9/14/2013

Centrifugal Pump: Maintenance

& Troubleshooting
Equipment Vibration
Troubleshooting

Sinusoidal Oscillation

Pen traces a sine

wave

A : amplitude (length, m) T : period (time, s)

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The Frequency
F = The Frequency
of the wave, = 1/T
The frequency is
the number of
cycles that occur in
one second, and is
simply the
reciprocal of the
period

Velocity is the most commonly used vibration

parameter for machine diagnostic work
The velocity curve is the most uniform in level
over frequency.
This is typical of most rotating machinery, but
in some cases the displacement or acceleration
curves will be the most uniform. It is a good
idea to select the units so the flattest curve is
attained -- this provides the most visual
information to the observer. 4

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Mechanical Structures
In analyzing the vibration of a machine, Energy always
moves, or flows, from the source of the vibration to
the energy absorber where it is converted into heat.
The most important absorber of energy in a machine
is friction,
On the other hand, a machine with greater inherent
friction will have lower vibration levels because the
energy is absorbed quickly

For example, a machine with rolling element bearings (often called anti-friction
bearings), generally vibrates more than a machine with sleeve bearings, where the oil
film acts as a significant absorber of energy.

The reason that airplane structures are riveted together rather than being welded into a
solid unit is that the riveted joints move slightly, absorbing energy by sliding friction.
This keeps vibrations from building up to destructive levels. Such a structure is said to
be highly damped, and the damping is actually a measure of its energy absorption
capability

Natural Frequencies
• Any physical structure can be modeled as a number
of springs, masses, and dampers. Dampers absorb
energy, but springs and masses do not.
• The natural frequency of an undamped spring-mass
system is given by the following equation:

where Fn = The natural frequency

k = the spring constant, or stiffness
m = the mass
• natural frequency increases, if the stiffness
increases or Mass decrease
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Resonance
• Resonance is an
operating condition
where an excitation
frequency is near a
natural frequency
of the machine
structure.

The phase angle between the excitation source

vibration and the response of the structure is always
90 degrees at the natural frequency

Amplitude/phase versus machine rpm

• The Figure illustrates a typical
recording of vibration' amplitude
and phase obtained during machine
startup or coast down. Such
recordings sometimes referred to
as BODE PLOTS, clearly identify the
resonant frequencies by the
characteristic peak amplitudes and
corresponding 180 phase shift.
From the sample plot in Figure it is
apparent that the machine in
question has two significant
resonant frequencies, one at
approximately 2450' RPM and
another at 4850 RPM. Of course,
•

Plot of amplitude and phase versus machine RPM

Cleary identify critical speeds and resonant condition

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Different types of transducers

Name: Sensitive To:
Proximity Probe Displacement
Velocity Probe Velocity
Accelerometer Acceleration

• Motion below 10 Hz (600 cpm) produces

very little vibration in terms of acceleration,
moderate vibration in terms of velocity and
relatively large vibrations in terms of
displacement . Hence, displacement is used
in this range.
• In the high frequency range, acceleration
values yield more significant values than
velocity or displacement. Hence, for
frequencies over 1000 Hz (60 kcpm) or 1500
Hz (90 kcpm), the preferred measurement
unit for vibration is acceleration
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Time Domain

Frequency-Domain

Fourier transform
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Vibration analysis,
It has been shown many times over that the vibration signature of an
operating machine provides far more information about the inner workings of
the machine than any other type of non-destructive test. A bearing that has a
small developing defect will cause a telltale change in the machine vibration,
as will an imbalance condition, a misalignment, or any of a myriad of other
faults
properly applied, allows the technician to detect small developing mechanical
defects long before they become a threat to the integrity of the machine, and
thus provides the necessary lead-time to schedule maintenance to suit the
needs of the plant management. In this way, plant management has control
over the machines, rather than the other way around.

