PART 1
evidence its theory and practice" by Charles C. Scott West Publishing
CHAPTER1
PHOTOGRAPHY-
DEFINITIONS,
HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
AND PRINCIPLES
DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Literal definition:
The word photography is derive of two Greek words phos which
means "light" and graphia meaning "write". Therefore photography
best translates to write with light" (Herschel 1839).
There are two versions on the "root words" or origin of the word
photography. Photography is derived from the greek word "phos" or
"photo" meaning light and the word "grapho" which means to draw.
Literally therefore, photography is the drawing with light. The other
version, the second word is "graphia" which means to write or
literally too, photography is the writing with light.
The word "grapho" is found in two books "The Encyclopedia of
Practical Photography" Edited and published by Eastman Kodak,
Rochester New York USA 1979 and the other book "Photographic
Co. St. Paul Minnesota, USA 1976.
The word "graphia" appear in the book, "The practical methodology
of forensic photography" by David Red sicker, CRC Press Washington
D.C. USA 2001.
Personally the word "grapho" meaning to draw is more appropriate
than the word "graphia" which means to write because photographic
subject range from places, persons and things so it is more wide
ranging in subject matter while in graphia-webster dictionary
describe to write is the combining of letters to form a word. In
application this will be limited to handwriting in Questioned
Document Examination and other writings like label, title etc.
2. Modern definition:
Photography is an art or science which deals with the reproduction
of images through the action of light, upon sensitized materials, with
the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical processes
involved therein. (Aquino 1972)
3. Technical/Legal definition:
Modern photography may be defined as any means for the chemical,
thermal, electrical or electronic recording of the images on sensitized
materials, or objects formed by some type of radiant energy,
including gamma rays. This definition is broad enough to include not
only the conventional methods of photography but almost any new
process that may be developed. (Scott 1975)
B. Police Photography
Police photography is an art or science which deals with study of the FIGURE 1 Camera Obscura
principles of photography the preparation of photographic evidence, (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak)
and its application to police work. (Aquino 1972)
C. Forensic Photography - is the art or science of photographically
documenting a crime scene and evidence for laboratory examination
and analysis for purposes of court trial. (Redsicker 2001)
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
A. The Basic Components of Photography 3. Chemicals (1726-1777)
1. Light-the days of creation "In the beginning, God created the Light sensitivity of silver nitrate and silver chloride solution was
heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty, discovered and investigated. In 1800 Thomas Wedgewood and
darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the spirit of God was Humphey Davy produced photogram.
hovering over the waters.
B. True Photography
And God said, "Let there be light" and there was light. God saw the
1839 - is generally known as the birth year of photography. William
light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. God
Henry Fox Talbot explained a process he had invented (calotype) at
called the light "day", and the darkness he called "night". And there
the Royal Society of London.
was evening and there was a morning-The first day. (Genesis, chapter
1, verses 1-3) The "Calotype" used paper with its surface fibers impregnated with
light sensitive compounds.
2. Equipment (1700) The portable camera obscura (Latin for dark
chamber) was used by artist or painters to get accurate perspective Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre made a public demonstration in
of natural scene and scale of their subjects. Paris "Daguerreotype" in collaboration with Joseph Nicephore
Niepce.
The "Daguerreotype" formed an image directly on the silver surface
of a metal plate.
With Talbots "calotype", the fixation was only partial while
Daguerre's Daguerreotypes, images were made permanent with the
use of hypo.
1848-Abel Niepce de Saint - Victor introduce a process of negatives
on glass using albumen (egg white) as binding medium.
1850-Louis Deserie Blanquart - Evard introduced a printing paper
coated with albumen to achieve a glossy surface.
1851- Frederick Scott Archer - published a "wet plate" process when
collodion-a viscous liquid that dries to a tough flexible and
transparent film-replaced albumen.
1885- Gelatin emulsion printing paper was commercially introduced
based films in 1889.
During this time; the cameras were crude; the lenses could not form
a true image, and the sensitive materials required long exposures
and could not reproduce colors in shades of gray.
It was in 1856 when John F.W. Herschel coined the word
"photography".
1861 James Clark Maxwell researched on colors.
1890-full corrected lenses were introduced.
1906-a plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all
colors in equivalent shades of gray.
1907- Lummiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film
was used but with blue, green and red filter.
1914-U.S. Eastman Kodak made a color subtractive process called
Kodachrome
1935-color process came out together with electronic flash.
1947-Edwin H. Land introduced "Polaroid" the one-step-
photography.
1960-LASER was invented making possible Holograms (three
dimensional pictures).
1988-The arrival of true digital cameras.
The first true digital camera that recorded images as a computerized
file was likely the Fuji DS-1P of 1988, which recorded to a 16 MB
internal memory card that used a battery to keep the data in
memory. This camera was never marketed in the USA The first
commercially available digital camera was the 1992 Kodak DCS-100.
It used a 1.3 megapixel sensor and was priced at $13,000. The first
consumer camera with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) on the back was
the Casio QV-10 in 1995 and the first camera to use compact flash
was the Kodak DC-25 in 1996. In 1999 the Nikon D1 a 2.74 megapixel
camera was the first digital SLR with the price of under $6,000. This
camera also used Nikon introduced the 300D camera also known as
digital rebel, a 6 pixel and the first DSLR priced under $1,000 to
consumers.
C. Criminal Applications
"The history of forensic science and criminal investigation is both rich
and exiting. The discoveries and observations of our predecessors
are likewise surprising and comforting. The great men and women
who paved a path of enlightenment in crime investigation continue
to teach us long after their deaths. These are the aspirations that we
should aspire to endow. We are fortunate to work in a profession
with a strong foundation and a bright and seemingly endless future."
(Thomas W. Adir, Editor 'The scene').
FIGURE 2
"The Bashful Model
1873 (Courtesy of
Charles E. O'Hara)
1854 - An Englishman, Maddox, developed a dry plate photography
eclipsing Daguerre's wet plate on tin method. This made practical the
photography of inmates for prison records.
1859 - In the United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic
Science was in photography. It was used to demonstrate evidence in
a California case. Enlarged photographs of signature were presented
in a court case involving forgery.
1864 - Odelberch first advocates the use of photography for the
identification of criminals and the documentation of evidence and
the crime scenes.
Early photographs of accused and arrested persons were beautifully
posed as example of the Victorian photographers at 20 to 30 years.
Later, every major police force in England and the United States has
"Rogues' galleries"-full face, profile and full body shot.
In Europe and the United States had "Rogues Galleries" (Photograph
of criminals) became an integral part almost all police departments.
1982-Alphonse Bertillion who initiated anthropometric
measurements for personal identification was also involved in
various means of documentation by photography which
developed into a fine science for criminalistics when he
photographed crime scenes and formulated a technique of contact
photography to demonstrate erasures on documents.
1902- Dr. R.A. Reis, a German scientist trained in Chemistry and
Physics at Lausanne University in Switzerland. He contributed heavily
to the used of photography in forensic science and established the
world's earliest crime laboratory that serviced the academic
community and the Swiss police. His interest included photography
of crime scenes, corpses, and blood stains. He made a trip to Brazil
in 1913 where his experience in criminalistics was presented to the
Western Hemisphere for the first time.
1910- Victor Baltazard developed a method of photographic
comparison of bullets and cartridge cases which act as an early
foundation of the field of ballistics.
Victor Baltazard, Professor of forensic medicine at Sorbone, used
photographic enlargements of bullets and cartridge cases which act
as an early foundation of the field of ballistics.
D. Legal Foundation of Forensic Evidence
1. For Black and White Photographs
1859 - Daguerreotype was used in a civil case, Lueo vs. United States,
23 Howard 515 to decide on the authenticity of photographs in
comparing signature.
1874- In a criminal case introducing photograph as identification
evidence, Underzook vs. Commonwealth, 76 Pa. 340.
2. For Color Photographs
1943 - Civil litigations Green vs. City and country of Denver, 3 Colo.
390 142 P.2 D.227 involving color photography of spoiled meat in
violation of a health ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid meat to
the public.
1960- In criminal case, State vs. Conte 157 Comm. 251 A. 2 d81
showing the ghaphic wound of the victim.
E. Criminology Education
1902 - Dr. R.A. Reis professor at the University of Laussanne
Switzerland set up one of the first academic curricular in forensic
