Dominant in local clones

Control and Management:

• Monitoring of fruit borer infestation at the early stage of fruit development.

• Fruit thinning must be done to reduce infestation.
• Fallen fruits must be collected and burned or buried.
• Light trapping decreases adult population.
• Insecticide spraying starts 4 weeks after fruit set.

2. Shot-hole borer (Xyleborous sp.) (Fig. 19)

• Tiny black or brown beetle

• Pest associated with fungal pathogen phytophthora
• Beetle-pathogen confined on main trunk or main branches

Control and Management:

• Shot-hole borer invades damaged or physiologically stressed trees.
Maintain tree vigor, i.e., through fertilization, irrigation and regular pruning.
• Wider planting distance
• Use resistant varieties
• Scrape infested portion, then apply w/ insecticide

3. Durian Psyllids (Allocarsidara incognita) (Fig. 21)

• The adult is greenish brown to brownish sucks sap of young leaves

Control and Management:

• Predators feed on this foliar pest. Psyllid is prevalent during flushing.Spray
with the following insecticides: Malathion, deltamethrin, Lambdacyhalothrin,
Chlorpyrifos, or dimethoate 4-5 times from June to November

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 4. Bao-bao (Haplaphalara sp.) (Fig. 22)

• The adult is brownish in color, short and stubby; infests shoots, flowers
and fruitlets. It sucks the plant sap of young leaves and flowers and
contributes to dropping of fruitlets. The tree may eventually die due to
defoliation.

Control and Management:

• Same as control measures for durian psyllids.

5. Twig Borer or Carpenter Moth (Fig. 23)

The larvae bore holes on young plants and small branches or twigs of old trees.

Control and Management:

Prune or cut damaged branches, then burn.

6. Mealy Bugs (Fig. 24)

Control and Management:

Spray w/ insecticide when there is heavy infestation

Tabulate as to (a) name of insect pest and its scientific name, (b) mode of attack and

symptoms if appropriate, and (c) prevention and or control mechanisms

Diseases

1. Phytophthora Diseases

• Serious disease of durian

• Soil borne fungus can infect all parts of the tree in all stages of growth and
development.
• Spread by wind, rain water, insects and snails

a. Patch canker (Fig. 25a)

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 • Cause serious damage among orchards.
• Commonly observed in durian trees at bearing stage depending on
the variety planted.

Symptoms:

• Appearance of wet lesions on the bark surface, usually near the

crotch region
• Bark necrosis is accompanied by discoloration and exudation of
reddish brown, gummy, resinous substance.

Control and Management:

• Provide wide spacing, remove weeds & prune low hanging branches.

• Apply chemical at the first sign of infection.

• Scrape and remove diseased barks. Paint infected wood with
fungicide.

b. Seedling Dieback and Foliar Blight (Fig. 25b)

Symptoms:

Infection initiated on the leaves induces symptoms characterized by small,

offcolored, water-soaked spots which become dark and coalesce into large
necrotic or dead patches

Control and Management:

• Sanitation, aeration and drainage are key factors in nursery operation.

• When needed, periodically spray systemic fungicides such as Metalaxyl or
Fosetyl Aluminum or combining Metalaxyl-Mancozeb

c. Phytophthora fruit rot (Fig. 25c) Symptoms:

• The first sign of infection appears as tiny water-soaked lesions which later
coalesce and become brown then dark on the fruit surface, which later result
into peel cracks on the infected fruit as it approaches maturity.

Control and Management:

130
 • Phytophthora fruit rot is best controlled by integrated phytosanitary
measures, cultural practices and chemical treatment during pre-harvest stage.

Tabulate as to (a) name of disease and its causal organism, (b) mode of attack and
symptoms and (c) prevention and or control mechanisms
Physiological Disorders 1.

Uneven Fruit Ripening

a. Characterized by the formation of hardened leathery aril in a a ripe fruit.

b. Affected aril remains unripe, whitish, odorless and tasteless

2. Wet or Watercore (Fig. 27)

a. Characterized by the presence of too much moisture and a very soft core
and flesh of the fruit.

3. Tip burn (Fig. 28)

a. The end part of the flesh turns dark yellow

b. Probably due to lack of water during flesh or aril development

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 97. Harvesting and Post Harvest Management

A well cared durian tree starts bearing fruits as early as five years old. Durian fruits
generally fall from the trees at night when already mature and ripe.

Hand picked fruits have longer shelf life of 5-7 days compared to 2-3 days for fallen
fruits.

Maturity Indices

a. The fruit is 106-108 days old from opening for local cultivars, 112,113
days old Chanee and 125 days old for Monthong.
b. Change in color. Pericarp turns yellowish green or brown.
c. A dull and hollow sound when tapped.
d. Strong aroma.
e. Very pliable spine.
f. Very distinct suture
g. Sweet with dull characteristic durian flavor.

Harvesting

In rural areas, villagers clear the ground beneath the durian tree. They build grass huts
nearby at harvest time and camp there for 6 or 8 weeks in order to be ready to collect
each fruit as soon as it falls. Caution is necessary when approaching a durian tree
during the ripening season, for the falling fruits can cause serious injury. Hunters place
traps in the surrounding area because the fallen fruits attract game animals and all
kinds of birds. The fruit is also placed as bait for game in the forests. Yield

Durian fruits mature in 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 months from the time of fruit-set. Seedling trees
in India may bear 40 to 50 fruits annually. Well-grown, high-yielding cultivars should
bear 6,000 lbs of fruit per acre (6,720 kg/ha).

Keeping Quality

Durians are highly perishable. They are fully ripe 2 to 4 days after falling and lose
eating quality in 5 or 6 days.

98. Post-Harvest Treatments

Fruits that naturally drop must be consumed within 2-3 days. Fruits picked at proper
maturity stage can be stored for about a week under ambient condition.

Ripening problems such as uneven ripening of the fruits in locules and variable
ripening rates are encountered among fruits harvested at the same time. To minimize

132
these problems, harvest fruits at optimum stage of maturity and sort according to
cultivar and degree of ripeness prior to packaging. Fruits allowed to drop may have the
best flavor but also have the shortest shelf life. On the other hand, those picked too
early may have longer storage life but may not develop full flavor.

Refrigeration is the most effective means to extend the shelf life of fruits. In Malaysia,
durian is stored at 10°C for two weeks without manifesting chilling injury symptoms
such as darkening of peel and failure of fruit to ripen normally at ambient temperature.
Mature green fruits of Thailand durian cultivars, 'Mon Thong', 'Chanee' and 'Kanyao'
are stored at 15°C. There is still a need to establish the storage temperature range for
locally grown introduced cultivars.