A rotating machine has one or more

machine elements that turn with a shaft,
such as rolling-element bearings,
impellers, and other rotors. In a perfectly
balanced machine, all rotors turn true on
their centerline and all forces are equal.
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VIBRATION SOURCES

Vibration does not just happen. There is a

physical cause, referred to as a forcing function,
and each component of a vibration signature has
its own forcing function. The components that
make up a signature are reflected as discrete
(separate) peaks in the FFT or frequency-domain
plot

Belt frequency 685 cpm

Motor, 1. rpm 1485 cpm
Fan shaft, 1. rpm 1000 cpm
Motor, 4. rpm or electrical? 5964 cpm.

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The orientation

Recommended measurement - point logic: A0, axial orientation; H0, horizontal

orientation;V0, Vertical orientation
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TRENDING ANALYSIS
Trend data are plotted versus
time and provide historical
trends,
not confused with time-
domain plots, which are
instantaneous measures of
total vibration amplitude
plotted against time
measured in seconds.

Adjusted Data after

maintenance or repair

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Vibration Identification Chart

cause Amplitude Frequency Phase Remarks

proportional to unbalance.
Unbalance 1x RPM Single reference mark Most Common cause of vibration.
Largest in radial direction.

Misalignment
couplings or large in axial direction 50% 1x RPM usual 2 & best found by appearance of large axial
single double or triple
bearings and bent or more of radial vibration 3xRPM sometimes vibration. Use dial indicators
shaft
Bearing responsible most likely the one
Bad bearing anti- Unsteady - use velocity very high several
Erratic nearest point of largest high frequency
frication type measure if possible times RPM
vibration
if an gear largest vibration in line with gear
centers. If an motor or generator vibration
Eccentric journals usually not large 1x RPM single mark
disappears when power turn off. If an pump or
blower attempt to balance.

Bad gears or gear low use velocity measure if very high gear teeth
Erratic
noise possible times RPM
Mechanical two reference marks usually accompanied by unbalance and / or
2 x RPM
looseness slightly erratic misalignment

one or two depending on

1,2,3&4xRPM of
Bad drive belt erratic or pulsing frequency. Usually strobe light best tool to freeze faulty belt.
belts
unsteady

1xRPM or 1or 2x
disappear when power single or rotating double if vibration amplitude drops off instantly when
Electrical synchronous
turned off mark. power is turned off
frequency

1xRPM or number of
Aerodynamic Rare as a cause of trouble except in cases of
blades on fan or
hydraulic forces resonance.
impeller xRPM

1,2& higher orders Inherent in reciprocating machines can only be

Reciprocating forces 17
xRPM reduced by design changes or isolation.

Vibration Frequency and the likely causes

Frequency in terms
Most likely causes Other possible causes & remarks
of RPM
1-eccentric journals, gears or pulleys
2- misalignment or bend shaft- if high axial vibration
3- bad belts if RPM of Belt
1 x RPM Unbalance
4- Resonance
5- reciprocating forces
6- electrical problems
1- misalignment if high axial vibration
2- reciprocating forces
2 x RPM Mechanical looseness
3- Resonance
4- bad belts if 2 x RPM of Belt
usually a combination of misalignment and
3 x RPM Misalignment
excessive axial clearances ( looseness)
1- bad drive belt
Oil whirl ( less than 1/2 2- background vibration
Less than 1 x RPM
RPM) 3- sub-harmonic resonance
4- "beat" vibration
Common electrical problems include broken rotor
Synchronous ( A.C line
Electrical problems bars, eccentric rotor, unbalance phase in poly -
frequency )
phase system, unequal air gap.
2 x synch. Frequency Torque pulses Rare as a problem unless resonance is excited
1- bearing vibration may be unsteady - amplitude
Bad gears and frequency
Many times RPM ( Aerodynamic forces 2- Cavitation, recirculation and flow turbulence
harmonically related Hydraulic forces cause random, high frequency vibration
frequency) Mechanical looseness 3- improper lubrication of journal bearings ( frication
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Reciprocating forces excited vibration )
4- Rubbing

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Machine history

if components such as couplings, sheaves, or bearings

have been replaced there is a good possibility that balance
or alignment may be affected.
Additional machines added to a structure can easily change
the natural frequency of the structure to cause resonance.
Changes in normal operating conditions of speed, load,
temperature or pressure may produce significant changes
in machine vibration from unbalance, cavitation,
aerodynamic/ hydraulic forces, etc.
Improper grounding when arc welding on machines can
cause extensive damage to bearings and couplings.