science. His Forensic Photography Department grew into Lausanne
Institute of Police Science.
1950-August Vollmer, Chief of Police of Bekerly, California
established the School of Criminology at the University of California,
Bekerly. Paul Kirk presided over the major of criminalistics within the
school.
1954- In the Philippines, the school which pioneered criminology
education is the Plaridel Educational Institution now the Philippine
College of Criminology at 641 Sales St., Sta. Cruz, Manila.
THE PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Different authors of photography books have different approach in
explaining the principles of photography but to our mind, the one
expounded by Atty. Avelino Aquino in his book "Police Photography-
its principles and practice" is the best articulated.
A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography.
To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized
materials.
Lights reflected or radiated by subject must reach the sensitized
materials while all other lights must be excluded. The exclusion of all
unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the
sensitized material inside a camera.
The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not
immediately visible to the eyes. To make the formed images visible,
it must undergo the development process. The visual effect that
results from the chemical processing is dependent on the quantity
and quality of the exposing light. More light will yield an opaque or
black shade on the sensitized material after development, too little
will produce a transparent or white shade. The varying shade of gray
will finally form the complete image.
CHAPTER 2
PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS-
ITS NATURE AND
CHARACTERISTICS
A. LIGHT
Light is one of a number of known forms of radiant electromagnetic
energy which travel in wave motion. Actually, there are other
theories that explains the behavior of light (ex. Quantum theory) but
for our purpose, the wave theory is the only one considered. This
form of energy travels at a speed of about 186,000 miles per second
in air, but they differ in wavelength and frequency. Wavelength is the
distance from the crest (highest point) to the wave to the next
succeeding crest while frequency is the number of waves passing in
a given point in one second. The product of the two is the speed of
travel.
The speed of the various radiant energy is constant at a given
medium, but varies
with other media. For example, the speed of light in ordinary glass is
only about two-third of
its speed in air. Actually, it is only the wavelength that changes,
frequency remains constant.
However frequency is much more difficult to measure, wavelength
could be determined
with accuracy. Hence, we identify a particular radiation by its
wavelength. Wavelength is
measured by the angstrom unit or in terms of milli-microns (English
system of measure) or
nanometer (metric system of measure) which is equivalent to one
over one millionth of a
millimeter.
The different energies in the electromagnetic spectrum are the
following: Cosmic rays, Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultraviolet rays, visible
light, infrared rays, heat rays, Hertzian waves, and the alternating
current oscillations.
The energies that are capable of being recorded on sensitized
materials are the X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, and infrared
rays. They are sometimes referred to as the four photographic rays
of modern photography. The wavelength of X-rays is from 01 to 30
nanometers, Ultraviolet rays from 30 to 400nn, visible light from 400
to 700nn, and infrared rays from 700 to 1,000+nn. Actually, the
wavelength of infrared rays extends beyond 2,000nn but the longest
wavelength that the present sensitized materials (films) could record
is only up to this limit.
The Webster Dictionary defines light as a radiant electromagnetic
energy that can be seen by the naked eye. The scientific definition of
light is the aspect of radiant energy of which a human observer is
aware through the visual sensations which arise from the stimulation
of the retina of the eye.
Light rays with a wavelength of 400 to 700 nn is referred to as visible
light because it is only within these wavelengths that the human eye
is capable of perceiving. Those with shorter or longer wavelength are
commonly referred as visible radiations.
By definition all lights are visible. For this reason the word "visible" is
superfluous in that common expression "visible light". What the eye
cannot see are referred to as radiations.
Light energy has several effects on an object. It is either reflected,
absorbed, transmitted or converted. The varying combinations of
this reflectance and absorption are what give us the wide variety of
colors which we are able to perceive, at times, other light are neither
reflected nor absorbed but it is transmitted through the object. This
transmitted light passing through the object and allows a viewer on
the other side of the object to perceive these light waves.
The final effect a radiant energy may have on an object is to be
converted to another wavelength. This conversion is known as
luminescence. There are two types of luminescence: the
fluorescence and phosphoresce.
Fluorescence is the ability of an object to convert one wavelength to
another as long as the active energy source is irradiating the object.
In phosphorescence the object not only converts the wavelength
while being irradiated but continuous to reflect the new wavelength
for a period of time after the energy source is removed.
White Light
When all the wavelengths between 400-700 nanometers are
presented to the eye in nearly equal quantity, we get the sensation
or perception of colorless or white light. If a narrow beam of white
light is allowed to pass through a prism it will bend the light of shorter
wavelength more than those with longer wavelength thus spreading
them out into visible spectrum. These are colors of the rainbow-the
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.
FIGURE 3
The prism breaks its white light in its
different wavelength producing the
colors of the rainbow. (Courtesy of
Eastern Kodak)
If we divide the wavelength of visible
light (400-700 nano.) equally into
three (from 400 to 500 nano,, from
500 to 600 nano,, and from 600 to 700 nano.) we will produce blue,
green, and red colors. These are known as the three primary colors
of lights, paints, dyes, pegment and other coloring matters which are
the blue, yellow, and red.
 Additive Color Mixture complementary of blue, and magenta is the complementary of
green.
If we get three projectors with beams of
lights projecting individually blue, green
and red and have the three beams
overlap over the other, we will note that FIGURE 5
the portion where the blue and green
Subtractive Color Mixture
lights merged over the other, it will
produce a cyan color, the green and red (Courtesy of Eastman
lights a yellow color, and the red and blue lights a magenta color. At Kodak)
the center where the blue, green and red lights were combined in
proper ratio, we see white light. In this aspect, cyan, yellow, and
magenta are known as the three secondary colors. Black is the
absence of all colors or the absence of light.
The range of colors which can t be produced by subtractive
FIGURE 4 mixture of three dye is quite large and makes it possible the
Additive Color Mixture (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak) modern processes of color photography which depends on
the subtractive principle.
Subtractive Color Mixture
This time, the light beams of the three projectors will be covered
each with cyan filter, yellow filter, and magenta filter and have the
beams of light projected one over the other. The cyan filter will
transmit blue and green light but absorbs red from white light. A
yellow filter will transmit green and red light but absorbs blue from
white light. Similarly, a magenta filter will transmit red and blue light Production of Colors
but absorbs green from white light. At the center where the three There are a number of different ways in which color is
beams of light are merged together will produce black. In simple
produced. One needs to know the variable quantities of
terms, cyan is the complementary of red, yellow is the
colors so it will be possible to evaluate color as quality.
1. Absorption
The colors of most ordinary objects are due to the fact they
do not absorb the same amount of light at each
wavelength.
2. Scattering
The color of the blue sky is due to the scattering of light by
the atmosphere. Variation in the density of the
atmospheric gases act in such a way that they scatter light
of the shorter wavelength at the blue end of the spectrum
much more they scatter light of the longer wavelength of
the red end of the spectrum. Thus the sky is bluest when it
is clearest and white when it is less clear.
3. Interference
Color can also be produced by interference of light waves
in thin film like a in soap bubbles or a film of oil floating in
water. The light reflected from the top surface of such a film
undergoes a reversal or phase but the reflected from the
bottom surface does not undergo this type of change. This
phenomenon is also responsible for the color pattern
known as "Newton's ring" which sometimes causes trouble
in color printing work.
4. Fluorescence
This happens when molecules of the fluorescent material
absorb energy at one wavelength and radiate it at another
wavelength.
5. Dispersion
Color may arise from the differences in the refractive or
bending power of a transparent medium of light of
different wavelength. The rainbow is a good example of
this phenomenon.
Attributes of Color
According to the modern scientific definition of color, it is
not legitimate to ascribe color to an object but only to the
light reflected from it. Thus any color perception has three
characteristic, any one of which can be varied
independently of the other two. These are hue, saturation,
and brightness.
Bending of Light
'When travelling in open space, light travels in straight line.
However, when light comes in contact with an open object,
it may be blended in the following manner.