Minimally processed durian, (i.e., the extracted pulp with seeds packed in a styrofoam
tray and covered with transparent cling-wrap film) is gaining popularity in many
suburban and urban centers. Pulp can be stored in the freezer (-18° to -10°C) for as
long as six months.

Packaging

Fruits intended for the local or nearby markets are generally packed in 50-kg capacity
bamboo baskets. On the other hand, wooden crates with a 25-kg capacity, which
contain 10-15 fruits, are used to ship fruits to Metro Manila (Fig. 1b). For interisland
transport, banana cartons, which can accommodate 4-6 fruits, are used.

Bamboo baskets are cheaper and provide good ventilation. However, they are not rigid
enough to allow stacking during storage and transport. Therefore, they should not be
piled on top of the other during transport. If a second layer is preferred, provide a simple
platform where the next tier of baskets will be placed. Likewise to prevent mechanical
damage, individual fruits are separated using banana leaf sheaths. A lid may be
provided to secure the fruits during transport and handling.

Wooden crates provide better protection and are sturdy enough to allow stacking.
Several layers of newsprints are used to line the crates and separate fruits in the
container. Fruits intended for distant markets should be packed in wooden crates or
cartons.

Transport and Handling

From the collection center or packing shed, fruits in suitable containers are
immediately transported to intended markets using jeeps and trucks that are covered
with tarpaulin or canvass. Fruits are highly perishable and may crack when exposed to
direct sunlight. It is best to transport the fruits at night to avoid exposure to sunlight
and prevent heat build-up within the containers.

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 If it could not be avoided to pile fruits on top of the other in transport vehicles, separate
the layers of fruits using pieces of cardboard. This can offer some protection against
punctures of spines and compaction damage.

Farmers transport their fruits directly to the market by trucks. For inter-island trade,
fruits are transported by ship or aircraft.

CACAO PRODUCTION GUIDE

99. INTRODUCTION

Cacao has a rich and interesting history as a food and its usage dating back
thousands of years. At one point in Central America, cacao was so ubiquitous that it
was used as a form of currency.

Cacao differs greatly from what most have experienced in the form of processed
chocolate. Cacao is a very interesting in that it has the most complex make up of any
known natural food source. It is an excellent source of magnesium and very high levels
of antioxidants. While these components are broken down slightly processing, there are
low temperature processed raw cacao powders which attempt to render a high quality
product that remains nutrient rich. These raw powders are an easy way to get started
enjoying the wonderful properties of cacao. Nibs and beans have even higher
concentrations of antioxidants and can be fun to have around and can be put to good
use making granola and other goodies (use them as a replacement for chocolate chips).

Production decreased by annual average rate of 1.88 percent from 2006 to 2010.
Average annual decreases in area planted, number of bearing trees and yield per
bearing tree were 2.23 percent, 1.37 percent and 0.52 thousand metric tons, 2.23
percent lower than the level of 5.13 metric tons in 2009. The top producing regions and
their contributions to the national out put in 2010 were Davao Region, 69.86 percent,
Northern Mindanao, 11.05 percent, Caraga, 2.47 percent; and Eastern Visayas, 2.43
percent.

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100. DESCRIPTION

Cacao leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, 10–40 cm (4–16 in) long and 5–
20 cm (2–8 in) broad.
The flowers are produced in clusters directly on the trunk and older branches;
they are small, 1–2 cm (1/2–1 in) diameter, with pink calyx. While many of the world's
flowers are pollinated by bees (Hymenoptera) or butterflies/moths (Lepidoptera), cacao
flowers are pollinated by tiny flies, Forcipomyia midges in the order Diptera. The fruit,
called a cacao pod, is ovoid, 15–30 cm (6–12 in) long and 8–10 cm (3–4 in) wide, ripening
yellow to orange, and weighs about 500 g (1 lb) when ripe. The pod contains 20 to 60
seeds, usually called "beans", embedded in a white pulp. The seeds are the main
ingredient of chocolate.

Recommended Varieties:

101. National Seed Industry Council Registered Varieties

There are many varieties of cacao but the National Seed Industry Council has
registered and approved only 9 varieties/clones of cacao. NSIC approved clones are the
following:

• BR 25 (CC-99-05)
- Reddish (red with green) pod color when still young that turns
yellow as it matures
- Leaves are elliptical in shape with wavy leaf margins - Leaf
length and width ratio is 11.0 cm is to 4.04 cm.
- First flowering starts at 16.12 months and fruiting follows at 17.70
months
- Pod index is 23.1pods/kg of dried beans. Pod length is 17.02 cm
and has width of 7.07.

• K1
- It has elliptical shape with smooth shape with smooth leaf margins
- Leaf length is 31.31 cm with a mean width of 13.44 cm
- It flowers at 23.20 months and bears fruit at 25.10 months
- Pod shape is Amelonado with a superficial ridges and a smooth
surface. Rugosity also appears in some cases.
- Pod index is 19.20 pods/kg of dried beans. Pod length is about
17.97 cm and has width of about 8.67 cm.
- It has a pod wall thickness of around 1.80 cm.
- Bean color is violet and a hundred beans weigh about 182 grams.
- It is moderately resistant to known insect pests and diseases.

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 • K2
- Leaf shape is elliptical with smooth leaf margins.
- Leaf length is 32.73 cm with a mean width of 12.52 cm.
- It flowers at 21.10 months and bears fruit after three months or at
24.12 months
- Pod shape is Amelonado and is red in color while still young and
becomes yellow/ orange when mature.
- It has pod wall thickness of around 1.40 cm with 34 beans per pod.
- Pod index is 25 pods /kg of dried beans
- It is moderately resistant to known insect pest and diseases.

• UIT 1 (CC-99-02)
- It has an elliptical leaf shape with wavy leaf margin.
- Leaf length and width ration 22.36 cm to 8.13 cm.
- It flowers of age of 16.80 months in the stage of first fruiting.
- Pod shape is Cundemor. Pod length is 20.07 cm and width of 8.65
cm
- Pod is yellow when old from original color of green color when still
young with wall thickness of 1.02 cm.
- Moderately resistant to insect and pest diseases.

• ICS 40
- Leaf shape is elliptical with wavy leaf margin.
- Leaf length and width ratio is 29.95 cm is to 10.01 cm.
- Starts to flower at the age of 17.63 months and fruiting follows at
19.63 months and fruiting follows at 19.63 months.
- Pod shape is Cundeamor described as a variety with elongated
cylindrical fruit with ridges, a rugose surface, pronounced bottleneck and
sharp point.
- Pod color is green when young and turns yellow when mature with
wall thickness of 1.35 cm.
- Pod index is 16.2 pods/kg with 44 beans per pod. Canopy diameter
is 195 cm.
- Bean is stiped.
- Moderately resistant to insect pest and diseases.