IMPORTANCE OF TRI-AXIAL READINGS

This is generally considered

normal for rigid mounted
machines where vertical
stiffness (inflexibility) is
typically higher than
horizontal stiffness

In cases where the amplitude

ratio is unusually high, as in
Figure where the horizontal
amplitude at 1800 CPM is
nearly 8 times higher than
the vertical amplitude at the
same frequency, then
additional checks should be
taken to determine whether
any unusual problems exist.

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WaterFall Diagram
Plots such. as this are sometimes
referred to as "waterfall" diagrams.
The occurrence of an oil whirl
condition during startup is clearly
shown in Figure as are the
resonant/critical speeds excited by
rotor unbalance.

Plots such as this are also useful for

evaluating the effects of load changes
or other changes in machinery
operation since the effect of the
change on each frequency can be
detected

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Figure 108 before / after balance

Figure 108 shows the vibration and noise analysis data taken
from a direct-drive 1750 RPM fan. From the data, there
appears to be little correlation between the initial vibration
and noise frequencies: the initial vibration is most
predominant (.59 in/sec) at 1 x RPM due to fan unbalance,
whereas the noise frequencies of significance are 2 x RPM, 4
x RPM, 6 x RPM and 10 x RPM. However,
The follow-up noise analysis reveals that balancing did, in
fact, reduce the noise amplitudes at frequencies of 1 xRPM, 2
x RPM, 6 x RPM and 10 x RPM. However, the noise at 4 x
RPM was unaffected. The result of balancing was a reduction
of noise from an initial 82 dBC and 76 dBA to 80 dBC and 72
dBA. Or, a 2 dBC and a 4 dBA reduction.

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Figure 109 illustrates another example of machinery noise and vibration analysis
data. This data was taken on a speed reducer gear drive with 1750 RPM input
from a 4-pole induction motor The vibration analysis clearly shows excessive
vibration (.7 in/see) at a frequency equal to 1 x RPM of the motor;.
however, the axial vibration at this frequency was equally high, indicating
that misalignment between the motor and gear box was the problem and
not unbalance. The initial noise analysis data revealed very little noise at
the 1 x RPM frequency
but did reveal high amplitude noise at a frequency of approximately
160,000 CPM, corresponding to gear meshing frequency (i.e., 1750 RPM
x 90 teeth = 157,500 CPM).
Realignment of the gear box and motor was performed, reducing the
vibration from .7 in/see (18rom/sec) to .1 in/see (2.5 rom/see). After
realignment, a follow-up noise analysis disclosed a substantial reduction
of the noise at gear meshing frequency with an overall reduction
of 92 dBC and 92 dBA initially to 75 dBC and 73 dBA after alignment

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CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
In addition to the problems of unbalance,
misalignment, defective bearings and
resonance, centrifugal pumps have some
unique problems which deserve discussion.
These include
1. Hydraulic forces.
2.Cavitation.
3. Recirculation

Hydraulic forces
• Normal vibration will generally occur at a
frequency which is equal to the number of
vanes on the impeller multiplied by shaft
RPM (pressure pulsation )
• the hydraulic pulsations will be balanced
and the amplitudes of vibration from
inherent hydraulic forces will be minimal

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Centrifugal pump
Excessive hydraulic forces (problem)
1-3600 RPM centrifugal pump, with six impeller, which had an unusually high
amplitude of vibration at a frequency of 21,600 CPM.
2- 3600 * 6 = 21600, indicating that hydraulic forces were responsible
3-It was felt that this predominant vibration was responsible for premature failure
of bearings
the usual tests for resonance were carried out with no natural frequencies found
,
corresponding to the objectionable 21,600 CPM vibration frequency.
As a result, the pump was disassembled for inspection and it was discovered that
the radial clearances between the impeller and diffusers cast in the pump housing
diametrically opposite one another differed by approximately .4 inches (10 mm).
Apparently, this was creating an unbalance of hydraulic forces.
The condition was corrected by machining both diffusers to equalize radial
clearances and diffuser profile. The result was a substantial reduction in vibration

centrifugal pump

a centrifugal boiler feed pump operating at approximately 4700 RPM, 1 St

stage 6 vanes, 2,3,4 stages 7 vanes
Problem :a substantial increase in pump vibration
observation: the predominant vibration was found to be 28,000 CPM
which is 6 x RPM
Expectation:This corresponds directly to the number of vanes on the first
stage impeller indicating that hydraulic forces are responsible for this
vibration