Reflection is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a
surface.
a. Regular or Specular Reflection - happens when light hits a fiat,
smooth and shiny surface.
b. Irregular or Diffused Reflection - occurs when light hits a rough or
uneven but glossy object.
1. Refraction - the bending of light when passing from one medium
to another.
2. Diffraction - the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an
opaque object.
Kinds of object as to how they behave to light.
1. Transparent objects - allow sufficient visible light to pass through
them that the object on the other side may be clearly seen.
2. Translucent objects - allows light to pass, however diffuse it
sufficiently that objects on the other side may not be clearly
distinguished. In some cases the objects on the other side may be
recognizable but sharp detail and outline is obscured.
3. Opaque objects - so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the
object on the other side is very difficult if not impossible.
Sources of Light
1. Natural light source - those coming from nature like the sun,
moon, stars, other heavenly bodies, lightning, fire etc. while all of
these sources could now be used for photographic use, for practical
reasons, the discussion will be limited to sunlight only. With sunlight
there are actually several sources. Primarily, those coming directly
from the sun, secondarily, those being reflected by clouds or the sky.
The intensity of sunlight falling on an object in open space varies
depending on the weather condition, time of the day, or even time
of the year. For a more accurate exposure setting at daylight, only
one characteristic is considered- the kind of shadow casted by an
object in open space.
1) Bright sunlight - a lighting condition where objects in open space
cast a deep and uniform or distinct shadow.
2) Hazy sunlight - objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.
3) Dull sunlight- objects in open space cast no shadow.
a. Cloudy bright - objects in open space cast no shadow but objects
at far distance are clearly visible.
b. Cloudy dull-objects in open space cast no shadow and visibility of
distant objects are already limited.
2. Artificial Light Source
Light sources of this category are man-made and are divided into the
continuous radiation and the short duration.
a. Continuous radiations are those that can give illumination
continuously. The common light sources of this kind are the
fluorescent lamp, incandescent lamps, carbon arc lamp, photoflood
lamp, gas lamp, etc.
b. Short duration (Flash unit)
A flash unit gives a brief flash light produced by a burning metallic
wire (flash bulb) or an electrical discharge through a gas-filled tube
(electronic flash). At this time, the flash bulb is no longer available in
the market but the electronic flash remains very popular
The electronic flash offers a great light output in a compact,
lightweight and economical form. It does not have the effect of heat
and glare during setup that is common with continuous light sources.
Because t is battery powered, it is most convenient for field work
where AC current id not available. Like any other artificial source,
flash unit allows the photographer to control the direction, quality
and intensity of light to achieve the desired result.
Forensic Light Sources
1. Ultraviolet lamp
Ultraviolet lamps used in forensic work come in variety of shape,
sizes, and power. Some units are portable battery operated and easily
carried and can meet the rugged and rigorous demand for field work.
The ultraviolet radiation is broken down into the long wave U.V., the
medium wave U.V. and the short wave U.V. The long wave UV is used
in wide variety of applications in medical and forensics. The medium
wave UV is often used in chemical analysis and in curing and
hardening of different items for industrial applications. The short
wave UV is used for variety purpose such as to sterilize air and place
of work. It is an effective germicide, destroying many biological
contaminants.
2. LASER-Light Amplification and Stimulation in the Emission of
Radiation
Although developed years earlier it was in 1970's that it was
discovered that by illuminating certain items with LASER, they would
fluoresce or could be made to stand out in sharp contrast from their
background. This was especially significant in locating
dried biological stains such as semen, urine and saliva, as well as
stains that had been washed. The LASER stimulation of these items
provided a way for criminalist to finally see, locate, and visually
record evidence that they know that they had been missing. The only
drawback of LASER is their cost, they are quite expensive. LAZER is
also known as coherent light.
the width of the transmission band, various wavelength from the UV
to IR may be digitally selected. This allows the operator to scan an
almost endless variety of wavelength instead of being restricted to
the specific band pass filter capabilities.
4. Forensic Light Sources (FLS)
The FLS is a term being applied to a wide variety of relatively
inexpensive light sources which use filtered white light. A band of
pass filters allows a fairly narrow band of light to pass through. The
object is then radiated with what is normally about 400-500
nanometer light source. The strobe shift of a specially developed
luminescent fingerprint powder which also falls within the strobe
shift of most biological powder. This will enable a criminalist to
search
latent fingerprints of rough surfaces. The white light source used
with the FLS is a simple as a maglight type handled flashlight or a spot
with the filter in place.