Other NSIC approved Varieties are:

• UF 18
• S5
• K4

Cultural Management

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102. Soil Requirement

Soil is made up of 50% loamy soil, 30% clay and 20% silt. Deep soil is about
15cm, highly favors the growth of cacao. pH is 5.0 – 6.5

103. Propagation of Planting Materials

Propagation by seeds – nursery involves the production of a large number

of high quality planting materials, either by seeds or by vegetative parts, of
recommended clones of cultivars with uniform and vigorous growth and free from
pests.

• Seed Selection – collect a seeds from ripe and healthy pods and
preferably collected from the seed garden. Choice a seeds that are uniform
in size. Select big seeds since the possibility is high that they would
produce vigorous and fast growing seeds.

• Seed germination – the usual practice is to plant the prepared seeds

directly into the prepared poly bags in the nursery.

Procedures in Seed Germination

➢ Remove the mucilage that cover the seeds by rubbing the
seeds with sawdust or sand to loosen the mucilage
➢ Wash the seeds to effectively remove the mucilage ➢ Drain
the water
➢ Keep it in a moist and well ventilated palce to pre-
germination

Sowing the Pre- Germinated Seeds

➢ Collect those seeds that show sign of germination two days

after
➢ Sow the pre- germinated seeds not more than 1 cm deep in
the prepared polybags. It is important to plant the germinated
seeds soon when the germs are 1 cm long. If planting is delayed,
the root or shoot may easily be damaged.

• Vegetative propagation – involves the choice of method of

propagation; patch budding, community nodal grafting, conventional
grafting and side grafting method.

104. Climatic Requirement

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 Ideal rainfall for cacao cultivation ranges from 1250 to 3000 mm per annum,
preferably 1500-2000 mm with dry season of not more than 3 months. Temperature
ideal for cacao lies between a mean maximum of 30-32°C and mean minimum of 18°C.
Altitude of the area should lie between 300-1200 meters above sea level. Suitable
temperature is generally found in an altitude up to 700 m. Cacao thrives best in areas
under Type IV climate which has an evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year.

On the other hand, weeds growing along spaces in between the blocks may be
controlled by cutting down with scythes. The use of herbicide is not recommended.
Therefore weeding could be done manually or by mulching with available materials
such as rice hull.

Fertilizer application:

Fertilizer is carried out after the first leaf hardens and should be based on the
result of soil analysis. If analysis is not available, incorporate 15-35 grams of
ammonium phosphate (18-48-0) per bag depending on the size of polybag. The use of
granular fertilizer is also done when the leaves are dry to avoid leaf scorching.

Culling/Selection:

To ensure uniform growth and development of the seedlings to be planted in the

field, cull out the poor-growing seedlings in the nursery. This practice may be carried
out by removing the bags containing seeds which did not germinate and small, crinkled
seedlings.

Transplanting:

To reduce the seedling shock during transplanting, it is necessary to rotate the

polybag to a few degrees one week before field planting. It is done for the seedlings
whose leaves heave hardened and especially for those which roots have penetrated the
ground. Watering has to be done for a few days later. Field planting must be started at
the onset of the rainy season. Unless irrigation is available, field planting during the
dry season is not advisable.

Pruning:

Pruning can be achieve three objectives, namely: a. Increase cacao pod production; b.
reduce pest and disease infestation c . control the shape and height of the three, to
ensure easy access for harvesting.
Pruning of young trees (less than 3 years) is limited to removal of weak fan branches,
leaving 3 to 4 equally spaced fan branches, a few months after formation of the jorquette.
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Chupons, or sides shoots, growing at the base of the stem have to remove regularly.
For older trees more than 4 years that have never be pruned before, farmers must able
to learn how to determine branches that should be cut off and perform the pruning
using the correct method.

How to determine the branches to prune

• Branches that are growing downwards.

• Those that are curve
• ing, crossing from one side of the crown to the other, thus they do not
grow out ward from where the stem but zigzagging irregularly
• Branches that have large roofing parts or that are heavily wounded

How to cut large branches

(more than one centimeter in diameter)

• Use a saw, not a machete

• Saw close to the stem, to make the cutting vertical to the direction of the
stem Use sharp pruning tools because it is important that the cut is sharp and
clean.

Direction to Determine the Branches to be Cut Off.

• Pruning cocoa trees can increase production, make tree maintenance

easier, and reduce pest infestation and diseases.
• Maintenance pruning starts with regularly removal the low hanging.
• Second remove regularly the chupons (shoots) on the stem.
• Also remove all shoots and additional branches that are within 60 cm of
the jorquette. Removal of shoots is necessary to avoid production of non-
essential branches.
• It is important to remove regularly all dead, diseased and badly damaged
branches
• Top pruning of the highest branches (up to 4 meters) in order to keep the
tree short for easy regular harvesting and maintenance.
• It also recommended to open the center of the tree by pruning in the
shape of a champagne glass in order to reduce humidity and increase sunshine.
• The CPB does not like the sunshine and increased wind. The additional
sunshine to the stem will increase flowering as well.
• The best time for heavy pruning is after the high production cycle,
approximately one month before the rainy season. After pruning it is
recommended to apply fertilizer.
• Pruning has to be done regularly and correctly, results in more pods on
the tree with less pest infestation.

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105. Types of Pruning

• Formative Pruning
• Maintenance Pruning
• Pest and Diseases Pruning

106. Rehabilitation of Cacao Trees

There are several conditions wherein an existing cacao farm needs to be

rehabilitated to improved yield or the quality of beans especially if the plantation
contains many unproductive trees known as borders. Free borders are trees which
develop few pods in spite of profuse flowering while others produce limited flowers and
pods. The other is when trees are already old and become less productive, and when
the varieties/ clones planted are generally low yielding and producing poor quality
beans.

107. Side Grafting

A less productive tree can be renewed to produce more pods by grafting branches
from selected trees unto the unproductive tree. The trees to be subjected for
rehabilitation are either young trees which have never produced many pods, a very old
tree which no longer produce as many pods as they used to. The scion or budwood
should come for trees selected for both high productivity and resistant tolerant to major
pest and diseases .A tree can have up to the three side grafts, but these must be made
one month apart. In the other words, the second side graft should be made at least one
month after the first side graft.

This consists of:

• ability to prepare scion or budsticks

• ability to prepare the tree for grafting
• putting the graft in place
• taking care of the new graft until it has grown firmly into the tree
• maintaining the grafted branches

Materials needed:

• notebook and pencil

• sharp pruning knife
• sharpened machete
• raffia/plastic wine
• plastic bags
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 • transport for participants to the field
• unproductive cacao trees for training purposes.