This inspection revealed that the first stage impeller wear ring had
seized to the shaft. Replacing the wear ring virtually eliminated the
vibration at the frequency of 6 x RPM.

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Centrifugal pump
Excessive hydraulic forces (problem)

Case 3 centrifugal pump

a centrifugal boiler feed pump operating at approximately 5200 RPM, 1 St 6

vanes, 2,3,4 stages 7 vanes
Problem :a substantial increase in pump vibration
observation: the predominant vibration was found to be 35,500 CPM which
is 7 x RPM
Expectation:This corresponds directly to the number of vanes on 2,3,4
stages impeller indicating that hydraulic forces are responsible for this vibration

inspection disclosed that three out of the four welds which secured the second
stage diffuser to the channel ring had broken free
Apparently, this allowed the diffuser to shift slightly relative to the impeller
resulting in an increase in hydraulic forces

Some vibration at the hydraulic or vane-passing frequency of the pump is normal;

however, when this vibration becomes excessive, the problem can, indeed, be
serious

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Cavitation
A distinctive
noise often
accompanies
cavitation. Mild
cavitation may
have the sound
of sand being
pumped
whereas a more
severe cavitation
may sound as
though gravel
was being
passed through
the pump. In
cases of
extremely severe
cavitation, it
may sound as
though rocks are
being passed
through the
pump

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CAVITATION

Since the pump is "starved", the fluid coming into the pump will literally be
pulled apart in an attempt to fill the void which exists. This creates pockets or
cavities of nearly perfect vacuum which are highly unstable and collapse or
implode very quickly. Due to their imperative nature, these implosions serve
to excite the local natural frequencies of the pump housing, impeller and
other related pump parts
implosions may occur at random intervals at various locations within the
pump or piping, the resulting vibration will be random in amplitude and
frequency.
Thus, the vibration caused by cavitation in a pump may cover a rather
broad frequency range where individual amplitudes and frequencies are
constantly changing
The distinct spikes at 3600 and 7200 CPM represent steady state vibration
at 1 and 2 x pump RPM, possibly due to some unbalance or misalignment.
However, the vibration occurring between 30,000 CPM and 100,000 CPM is
random with no steady state amplitude and frequency characteristics.
a pump which had been subjected to minor cavitation had progressively
shown a decrease in operating efficiency. When the pump was disassembled
for visual inspection, it was found that the hub was all that remained of the
pump impeller. The impeller vanes had been completely eroded away by
cavitation

However, it is important to note that

recirculation occurs on the discharge
side of the pump and cavitation occurs
on the suction side. The cure for
recirculation is to operate the pump, at
or close to its rated capacity for the
operating conditions and avoid
excessive throttling. If permanent
reduction in capacity is required, then
the OD of the pump impeller can be
reduced slightly to increase the gap
between the impeller tips and the
cutwater. Scalloping the impeller tips is
another means to reduce vanepass
vibration without major reductions in
pump capacity.

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RE-CIRCULATION

Re-circulation is just the opposite of Cavitation and normally occurs when

a pump is operated at high suction pressure. In other words, restricting
the capacity causes excess fluid to return from the discharge to the
impeller
This reverse flow in the pump and the mixing of fluids moving in opposite
directions results in random vibration similar to Cavitation. Although the
vibration characteristics of re-circulation are similar to that of Cavitation,
re-circulation will not likely cause the wear or erosion of pump components
in a manner similar to true Cavitation

the vibration resulting from re-circulation can result in damage to bearings,

valves and related pump components

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