3. Alternative Light Source (ALS)

The Alternative Light Sources was developed in mind 1980's as a far
more inexpensive alternative to forensic LASER. The ALS uses a
variety of band pass filters to provide high intensity beam of non-
coherent light. These multiple band pass filters allows the operator
to match the LASER frequency available at crime scene. Additional
wavelength ware included to allow the ALS to operate in the UV, near
UV, and IR spectrum. ALS technology had advanced to a point
whereby using the combination to filter and an adjustable iris control
CHAPTER3 Generally film base are made of plastic material. They serve as a
support to the emulsion.
PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS
AND PAPERS Characteristics of B & W Films
A. BLACK AND WHITE FILMS The characteristics of a B & W films are speed (sensitivity to light),
A black and white film is basically spectral (wavelength or color) sensitivity and granularity or
made up of emulsion, gray or graininess.
anti- halation backing, and a Although films are universally manufacture in about the same way,
support base. there are controlled variations in procedure, choice and proportion
1.Emulsion of chemicals used in processing films of different characteristics.

Photographic emulsion consists of crystals of light-sensitive 1. Emulsion speed

compounds (silver nitrate) evenly distribute throughout plastic base
material.
Silver halide emulsions are universally sensitive to the ultraviolet
radiations and some wavelength of blue light. They can be made
sensitive to other colors of light and the near infrared radiation by
the addition of special sensitizing dye. Gelatin is universally used as
the medium th at holds the crystals in emulsion.
2. Gray or antihalation backing
The different indicators of emulsion speed are as follows:
a. ASA (American Standards Association) rating. This is expressed in
arithmetical value.
b. DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) rating, which is expressed in
logarithmic value
c. ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. This is expressed
in the combined arithmetical and logarithmic values.

This layer is placed between the emulsion and the plastic base of a
film to prevent whatever light that passes through the emulsion and
reflected by the base back to the emulsion which forms a "halo".
3. Base
The different emulsion speed ratings are:
In the market, ASA 100 commonly referred to as the Plus X, the ASA
200 as the double X, and the ASA 400 as the Tri-X.
2. Spectral sensitivity
The different classifications of films as according to its spectral
sensitivity are:
a. Blue sensitive film - sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue light only.
b. Orthochromatic film - sensitive to ultraviolet rays, blue and green
light only.
c. Panchromatic film - sensitive to ultraviolet radiation to blue,
green, and red light or all colors.
d. Infra-red film - sensitive to ultraviolet rays, to blue, green red light
ad infrared rays.
3. Granularity or graininess
This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed
after development of an exposed film. Generally, the sizes of metallic
silver grains are dependent on the emulsion speed of the film and
the type of developing solution that is used in processing. The rule
is: the lower the emulsion speed rating of the film, the finer is the
grain and conversely, the higher the emulsions speed rating of the
film, the bigger are the grains. Likewise, a film developer will produce
a finer grain than a paper developer when used for film processing.
B. COLOR FILMS
A color film is multi-layer emulsion coated on the same support or
base. The top emulsion is sensitive to blue light only. Since green and
red light passes through it without effect, the blue light alone makes
the exposure. A yellow filter layer above the middle emulsion
absorbs any unused blue light and prevents it from reaching the two
lower emulsion layers. The yellow colors in the filter layer have no
permanent effect on the appearance of the film because it is
destroyed during processing. The middle emulsion is sensitive to
green light but
not to red light. Like all emulsions, the middle layer is also sensitive
to blue light but the blue light cannot reach it.
The exposure in this layer is therefore made by green light alone. The
bottom layer is sensitive to red light, but it its sensitivity to green light
is too low as to be negligible. Hence, the exposure in this layer is
made by red light alone. These three emulsion layers are coated on
a film base which has an anti-halation backing.

a. Negative or non-reversal film
The suffix "color" is given to negative or non-reversal film. This film
yields either a negative or a positive image depending on how it used.
Examples are: Kodacolor, Fujicolor, Agfacolor, etc.
b. Reversal film
The suffix "chrome" is applied to reversal material. This film when
processed a positive image or transparency for projection viewing.
Examples are: Kodachrome, Ektachrome, Fujichrome, Agfachrome,
etc
Like the B & W films, color films also have emulsion speed with the
same Indicators (ASA, DIN, ISO) and the same ratings.
Films whether B & W or color comes in a variety of sizes and number
of exposures.
For sizes, there are 8 mm. 16 mm., 135 mm., 120 mm., 127 mm for
roll films and the 2-1/2" x 3-1/2", 5"x 7", 8"x10", 11"x14", an 16"x24"
for sheet films.
For number of exposures, there are 12 exposures, 24 exposures and
the 36 exposures.
C. PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS (BLACK AND WHITE)
Modern photographic papers are basically composed of a light
sensitive coating (emulsion) on a paper base or support. The
emulsion suspended on a gelatin is generally made of silver halide
salts. To withstand the rigors of soaking in chemical solutions and
water during processing and washing, as well as the variety of degree
of humidity and temperature, the base is made of wood pulp.
1. Characteristics of a photographic paper
a. Emulsion speed
1. Chloride paper - has a slow speed and is suited for contact
printing.
2. Bromide paper - has a fast speed and is recommended for
projection printing or enlarging.
3. Chloro-bromide paper - is a multi-speed and could be used in both
contacts printing and enlarging.
The contrast of an emulsion also affects the printing speed. For some
papers the lighter the contrast grade, the slower the speed.
b. Exposure and development latitude
Latitude is the degree or amount of which you can deviate from the
ideal exposure or development without appreciable loss of print
quality.
1. Exposure latitude
Generally, photographic papers do not have wide exposure latitude
so exposure must be critical at all times.
2. Development latitude
Papers that do not change appreciable in contrast and image tone
with reasonable variations in development has good latitude.
However, for best quality the developing time should be as near as
those prescribe by the manufacturer.
c. Contrast range or grade
In black and white printing, it is often necessary to adjust the paper
contrast so they can be yield a natural-scene result from negatives
with density range that are either too high or too low. Some papers
are available in several contrast range or grade while others have
built-in contrast-control affected by the use of a filter on the
enlarging lens or on enlarger light source.
In most photographic papers, the contrast range or grade are
indicated by numbers- numbers 0 to 5
1. Numbers 0 and 1 are used on over-exposed or low contrast
negative.
2. Numbers 2 are used on normal exposed or normal contrast
negatives.
3. Numbers 3 to 5 used in under-exposed or high contrast negatives.
d. Physical characteristics
Under this category, a photographic paper comes in different
surfaces base thickness or weight and color.
1. Surfaces of photographic papers vary in surface texture or degrees
glossy or sheen. They are the glossy and smooth, semi-matte or silk,
and the matte or the rough surface.
2. Based weight or thickness Under this category, we have the light
weight, single weight, medium weight, and the double weight.
3. Color maybe "cold" or white with a very slight blue cast, and the
"warm" or "cream" where the white has a slight yellow-brown line.
D. PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS FOR COLOR PRINTING is essentially CAMERA
similar to the film used in the camera except that the emulsion layers
are coated on a paper base and contain couplers which are colorless. A. Camera - is a light-tight box,
Colored couplers are not used because the print would then be with a lens to form an image;
suitable for direct viewing. with a shutter and diaphragm to
control the entry of the image, a
Printing a negative in complementary colors on a non-reversal print
means of holding a film to record
reverses both the tone scale and the color of the negative. Thus, the
the image/and a viewer or
final result is a positive reproduction within the accuracy limits of the
viewfinder to show the
photographic processes of the tones and colors of the original
photographer what the image is.
subject.
B. Camera Classifications:
Photographic papers- both color and black-and-white are supplied in
rolls or sheet in varying lengths or sizes. Camera classified as according to:
1. The size of the film they use or format of the picture they produce.
a. Large format cameras These cameras have bellows and use sheet
films in the size 4"x5", 5"x7" and 8"x10"
b. Medium format cameras Some of these cameras are folding type
with bellows and some are rigid-body with film size of 120,220, 70
mm. The double lens reflex camera falls under this category.
c. Small format cameras Those film size 126, 110, 35 mm., 16 mm,
and 8 mm.