Procedure:

1. Identify old, less productive but healthy trees to be subjected to side-

grafting.
2. Gather bud sticks from bud wood garden.
3. Prepare the bud sticks to be used for side grafting
4. Make first horizontal deep cut on the main trunk
5. Shave bark downward into the cut
6. Make sure original cut is through the bark to the white wood inside.
7. Make two cuts downward from the horizontal cut.
8. Create “window” by peeling the bark neatly and cleanly downward to
reveal the cambium.
9. Insert bud stick into the “window”
10. Tie window closed
11. Make sure graft is tied securely.
12. Cover side graft with plastic bag and tie tightly against the tree with raffia.
13. Remove plastic cover after one month
14. Productive side grafted trees 30 monts (2 1/2 years ) after grafting

108. Plant Nutrition

Cacao requires 16 essential elements to complete its life cycle and most of them are
obtained by the plant from the soil. The deficiency of any of these elements would result
in reduction in growth and production.

Providing proper amount of shade will reduce the nutrient needs of cacao due to
reduced metabolism as a result of decreased light intensity. Among the essential
elements needed by cacao are the nitrogen(N), phosphorus (P),potassium (K),calcium
(CA) and magnesium (MG) are the most deficient in many soils. These elements are
badly needed during the following period

Element Function Most needed during

Nitrogen vegetative growth the onset of rainy season and three months later
Phosphorus increases flowering the onset of rainy season
Potassium enhances flower set before flowering & fruit development and three
months later
CA & Mg lengthen life of leaves the onset of rainy season

Regularly apply organic fertilizer around the base of the plant particularly to during the
wet season, to hasten the vegetative and reproductive growth of cacao trees. The pod
bearing cacao trees without shade requires 100kgN,20 P kg K per hectare year.
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109. Management of Common Cacao Pests and Diseases

1. CPB Control Method (Cacao Pod Borer, caused by Conopomorpha cramella)

Cutural Practices to control are:

• Regular harvesting in order to break the lifecycle of the pest.

• Sanitation; which includes to bury all empty cacao pod husks, but also to
also to remove all other diseased pods, black pods, and pods eaten by animals
from the trees.
• Pruning; to increase the sunlight which the pest does not favor.
• Bagging or sleeving of the young pods with newspaper and staples (or
plastic bag)
• Fertilizer, to increase the general health of the tree and in addition
increasing cacao production.

2. VSD Control Method (Vascular Streak Die back ,caused by Oncobasidum

theobromae)

• Sanitation pruning – cut off infected branches at 30 cm below the infested

area , and burn cuttings.
• Nurseries should use polythylene roofing to ensure spores cannot land
on the seedlings
• Shade on the cacao trees should be reduced to lower humidity.
• Plant VSD tolerant varieties.

3.Black Pod Rot and Canker Control Method

• Frequent harvesting to avoid pathogen spirulation

• Harvest all the infested, dead and mummified pods and ideally destroy or
bury them
• Prune the cacao trees and shade trees to reduce humidity.
• Have a good drainage system so that the spores cannot spread in puddles
of water.
• Trees that have died due to tree canker should be cut down and destroyed.
• Scraping off the bark from the infected area and put pain or soap on it.

4.Helopeltis Control Method (Helopeltis , a sap- sucking bug)

• Generally sanitation of farm Regular harvesting.

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5.Stem borer Control Method (Zeuzera)

• Cut off infested branches at 40 cm below the lowest larvae hole. These
branches should be destroyed.
• After pruning of an infested of an infested tree, big branches, especially
those with stem borer holes, should be burned.
• The hole can be covered or plugged with mud or wood to prevent the larva
to come out, so that it cannot feed and hatch ,or cannot breathe.
• Poking the larvae out with a piece of wire.
• Squirt some soap solution in the exit hole. After a while, the larva will
emerge from the driven hole, probably driven out by the unpleasant soap fume.
Catch and kill the stem borer.

110. Managing Common Cacao Pest and Diseases

• Pruning – to increase production, makes tree maintenance easier and

reduces loses due to pest and diseases, allowing farmers to maximize their return.
• Complete and Frequent Harvesting – if done through out the year to break
the life cycle at the larva stage and reduce Cacao Pod Borer.(CPB)
• Sanitation – bury pest infected pods thereby killing the larva still in the
pod to prevent damage to healthy pods in the farm.
• Maintain Tree Nourishment –makes trees stronger to be able to produce
larger pods, to encourages flowering and allowing the tree to produce more pods.

111. Harvesting and Post Harvest Operations

The production of quality cacao beans involves proper processing of wet beans with
special references to the standard of quality required by the market involves:

• Pods harvesting - cacao pods are formed, grow to maturity and ripen in
160 to 180 days . Physical Indicator of ripened pods is the change in color,
green turns yellow, or dark – red purple to yellow or orange. During the removal
from the tree the care should be taken so that damaged should be lessen but
the most important, the flower cushions should not be damaged so that they
were able to produce flowers and pods for several years.

• Pod Breaking and Removal of Seeds – open the pods after storing using
wooden baton or devised pod splitter to avoid injury or cutting the seeds may
allow molds and insects, and broken beans are also discarded during sorting
and grading.

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112. The Fermentation Process

There is no chocolate flavor in cacao beans without proper fermentation. During

fermentation, compounds ( precursors for chocolate flavors) are formed that will react
each other during the roasting to form chocolate flavor. It is a process that occurs in
the two steps and two locations. Fermentation of sugar in pulps surrounding in cacao
beans. Sugar transformed into alcohol and then to acetic acid and acetic acid, produced
externally, penetrate through the husk and cause biochemical reactions in the bean
that are responsible for the formation of chocolate flavor precursors. There are factors
influencing the fermentation, and these include: ripeness of the pods, quantity of the
beans, type of cacao and duration of fermentation.
Cacao should undergo five (5) days fermentation, with first turn done after 48 hours,
and second turn over after another 48 hours, will normally result in lower acidity.
Fermentation progress is assessed by the odor, and internal and external color of the
beans.

113. Types of Fermentation

➢ Fermentation boxes - of 85 cm x 85 cm and 45 cm deep can

accommodate approximately 300 kg of wet beans .But as a rule all boxes with
dimensions between 75cm x 75 cm x 45cm deep or 1.0m x 1.0 m and 45 cm deep
should give reasonable fermentation for 200 kg to 400 kg of wet cocoa. For
smaller quantities during the low crop seasons it would be the best to have box
with removable dividers, maybe quartered by removable boards to be able to get
100 kg if the same box is just divided by two.

➢ Fermentation Heaps – In small volume operation, fermentation can be

done in heaps. Wet beans are placed on banana leaves or bamboo mats provided
with adequate perforations .Each batch should be raised from the ground by
underlying the wood or any material as base arranged with adequate spaces to
allow drainage and aeration. The heap is covered with the same material or
perforated sacks that are held in place. The heap should be adequately covered
to prevent rainwater, if any, from entering the mass and avoid contamination or
formation of molds.

➢ Basket Fermentation- the basket is lined with banana leaves or

perforated plastic sacks to provide drainage. The basket should be raised slightly
off the ground. Wet beans of 50 kilos or more in a batch completely ferment in
5-6 days with mixing or turning after 48 hours from loading the wet beans. The
basket containing cacao seeds should be kept under roof to prevent rainwater
from entering the mass of seeds. It is important to cover the baskets or boxes
with jute bags to avoid losses of heat which is crucial for good fermentation.
When the fermentation period is completed, the beans are ready for drying.

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114. Cacao Beans Drying Process

Drying of fermented cocoa beans is the process of reduction moisture from 45 % to

7 %.It is actually an extended part of fermentation . As long as there is enough moisture,
flavor forming reactions in the beans continue as well browning reaction that oxidize
polyphenols and leads to reduction of astringent and bitter taste .During the drying
process, the excessive acidity is eliminated through evaporation of acetic acid through
the outer skin while it is still moist.

115. Sun - Drying

The best for sun drying is good quality of cacao beans .But under Philippine condition,
the most practical approach could be combined sun- mechanical drying: starting with
sun drying for 1-2 days, and finishing with artificial drying. This approach could
address the lowering of cost compared with using artificial dryers alone, while attaining
high quality dried fermented cacao beans.

Sun drying may also be done on multi-purpose drying pavements provided that the
cacao beans are placed on the receptacles made of plastic, or bamboo mats sheeting on
the cement floor. In some areas , trays made of bamboo, or plastic screen are used.
This is important to avoid contamination with dust and other foreign materials or
accumulation of foreign waste that could result to low quality, or worst , rejected cacao
beans.

116. Artificial Dryer

In using artificial dryers, the temperature should not exceed 60 C so that the removal
of water from the beans would be gradual. Rapid drying tends to make the beans retain
excessive amounts of acetic acid that the results to acidic beans.

Artificial dyers designed with dimensions of 6.0m x 12.0m could accommodate

approximately 5,000 kgs of fermented beans with cocoa beans layer of 21 cm .Artificial
dryers are used in most commercial operations to overcome the dependence on weather
conditions.

PAPAYA PRODUCTION GUIDE

117. DESCRIPTION

Papaya (Carica papaya Linn.), originated from tropical America and is considered as
one of the most important fruit crops in the Philippines because of its great economic

potential. It may be grouped into 3 sex types according to the flowers they produce.
The 3 types are female, male and hermaphrodite. The white male and female flowers
are normally found in separate plants (Dioeciously). Male papaya trees produce long,
145
pendulous and many flowered inflorescences throughout the year but occasionally
bear flowers which are capable of producing fruits if fertilized. Normally female
flowers produce rounded fruits that bear 5 distinct scars which are arranged in
circular fashion at the base of the fruit. The hermaphrodite flowers, sometimes
referred to as bisexual flowers, contain both the essential organs of the female and
male flowers. Most of the hermaphrodite flowers are unstable under field conditions,
being easily affected by the changes of the environmental conditions. Hermaphrodite
flowers are highly seasonal but some produce fruits throughout the year. There are
several variants of hermaphrodite flowers. Some of these produces only two stamens
while others produce as many as 10 stamens. Fruit produced by hermaphrodite
flowers are elongated.

Papaya is a good source of Vitamins A and C, iron, calcium, protein, carbohydrate

and phosphorous. It can be grown for different purposes that include food
preparation, for industrial and for medicinal uses. Unripe papaya contains enzyme
papain which is obtained from the latex and is used as a meat tenderizer, in beer
processing, softening of woolens, manufacture of toothpaste and nowadays it is
usually the main ingredient in many whitening products like soap and lotion. The
leaves when properly flavored can
be made into cigarette. The ripe fruit is eaten as a breakfast fruit or as an ingredient in
fruit salads.

In calendar year 2011, the Philippines had a total area of 8,647.41 hectares planted to
papaya with total volume of production of 157,906.79 MT (BAS, 2011). The top producing
region is the SOCCSKSARGEN with 65,842.99 MT wherein South Cotabato has the
highest volume of production of 55,568.16

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118. VARIETIES

Solo is an improved, high quality selection with reddish-orange flesh. Its fruit weighs
about half a kilogram. (Figure 2)

The most popular strains of Solo papaya commercially propagated in the Philippines
are the Kapoho and Sunrise which are high-yielding and pear shaped. They are

smoother and sweeter but smaller and lighter compared to other solo strains.
Cavite Special is a popular semi-dwarf type that blooms 6-8 months after planting.
The fruit is large, oblong and weighs from 3 to 5 kilograms. It has a star-shaped
cavity. The flesh is yellow orange and sweet when ripe. ( Figure 3)

Sinta is early maturing and prolific, which bears 17-50 fruits per tree. Its fruit weighs
1.2 – 2.0 kg, is sweet and has firmer flesh. ( Figure 4)

Red Lady Papaya (F1 Hybrid) – Early, vigorous productive and tolerant to papaya ring
spot virus. Plants begin to bear fruits at 80cm. height and normally have over 30 fruits
per plant in each fruit setting season. Fruits are short-oblong on female plants and

rather long shaped on bisexual plants, weighing about 1.5 – 2 kg. (Figure 5)

.
119. Cultural Management

Soil and Climatic Requirements

Papaya thrives best in light, well-drained soils rich in organic matter. Clay soils which
lack good aeration are not good for papaya. The soil must have a good supply of
available nutrients. Papaya can tolerate soils with pH ranging from 5.8 to 7.0. For
best results, the spoil should have a soil pH about 6.0 to 6.5.
Papaya prefers a warm climate with abundant rainfall or irrigation. An average daily
temperature can be tolerated provided the soil has adequate moisture and relative
humidity. Cool weather reduces growth and yield and has an unfavorable effect on
fruit flavor.

A minimum annual rainfall of 1200 mm is sufficient provided soil conditions are

favorable and water conservation practices are employed. Rainfall should be well
distributed throughout the entire growing season.