CHAPTER 4
2. The viewing/focusing system
a. Those with focusing mechanism at the back of the camera.
b. Those with optical viewfinder.
3. Overall design and functions
a. View camera
b. System cameras
Its rigid body design accepts a wide variety of lenses, viewers, film
backs, and accessories (hundreds of them) can be attached or
integrated to adapt to scientific, technical, architectural,
astronomical, underwater, and many other kind of photography.
Example of this type is the single-lens reflex camera.
c. Digital cameras
This type of camera digitalizes the image which can then be put into
a computer and enhanced through a software package such as
Adobe Photoshop.

There are two types of digital cameras:
1. Those with fixed memory This camera has a limited number of
images it can capture. The user will then be forced or download it
into a computer.
2. Those with removable memory This camera allow the user to load
and replace a variety of storage cards in much the same fashion as
film is exposed and replaced with a new film. Removable media
varies in size, in price, and compatibility with computers and other
cameras.
Other features of a digital camera:
1. Image produced or taken by a digital camera can be viewed in a
computer monitor or T.V. set. For hard copies of such image a
computer printer is used.
2. A Liquid Crystal Device (LCD) monitor Digital "point and shoot
cameras sometimes do not have an optical viewfinder. These
cameras feature a color LCD screen on the camera back or one that
can be swing on the side which serves multiple duties as a viewfinder,
control panel, and instant playback monitor.
3. Flash unit- although generally not necessary but is required for
back lighted subjects or in a really low light level.
4. Zoom lens capability- wide-angle, normal, telephoto, even macro
5. Sound recording-where you can record audio chips such as short
description of the image taken or noise in the surrounding area.
6. Removable lens that can see around corners.
This simplest type of camera is the box type, also commonly referred
to as the Instamatic, or then newer generation "point and shoot
cameras. With this type of camera, all you need to
do is to open its back, load the film, close the back, wind the film
then take the picture. There are no exposures and focusing control
to adjust because it is fixed focused, with fixed shutter speed, and a
fixed lens or diaphragm opening.
In forensic photography, the most ideal camera type to use is the
single-lens-reflex (SLR) camera. It is light in weight, compact, and
versatile. It has the capability of interchangeability of lenses and a
wide range of accessories can be attached to its body, like extension
rings or tubes, flash units, filters, cable release, motor drive, remote
control, etc., for better photographic efficiency and affectivity.