120. Propagation and Preparation of planting materials

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Propagation by seeds is the most practical method.
Seeds can be sown in flats of soil, seedbeds or in small containers and allowed to
germinate in a partially shade place. Soil should be sterilized to avoid damping –off.
Germination takes place in 3 to 4 weeks. When 2 to 3 true leaves have appeared,
transfer seedlings into small containers. Polyethylene bags, tin cans or any other
suitable containers can be used. The seed may also be sown directly in small
containers, 3 to 4 seeds per container. As soon as the seedlings are 15 to 20 cm tall
or develop 3 to 4 leaves, transplant them into the field.

121. Land Preparation

Land preparation for papaya is similar to other upland crops. First clear the fields,
then plow and harrow alternately about two to three times to kill weeds and provide
good internal drainage. If papayas are to be planted in places where there are distinct
wet and dry seasons, land preparation should be properly timed in such a manner
that the land is ready for planting when the rainy season begins.

122. Lay-out and distance of Planting

Lay-out the land so planting and subsequent operations like weeding, fertilizer
application, pest and disease control and harvesting are facilitated. On flat to gently
rolling land, the square, triangular or rectangular system of planting are
recommended. On rolling land, planting on contour is highly recommended to
minimize soil erosion.
Distance of planting depends upon the variety, soil fertility and management
practices to be followed. The common practice of the farmers is to plant papaya trees
as close as 3 meters apart and as wide as 5 meters apart. Wider spacing of 4 to 5
meters is commonly used in areas where the soil is rich or where intercropping is
practiced.
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123. Planting and Transplanting

When papayas are directly seeded (3 to 5 seeds) they are immediately planted in the
field after the land is laid out. If seed germination is high, more than 50% of the seeds
planted will germinate. If the seedlings are released in the seedbed, transplanting
time should be when the seedlings are about 15-20 cm high. Water them regularly
until they are established in the field. Carefully remove the seedlings from the nursery
beds before transplanting. Avoid serious root injuries.

124. Thinning the Plants

Thin papaya seedlings in the field 4 to 6 weeks after emergence. Leave only 3 of the
strongest seedlings in each hole. Save plants that are spaced for enough from one
another to allow minimum completion for sunlight and nutrients.
The second and final thinning in the field should be done as soon as flowers appear.
This is usually 4 to 6 months after seed germination. At this stage, leave one tree
seedling per planting hole. In plantation where female trees are grown, some
pollinating trees of either male or hermaphrodite forms should be preserved during
the thinning process. Allow one male plant to grow for 15 to 20 female trees for
pollination process.

125. Fertilization

Farmers should have their soil analyzed to determine the nutrient status and pH of
the soil for proper application of fertilizer.
In the absence of soil analysis, apply 50g Di-Ammonium Phosphate at the bottom of
hole during transplanting. One month after transplanting apply 55g Ammonium
Sulfate and 23g Muriate of Potash around the seedlings. At two months after
transplanting apply 83g of Ammonium Sulfate and 34g Muriate of Potash. On the
third month apply 138g Ammonium Sulfate and 56g Muriate of Potash. No
application will be done on the fifth month but on the sixth month apply 165g of
Ammonium Sulfate and 68g Muriate of Potash. Three months thereafter, apply 165g
Ammonium Nitrogen and 213g Potassium at quarterly intervals.

Application of Boron with a rate of 5g per hill at quarterly interval is also necessary
since Papaya is very sensitive to boron deficiency, which could be due to acidic soil
or leaching. Apply Zinc Sulfate at 15g per hill seven months after planting and repeat
application four months thereafter.

126. Water Management

Water is required for papaya during the early stages of growth and periods of prolonged drought.
Lack of moisture over prolonged periods causes growth retardation, flower abortion and
dropping of young fruits.

For three-month-old flowering trees, it is necessary to water the plants for at least eight hours
each week. When the fruits are already maturing, water should be kept to a minimum to hasten
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fruit maturity. Mulching by the use of rice straw or hulls, dried banana leaves, sugarcane
bagasse or wood chips at 30-50 cm away from the base of the tree would help conserve soil
moisture and prevent weed growth. It is also necessary to build canals in between rows to drain
excess water during heavy drains.

127. Weed Control

Control early weed infestation by handweeding or hoeweeding, slashing, interrow

cultivation or intercropping. Control the remaining weeds in the field by any one or
a combination of mulching or post-emergence herbicides. Sustain weed control until
such time the papaya plants have clear growth advantage over the existing weeds.

Important Insect Pests and Diseases

128. Insect Pests

Mites, Tetranychus spp.( Figure 6)

Damage: Spider mites are observed on the underside of older leaves causing leaf
discoloration and leaf drop. When populations are high, the apical leaves show
deformity, mottling and virus-like symptoms.

Control: Prune and burn infested leaves. The use of biological control agents like
predatory mites, spiders and predatory beetles, and praying of insecticides may be
done only under severe infestation.

129. Scale insects (Figure 7)

Damage: The nymphs and adults, which remain attached to the leaf surface (except
for the adult male), suck the sap of the leaves like the aphids and the whitefly. Heavy
infestation may lead to drying of infested leaves; otherwise this is still a minor pest.

Control: Remove and burn heavily infested leaves. Biological control agents such as
ladybird beetles and parasitic wasp and recommended insecticides against mites may
be used.

Fruit fly (Figure 8)

Damage: Adult females insert their eggs into mature and ripening papaya fruits.
Eggs hatch into larvae or maggots, which feed on inner tissues of fruits, causing fruit
to prematurely turn yellow, rot and drop.

Control: Harvest mature fruit. Do not wait for the fruit to ripen on the tree. Practice
sanitation by disposing fallen fruits because these may contain larvae. Do not plant
alternate hosts nearby. In severe infestation, insecticide may be applied using some of

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the recommended insecticides against fruitflies which include fenitrothion,
cypermethrin and carbaryl.

Aphids (Figure 9)

Damage: These aphids do not colonize papaya or inflict direct damage on any part of
the papaya plant, but they can transmit dreaded virus, which cause Papaya Ringspot.

Control: Use ladybird beetles and hoverfly as predators against aphids, parasitic
wasps as parasitoids and some fungi as microbial control agents. Spray plants with
the recommended insecticides against aphids. Do not plant alternate hosts of aphids.
Practice regular weeding.

130. Diseases

Damping –off (Figure 10)

Symptoms: Parts of the seedlings above the soil surface appear water-soaked and
rotten seedlings fall over and die

Control: Sterilize soil for sowing and transplanting

Place seedlings in benches for good aeration

Maintain good drainage

Avoid overcrowding of the seedlings

131. Bacterial Crown Rot (Figure 11)

Symptoms: Rotting, wilting and collapse of growing points; blighting of leaves, petioles
and flowers and discoloration of vascular areas throughout stem extending to the
roots and fruits.