C.Methods of Image Formation

1. Pinhole is a small or tiny hole which produces an image entirely
free from distortion but its image is so dim that it is impractically long
even if the fastest film is used. It is also not practical to enlarge the
hole for more light because the larger the hole, the more blurred is
the image.
2. Shadow method Image formed by this method is simply the
shadow of an object. The chief of application of this method is in X-
ray photography and in making photogram.
3. Lens method 1. The convergent of positive or convex lens This lens is always thicker
This is the best method of image formation because it is capable of at the center and thinner at the sides. Light passing through it are
forming a sharp image even with a large opening so it is suited for a bended toward each other on the other side of the lens meeting at
camera. appoint. It produce a real image on the opposite side of the lens or
where light is coming from.
D. Lens
2. The divergent, negative, or concave lens. This lens is always thinner
A lens is a transparent medium which either converge or diverge light at the center and thicker at the sides. Light passing through it are
rays passing through it to form an image. Generally, there are two bended away from each other as if coming from a point. It produce
types of lenses: a virtual image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming
from.
E. Inherent Lens Defects of Aberrations
The ideal lens for forensic photography would be capable of
producing critically sharp and distortion-free image. Some other
lenses are unfit for the preparation of photographic evidence
because they have optical defects known as aberrations. They are the
following:
1.Spherical aberration
When light passing through near the central part of a converging lens
are bended more sharply than those rays falling in the edge, thus the
rays coming from the edges are focused on a plane nearer the lens
than those coming from the central part.
2. Coma
This is another form of spherical aberration but is concerned with
the light rays entering the lens obliquely. The defect is not noticeable
only on the outer edges and not on the central part of the lens. If a
lens has coma, circular objects reproduced at the corners of the
negative are comet-like form. Just like the spherical aberration, it is 4. Distortion
reduced by combinations of lenses of different curvatures.
A lens with distortion is incapable of rendering straight lines
3. Curvature of field correctly; either horizontal or vertical lines of an object. This is
This is a kind of defect where the image formed by a lens comes to caused by the placement of the diaphragm. If the diaphragm is
a sharper focus in a curved surface than a flat surface. The correction placed in front of the lens, straight lines near the edges of the object
of this defect is similar to spherical aberration and coma. tend to bulge outside. This is known as the barrel distortion. If the
diaphragm is placed behind or the lens, straight lines near the edges
tend to bend inward. This is known as pincushion distortion.
Distortion is remedied by placing the diaphragm in between the lens
component and the two opposite distortions will neutralize.
5. Chromatic aberrations
This defect is the inability of the lens to bring photographic rays of
different wavelengths to the same focus. Ultraviolet rays bent the
most while infrared rays are bent the least when they pass through
the lens. Visible light come to a focus at varying distances. This defect
is
reduced by utilizing compound lenses made up of single lens made
up of glass of different curvatures.
6. Astigmatism
With this defect, a single point from a subject falling near the margin
of the negative will be imaged not as a point but as two
perpendicular short lines, one of which is always be out of focus
while the other is sharp. This defect is lessened by combining lenses
of special kind of glass having the correct combinations of spherical
surfaces.
7. Chromatic difference of magnification
This defect is present when the size of image produced by
photographic rays of one wavelength is different from the size
produced by another. Size of the image increases as the wavelength
of the rays decreases. In color photography it produces a rainbow
colored fringes around the edges of objects while in black and white
photography it appears as a slight blue.
Most of these aberrations cannot be eliminated but each one of
them can be reduced to a level that its truth bearing quality for
evidence use is legally acceptable.
F. Types of Lenses as According to their Degree of Correction to
these Lens Aberrations
1. Achromatic lens- is corrected for chromatic aberration.
2. Rapid-rectilinear lens- is corrected for distortion.
3. Anastigmat lens - is corrected for astigmatism as well as the other
lens defects.
4. Apochromat lens- is also corrected for astigmatism but with
higher degree of correction to color.
G. Focal Length
A fundamental characteristic of a lens is its focal length. This will
determine the size of an image of an object at a given distance, and
the area of coverage of the lens.
Focal length is the distance measured from the optical center of the
lens to the film plane when the lens is set or focused at infinity
position or far distance.
Focal distance is the distance measured from the optical center of
the lens to the film plane.
H. Types of Lenses as According to Focal Length
1. Wide angle lens - a lens with a focal length of less than the
diagonal of its negative material. This lens will have a wide area of
coverage but produces a small image size. This is usually used in
taking pictures indoor or inside a small room. It is also used outdoor
to get a panoramic view of a scene.
2. Normal lens - is a lens with a focal length approximately equal or
more but not more than twice the diagonal of its negative material,
it is referred to as normal because its coverage corresponds to nearly
the coverage of the human eye.
3. Telephoto lens - is a lens with a focal length of more than twice
the diagonal of its negative material. This lens produces a bigger
image of objects at far distance but its area of coverage is smaller.
4. Zoom lens is a lens with variable focal length.
There are some cameras whose f-numbers starts at 1.4 or 1.2, or 1.1
The focal length f a lens is normally indicated in the lens mount or
and the lowest numerical f-number was the .09 fitted on a Canon 7
barrel of a camera, usually in millimeter (mm) or in centimeter (cm).
camera.
These f-numbers indicate in succession decrease by one-half in light
intensity as the number increases. This means that an aperture of
f1.8 will admit twice more light than f2 and so on. Conversely, light
1. Lens Diaphragm
intensity will decrease by one-half as the numerical value increases.
In between the lens component of a camera is a metal diaphragm This also means that f8 will admit twice less light than f5.6.
which can be expanded or constricted by moving a turning ring on
The diaphragm serves as controller of speed, depth of field and
the lens mount or barrel. The size of the opening is indicated by
definitions.
markings of f-numbers. Each f-number represents the ratio of the
focal length of the lens and the diameter of the opening. The 1. Diaphragm as controller of speed.
common series of f-number are 1.8, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, and 22.
 By expanding or constricting the diaphragm, it is possible to
regulate the amount of light passing through the lens. The
diaphragm serves as a speed throttle. In the series of f-numbers,
the lowest number is the widest opening of the one that give the
most amount of light and conversely, the highest number is the
smallest opening or the one that give the least amount of light.
Depth of field is defined as the distance between the nearest and the
farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or
focused on a given distance.
There are influencing factors of depth of field.
a. The size of the diaphragm opening.
The general rule governing this factor is. The smaller the opening,
the longer is the depth of field. Conversely, the wider is the
opening, the shorter is the depth of field.

The exception to this rule is the presence or the effect of

diffraction when a small opening is used.
2. Diaphragm as controller of depth of field.
In theory, it is not possible to focus a lens in more than one distance
at the same time. In actual practice however, in any given lens objects
that ere nearer or farther than the object focused upon will be
reasonably sharp.