Control: Use of resistant varieties

Monitor and eradicate infected plants

Provide good drainage system to prevent water logging

132. Papaya Ringspot (Figure 12)

Symptoms: Initially it appears as faint chlorosis on younger leaves. As plant

grows,the top leaves or whole crown appear distinctly chlorotic/yellowed with mild
mosaic/mottling. Moreover,young shoots that may arise, including thse from some
axils, are deformed/distorted and expand unevenly at edges of the lamina. In some,
shoestringing with blistering effects is very noticeable.
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On petioles, water-soaked spots or somewhat short oily streaks are evident. Fruits
show characteristic ringspotting or with small water-soaked or oily spots that are still
very evident even when fruits ripen. Control: Practice crop rotation

Eradicate infected plant

Observe field sanitation/weeding

Use tolerant varieties like Sinta

133. Phytophtora Rot (Figure 13)

Symptoms: root rot, wilt, canker on trunk, and also fruit rot. Affected areas are
initially watersoaked and then develop cottony growth and spores on surface.
Affected plant fall over.

Control: Do not replant in same areas where the disease previously occurred

Remove and destroy fallen trunks of plant and fruits

Maintain good drainage in the field

Brown Spot (Figure 14)

Symptoms: Light brown, circular spots, up to 5 mm wide, develop on leaves. Long

elliptical spots, with a dark coating of spores, develop on leafstalks. Circular brown
spots occasionally occur on fruit.

Control: Remove infected leaf and petioles

Apply recommended fungicides

134. Harvesting

Harvesting is a simple operation when papaya trees are short and the fruit can be
reached by hands. The first harvesting starts on the 7th to 8th month after planting.
Pick all fruits showing a tinge of yellow at apical end.

Place harvested fruits in picking bags, galvanized containers or pails. Allow fruits to
mature more fully to develop better flavor. However, this may shorten shelf life and
make them more susceptible to fruit fly infestation.

When papaya trees grow older, harvesting is done with the use of ladder. It is a
tedious, time-consuming and costly method of harvesting.
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The papaya plant will keep on fruiting for many years but production declines rapidly
as it grows older. Old trees grow slower and produce lesser fruits. The productive
life span of papaya plantations ends after 3-1/2 years. The yield of well-managed
papaya plantation is 35 to 40 tons of fruits per hectare which is roughly 4 times the
average yield (national) of 10 tons per hectare per year.

Postharvest Handling

135. Field sorting

Field sorting is necessary in handling papayas. Misshapen, physically damaged and

disease infected fruits should be separated from those brought in the packinghouse
or packing shed to reduce or minimize contamination and hauling cost.

136. Washing

Washing removes chemical residues, debris, and more importantly latex which may
bring about latex injury. Alum (10%) as delatexing agent or sodium hypochlorite (1%)
as a disinfectant may be added to the wash water.

137. Curing

Curing involves air-drying for at least 12-16 hours to remove excessive moisture from
the fruit. This prevents formation of unsightly latex exudates on the skin of fully ripe
fruits. Curing is a must before fruits are packed.

138. Packing

Papayas have very sensitive skin. They must be packed in appropriate manner and
with utmost care. Fruits should be individually wrapped with newspaper in a halfway
manner from the stem end towards the apex when destined for domestic markets.
The fruits are then placed-pack stem end down in newspaper lined wooden crate or
in a carton box.

139. Cost and Return Analysis

Tables 1-3 show the three-year estimated costs of establishing and managing a
onehectare papaya orchard, estimated volume of production and the cost and return
analysis. (in excel format)

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 Appendix A: Propagation Guide

Atis, sugar apple: Budding, inarching or seeds

Avocado, abokado: Patch budding, cleft grafting, seeds
Banana, saging: sucker
Cacao: Budding, cleft grafting, seeds
Caimito: Inarching, marcotting, seeds
Cashew, Kasoy: Marcotting, inarching, seeds
Chesa, Tiesa, Egg fruit: Inarching, marcotting, seeds
Chico, Sapodilla: Marcotting, cleft grafting, inarching, seeds
Citrus species: Shield budding, marcotting, grafting, inarching,
seeds
Durian: Cleft grafting, seeds
Duhat, Java plum: Marcotting, grafting, inarching, seeds
Guyabano, soursop: Grafting, marcotting, seeds
Guava, Bayabas: Grafting, cuttings, marcotting, patch budding,
seeds
Jackfruit, langka: Marcotting, grafting, seeds
Lansones: Cleft grafting, inarching and seeds
Longan: Grafting, inarching, marcotting, seeds
Mabolo: Grafting, seeds
Makopa: Inarching, marcotting, seeds
Mango, mangga: Inarching, cleft grafting, seeds
Mangosteen: Grafting, seeds
Marang: seeds
Papaya: seeds
Pineapple, pinya: suckers
Rambutan: Grafting, patch budding, marcotting, seeds, inarching
Rimas: Root cuttings, marcotting, seeds
Santol: Grafting, patch budding, seeds
Sineguelas, Spanish plum: Cuttings (hardwood), grafting, seeds
Strawberry: (Fragaria ananassa) runners
Tamarind, sampalok: Grafting, marcotting, seeds

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 Appendix B: Malunggay Production Guide

Botany:
Malunggay (Moringa oleifera) is a much-branched small tree growing as high as 9
meters, with a soft and white wood and corky and gummy bark. Leaves are alternate,
usually thrice pinnate, 25 to 50 centimeters long. Each compound leaf contains 3-9
very thin leaflets dispersed on a compound (3 times pinnate) stalk. The leaflets are
thin, ovate to elliptic, and 1 to 2 centimeters long. Flowers are white and fragrant, 1.5
to 2 centimeters long, on spreading panicles. Pod is 15 to 30 centimeters long,
pendulous, three-angled, and nine-ribbed. Seeds are three-angled, and winged on the
angles.

HOW TO USE MORINGA

Use the green pods as a vegetable. Pick the pods when they are plump and firm bu
still tender. Cut them into pieces that are five centimeters long. Steam lightly. Eat
soft flesh and seeds inside and discard or compost the fibrous outer skin. Moringa
delicious cooked with spices and mixed with other vegetables such as eggplant, or
legumes such as pigeon pea or cowpea. You can also cook the young flowers and
tender leaves of the tree. But be sure to dry them completely after washing. Cover
cook the leaves and flowers in their own juices. If you add water to cook the leaves
they turn bitter.
Make moringa a part of your regular diet. It contains many good nutrients such as
calcium, iron, vitamin A, and vitamin C.

OTHER USES FOR MORINGA

Moringa leaves make good nutritious fodder for livestock. Moringa wood is a soft w
It cannot be used for building but it is good for fences, trellises and other light sup
poles. In fact, if you have a row of moringa fence posts, you will probably soon hav
row of growing moringa trees which you can use as a living fence.
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COMMON NAMES
Common names for Moringa oleifera include: horseradish tree, ben oil tree, benzol
benzolivier, ben oléifère, bambou-bananier, graines benne (Haiti), drumstick (India
sohnja (India), resedà, ben, ángela, jazmín francés (Puerto Rico), palo de aceite, pa
de abejas, libertad (Dominican Republic), paraíso (Mexico and Central America),
murunga-kai (Philippines), malunggay (Philippines), saijhan (Guyana).

Uses
Nutritional
• Flowers, young leaves and young pods eaten as a vegetable inn the Philippines, Malaya, and India.
• In Malaya, seeds also eaten as peanuts.
• Seeds can be removed from pods and boiled like peas, fried or eaten like peanuts.
• Leaves can be used as fresh leaves (used like spinach or as supplement for sauces) or dried powder. Dried
leaves can be milled and added to sauces or porridges.
• Flowers can be cooked or fried, or added to relishes.
• Roots are used as seasoning because of it horseradish flavor.
• Young leaves are a rich source of calcium, iron, phosphorus and vitamins A, B and C.
• High in HDL (high density lipoproteins); a source of amino acids, omega oils, antioxidants.
• Young fruit yields a high amount of protein and phosphorus, a fair source of calcium and iron.
Folkloric
- Decoction of leaves used for hiccups, asthma, gout, back pain, rheumatism, wounds and sores.
- Young leaves, usually boiled, used to increase the flow of breast milk.
- Pods for intestinal parasitism.
- Leaves and fruit used for constipation.
- Decoction of boiled roots used to wash sores and ulcers.
- Decoction of the bark used for excitement, restlessness.
- In India pounded roots used as poultice for inflammatory swelling. Flowers used for catarrh, with young
leaves or young pods.
- In Nicaragua decoction of roots used for dropsy.
- Roots have been used as abortifacient. In India, bark is used as abortifacient.
- Decoction of root-bark used as fomentation to relieve spasms; also, for calculous affections.
- Gum, mixed with sesamum oil, used for relief of earaches. Same, also reported as abortifacient.
- In Java, gum used for intestinal complaints.
- Roots chewed and applied to snake bites.
- Decoction of roots is considered antiscorbutic; also used in delirious patients.
- Juice of roots is used for otalgia.
- Bark used as rubefacient remedy.
- Decoction of roots is use as gargle for hoarseness and sore throat.
- Leaves used as purgative.
- Chewing of leaves used in gonorrhea to increase urine flow.
- Fresh roots used as stimulant and diuretic.
- Seeds for hypertension, gout, asthma, hiccups, and as a diuretic.
- Rheumatic complaints: Decoction of seeds; or, powdered roasted seeds applied to affected area.
- Juice of the root with milk used for asthma, hiccups, gout, lumbago.
- Poultice of leaves applied for glandular swelling.
- Pounded fresh leaves mixed with coconut oil applied to wounds and cuts.
- The flowers boiled with soy milk thought to have aphrodisiac quality.
- Root is rubefacient and plaster applied externally as counterirritant.
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- In Egypt, powder from dried seeds has been used as a handwash.
- In West Bengal, India, roots taken by women, esp prostitutes, for permanent contraception (Studies have
shown total inactivation or suppression of the reproductive system).
- In African savannah, used in the treatment of rheumatic and articular pains.
- In Zambia, used for treatment of hypertension, asthma and diabetes; also used to boost appetite.

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Appendix C: Marang tree

Artocarpus odoratissimus, also called terap, marang, johey oak, green pedalai,
madang, tarap, or timadang, is a tree in the mulberry and fig family Moraceae.
It is native to Borneo, Palawan, and Mindanao Island, and is closely related to
the jackfruit, cempedak, and breadfruit trees which all belong to the same genus,
Artocarpus.

Description:
Artocarpus odoratissimus is an evergreen tree growing to 25 metres (82 ft) tall.
The leaves are 16–50 cm long and 11–28 cm broad, similar to the Breadfruit's,
but are a little less lobed. Many trees lose the leaf lobing once mature.

Fruit:
As indicated by the scientific name, the fruit has a strong scent, and is
considered superior in flavour to both jackfruit and cempedak. The scent
reminds some of the durian but is not so intense, and is in the thick skin and
not the fruit pulp. The taste has hints of a mild creamy, almost juicy banana,
and is best when not allowed to ripen thoroughly on the tree. Those ripened on
the tree turn a more brownish color and will eventually fall to the ground and
easily split open.
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Fruit and foliage:
Ripe fruits (Philippines)
The appearance of the fruit can be regarded as an intermediate shape between
the jackfruit and the breadfruit. It is round to oblong, 15–20 cm long and 13 cm
broad, and weighing about 1 kg. The thick rind is covered with soft, broad spines.
They become hard and brittle as the fruit matures. When fully mature the
expanding arils stretch the outer rind which often appears lumpy, especially if
not all seeds were pollinated. The fruit does not fall to the ground until over-ripe.
It may be harvested when full size but still firm, and left to ripen until soft. Fruits
change colour to greenish yellow when ripe. The ripe fruit is opened by cutting
the rind around, twisting and gently pulling. If overripe they are simply pulled
apart. The interior of the fruit is somewhat similar to the jackfruit's, but the color
is white and the flesh is usually softer. The core is relatively large, but there are
far fewer "rags" and less non-edible parts. Arils are white and the size of a grape,
each containing a 15 × 8 mm seed. Once opened, the fruit should be consumed
quickly (in a few hours), as it loses flavour rapidly and fruit oxidizes. The seeds
are also edible after boiling or roasting.

Cultivation:
Artocarpus odoratissimus is cultivated for its fruit in Brunei, Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, southern Thailand and India Tripura. The species is
largely grown for local consumption; the short shelf-life of the fruit limits its
wider use.

The tree is not cold tolerant (as is the breadfruit). It can grow between latitude
15° north and south, and in coastal regions where temperatures never stay
under 7 °C.

Similar fruits:
The fruits of Artocarpus sericicarpus (known as the peluntan, gumihan, pedalai,
or tarap bulu) and Artocarpus sarawakensis (pingan or mountain tarap) are very
similar to, and often confused with A. odoratissimus. Both these species are
native to the same areas. However, they are still distinguishable based on their
appearances when ripe. Artocarpus sericicarpus has hairs, like a large rambutan,
and ripens red. Artocarpus sarawakensis is even trickier, because it is the shape
of A. odoratissimus, and it is orange. It has smaller kernel sections.

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 Mango farm in Guimaras

Sub-varieties of Carabao Mango

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