b. The focal length of the lens.
The general rule is: the shorter the focal length the wider or longer is
the depth of field and vice versa, the longer is the focal length the
shorter is the depth of field.
c. Circle of confusion Another factor that affects depth of field is the
size of the circle of confusion which is considered acceptable. Circle
of confusion refers to a small circle which is seen by the eye, not as a
circle but a dot or point.
d. Hyperfocal distance
This is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given
particular diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of
field.
3. Diaphragm as controller of definition.
The term definition is the ability of the lens to form clear images of
fine details. Not even a theoretically perfect lens would be capable
of imaging a point source of light as a geometrical point. All practical
lenses image such a point as a small blur which changes in character
with the change of lens aperture. Decreasing the lens aperture versa. Since the light bending power of a lens is fixed, it is necessary
improves definition as it removes the small amount of haze caused to adjust the lens so the point of focus will be on the film plane.
by residual aberrations.
Focusing is defined as the setting of the proper distance in order to
J. Photographic Perspective and Correct Viewing Distance. form a sharp image. Focusing is the main factor that will determine
the sharpness of the images on a photograph. Of course, there are
The human eyes sees in three dimensions but a lens reproduces a
other factors to be considered like movement or motion of the
view in two dimensions. The missing dimension, depth- is suggested
subject when photograph is actually being taken. Though the focus
mainly by the relative size and position of various objects in the
is accurate, yet these factors will blur image of the subject being
photograph. The relations of these objects or perspective and
photographed.
therefore the naturalness of the photograph are determined by the
position of the camera. A camera position too close to the subject L. Methods of Focusing
results in an exaggerated magnification of the parts nearer the lens.
1. Scale-bed or focusing scale.
Correct perspective in a final photograph depends largely upon the
distance upon which is viewed. The correct viewing distance which On the amount or barrel of the camera lens there are two sets of pre-
likewise gives the correct perspective corresponds to the focal length setted distance expressed in feet (ft) and in meters (m). This is scale
of the lens of the camera when a contact print of the negative is bed or focusing scale. These distances correspond to the distance
made. Frequently, this distance is too short for the eye to be able to from the camera lens to the subject.
see it clearly and comfortably so there is a need of enlargement.
To focus with this method, one has to use a measuring device
Enlarged photographs require a viewing distance equal to the
(tapemeasure, yardstick, ruler, etc.) and actually measure the
camera focal length times or multiplied by the number of diameter
distance from the lens of the camera to the subject. Whatever
or degree of enlargement of the photograph.
K. Focusing
When light passes through a convergent lens, these light rays are
bended toward each other meeting at a point which is the point of
focus. When the subject distance to the lens is short or near the
converging point of the light rays behind the lens increases and vice-
distance was measured, will be the setting of the marker pointer of
focus. If actual measurement is not possible or undertaken,
estimation, calculation, or approximation of this particular distance
can be resorted to. However, the accuracy of the focus is dependent
upon the accuracy of estimation, calculation, or approximation.
2. Rangefinders
A rangefinder is a mechanism used to measure the angle of
convergence of light as seen from two apertures or opening but
viewed at the same time. In modern cameras, the rangefinder is
coupled with the viewfinder. There are two types of rangefinders.
a. Split-image
With this type, when one looks through the viewfinder of a camera,
there is a circle on the central part with a line running across the
circle. To determine focus with this type, pick a straight line in the
subject and view it on the circle. If the straight line is cut and
separated from each other, the focusing is not correct Rotate the
barrel of the lens until the said straight line is viewed as straight and
the lens are in focus.
This method of focusing is standard in single lens reflex camera. Since
the viewing and focusing is made from light rays passing through the
lens, it is not affected by the problem of parallax. (Explanation of
parallax on page 36)
b. Co-incident image.
This method of focusing is usually used on compact cameras with a
fixed lens. With this type, when you look into the viewfinder, you'll
notice a rectangle- in other cameras, its circle- on the upper left
portion of the viewfinder. For emphasis, manufacturer of the camera
usually add color to it, generally a tint a yellow or green.
To focus with this method, pick a single detail in the subject for
viewing in the viewfinder. If the single detail chosen appears with
double image, the distance or focus is incorrect. Rotate the lens
barrel until the two images viewed will coincide with each other and
you are "in" focus.
3. Groundglass
This method of focusing is accomplished by direct observation of the
image of the subject on a glass with finely grounded surface known
as groundglass. This groundglass is found at the back of a camera or
in the case of the modern cameras, also couple with the viewfinder.
The point of focus is where the image is sharpest. If the image
appears to be blurred, fuzzy or not sharp, it is out of focus.
Some single-lens-reflex cameras use a small central circle, a
microprism on this groundglass viewfinder for easier focusing. The
microprism will usually shatter an out of focus image. When the
image is exactly in focus the prisms seems to disappear.
 is a small range of movement on either side of the position of the
best focus in which the degree of unsharpness is acceptable, and the
total range is called the depth of focus.
M. Depth of Focus or Focal Range
N. Parallax
When a lens is focused on any given subject, there is one lens-to-film
Parallax is the change of appearance and orientation of objectswhen
distance where the image is sharpest, as the lens is moved close to
seen from two viewpoints. It is also used to refer to the distance
the film or farther away from the film, the sharpness decrease. There
between the viewpoints themselves.
Human vision of depth depends on parallax. Each eye see objects
from two viewpoint about 65 mm (2-1/2 inches) apart. The left and
right eye images on the retina have parallax-that is they are not
identical. The spacing between various parts of the subject being
viewed varies according to the angular difference. These differences
are interpreted by the brain as difference in distance and three
dimensional depths is perceived.
O. Shutters
A shutter is a device that opens to uncover the film to make an
exposure for an accurately timed interval then closes automatically.
Most shutters are spring-powered and are controlled by mechanical
linkages. However, an ever increasing number of modern cameras,
now uses a shutter with electrical circuits to energize electromagnets
for the control of the speeds.
The action of the shutter is expressed in the different shutter speeds
which correspond to the length of time or duration of the opening to
the closing of the shutter.
 15
30
60
125
250
500
1000
The B setting is an exposure setting for more than one second. 1-is
for one second, 2- is for one- half second, 4- is for one-fourth of a
second, and all succeeding numbers are also fractions of a second.
Since except for B, and no. 1, all numbers are fractions of second, the
higher the number, the faster is the shutter speed and will admit less
light and the lower number, the slower is the shutter speed and will
admit more light. The series of shutter speeds will show that one
shutter speed is twice faster or slower than the next shutter speed.
The different shutter speeds are:
Example:
B-for bulb or brief
1/30 will admit twice more light than 1/60 Or
1/60 will admit twice less light than 1/30.
1
2
4
8
There are two major types of shutters. not only in the middle tones but also in the highlights and shadow
areas.
1. Between the lens or central shutter.
A simple rule provides a universal exposure guide for color and black
This shutter is located in between the lens component. It is made of
and white films are based on the following factors.
metal blades. Its action starts from the center toward the sides then
closes back to the center. This type of shutter can be synchronized a. Film speed
with a flash unit with every shutter speed.
b. Lighting condition
2. Focal plane shutter. This shutter is located directly in front of the
c. Type of subject
film or on the focal plane. It is usually made of cloth or metal curtain.
Its actions start from one side and closes on the opposite side. This A general formula used in exposure setting of an average or normal
type of shutter can give a faster shutter speeds than the between- subject in the sun or open sky.
the-lens shutter.
P. Exposure
Exposure is the action of recording radiant energy that produces a
change on a material of substance sensitive to such energy. In
conventional photography materials, the action of the exposing
energy reduces or breaks down the silver halide sufficiently to
produce latent (invisible) record of the pattern of light intensity or in
the case of printing material, a visible
record. Exposure is quantitative: it is the product of the total light
intensity and the length of time it strikes the emulsion.
1. Calculating film exposure Actually, there is not one correct
exposure, but there is an ideal or proper exposure. Exposure is
therefore subjective and errors in calculation could result in either
"over- exposure" or "under- exposure". One good rule in judging
proper exposure is the presence or visibility of details of the subject,
2.Bracketing
This technique is used when exposure calculation that will give a
desired results in uncertain; make several exposures or less than and
more than the calculated exposure by two or four f-shops each.
3. Exposure meter
Photographic exposure meter measures light intensities and have
calculators or computer to find camera settings that will produce
good exposures. The exposure calculators are
mechanical device or sets of reference tables from which exposure
data can be obtained on observed subjects and lighting conditions.
The heart of the meter is a light cell made of: This is the taking of photographs using only the light that happens to
be at the scene. This could be from natural light sources, from
a. Selenium (Se) cells windows, doors, skylight, and twilight or a fter dark, or from artificial
b. Cadmium sulfide (Cds) cell light sources like table lamps, ceiling fixtures light, spotlights, neon
lights, candles, fireplace or bonfire, etc.
c. Silicon (Si) "blue" cell
Because of the very wide variety of light sources and lighting
d. Gallium-arsenic-phosphorous cell conditions, exposure setting to be used can only be suggested with
little or no assurance of correctness. The use of exposure meter or
the use of the bracketing technique will be of great help however The
Proper exposure with the use of an exposure meter is done by: use of fast lenses with lens speed of f1.8 or f1.4 or f1.2 or f1.1 is
a. Incident-light meter reading. The illumination falling from a source highly advised plus the use of high speed film with emulsion speeds
or sources onto a scene or subject is measured. of ISO 400/27° or ISO 800/30° or ISO 1600/33°. The

b. Reflected-light meter reading from an 18 percent gray card held at use of a tripod or any other camera mount for long exposure setting
the subject position or area or from a key subject area like the skin. should also be considered. The saying "if you can see it, you can
photograph it is a reality.
4. Existing light, also called ambient light or available photography.
5. Flash photography A. Exposure with flash
Brief of light produced by burning metal wires (flash bulb) or an 1. Shutter speed
electric discharge through a gas-filled tube (electronic flash) is the
Both electrical flash unit and flash bulb provides light in a relatively
most common supplemental light for still photography. A flash unit
high illumination level in a short period of time. Because it is
offers a great light output, in compact lightweight and economical
important for the camera shutter to be open for this brief period of
form. It avoids the effect of heat and glare during set-up which is
time. The flash and the shutter are usually synchronized
common with continuous light sources. Since it is battery operated,
Synchronization is the etiming of the camera shutter and the flash so
it is ideal for field work where AC power is not available. As in other
that when the shutter is fully opened that's the time that the flash
artificial light sources, it allows the photographer to control the
will yield its highest peaks of illumination. To be synchronized. a
direction, quality and intensity of light to achieve any desired effect.
shutter speed of 1/60, or slower is used. (The older model cameras
The color temperature of the output is within the range of 5,500-
with cloth curtain and for the newer camera model with metal
6,000 K essentially matching the balance of daylight color films
curtain, a shutter speed of 1/125 or slower may be used.
emulsion. It has a duration of 1/1000 of a second or a faster which
makes it ideal for stopping fast actions. It is also good for tens of 2.Lens opening
thousands of flashes.
Flash exposure maybe computed by the use of the "guide number of
Flash units with a cord are directly attached to the camera. The cord a flash unit. A guide number is usually dependent on the film speed
is plugged into a sychrosock (socket for synchronization). Those and the light output. Electronic flash units guide number is base
marked "m" or "FP" is for flash bulbs. Those marked "X" (no delay) is
Reflected light output of the unit based on the Beam Candle Power
electronic flash unit. Flash units with no cord have a "hotshoe" at its
Seconds (BCPS) or Effective Candle Power Seconds (ECPS). The guide
base which is then inserted to a receptacle for the flash unit. The
numbers of the different film speeds and the output of the electronic
exception to this arrangement of attaching the flash unit directly to
flash unit is usually found on a reference table at the back of the
the camera is when "open flash" or "painting with light" technique is
used. When more than one flash unit is needed, a remote or "slave" flash unit. Guide numbers are used to find the f-numbers at which
unit is used. These multiple electronic flash units can be synchronized the exposure should be made on the following formula:
by photo-sensitive switches that respond instantaneously to light
from the main light.

Example:
GN is 64 and the lamp to subject distance in feet is 8 feet.
The lens opening is set at f8.
Some electronic flash units are automatic. With such unit, the
camera lens aperture is set at single f number for all distances within
a range, depending on the film speed, and the unit automatically
control the duration of the flash to give the correct exposure.
B. On-camera flash
Flash of the camera or held close to the camera with a bracket
provides a direct, hard light. Because it puts the maximum level of
light on the subject, it creates a problem of the "red eye" in a human
subject, harsh shadow of subjects with a near background, and
reflections from a shiny spot in the background.
C. Off-camera flash
With this unit, the flash can be moved away from the camera at arm's
length or more. When the flash unit is used in this manner, the
photographer can improve effectiveness of the flash lighting like.
1. Multiple flash - more than one flash unit is used. One is connected
to the camera with a flash cord while the other is attached to a
"slave" unit.
2. Fill-up flash - when you want to eliminate is used illumination to
shadow areas or subject
so detail that otherwise will not appear clearly in the final picture.
3. Open flash - the shutter speed is set at "B" and once the shutter is
open, the flash is activated or fired released manually. Then the
shutter is released or is closed.
"Painting with light"- is another form of open flash technique. With
this technique, the flash unit is moved place to place, fired manually
until all areas of the scene or large subjects are fully illuminated and
the shutter is then released or is closed. This technique is used in
photographing a stadium or in night photography and the subject is
a big building or an open field with little or no other source of
illumination.
4. Bounce flash - instead of the lighting going directly to the subject,
it is bounced on light colored ceilings or walls near the subject. This
will give a softer effect on the subject, and also diminish or reduce
harsh shadow that will be casted by the subject.
On the camera flash unit with a movable flash read is capable of
bounce flash.
D. Umbrella flash
A modified type of bounce flash by using an umbrella lined with
silver, white, blue or amber colored especially made for photography.
The flash is mounted on the handle of the umbrella aimed at its
inside center. The inside center is then aimed toward the subject.
E. Ring flash - this a round or circular flash unit usually placed around
the outer end of the camera lens. This is used for taking close-ups or
macro photography especially in medical photography.
Reciprocity law-failure
All photographic emulsions are subject to effect called reciprocity
law-failure. This law states that intensity of illumination falling on the
film times the exposure time equals the amount of exposure.
(E=1xT)/ This law applies to most black-and-white film exposure time
for 1/5 sec to 1/1,000 sec. and for color films for narrower range. This
where the law holds, an exposure of 1/60 f11 is equivalent to 1/30
f16. For exposure outside this range, the effect of reciprocity failure
can be seen as under-exposure, a change in contrast a color shift or
all three.
The word "failure" in this connection does not imply short coming of
the film but merely that the reciprocity law does not hold for every
short or very long exposure time. For this reason, extra exposure is
needed to obtain correct exposure.
Q. Photographic Filters
There are two types of filters used in photography:
1. Optical filter
2. Particle or solution filter
Optical filters are made either of glass or acetate. Optical filters are
used primarily to control exposing energy (visible wavelengths,
ultraviolet, infrared rays) and the composition of working
illumination in areas where sensitized materials are handled.
Particle or solution filter is used in special photographic procedure
like in infrared luminescence Most pictures are taken by white light
falling on a colored object; very few things in nature are truly neutral
White Light is the sum total of all colors of the rainbow while black is
the absence of all colors. For our purpose we consider white light as
composed of the three primary light colors - blue, green, and red.
When one or two of these colors is subtracted or absorbed, we see
the remaining color.
Subtraction is the key to understanding of photographic filters. They
always subtract some of the light reflected from the scene before the
light reaches the film in the camera.
A color filter work in such a way that it will transmit its own color and
absorbs all other color or colors. A colorless filter will transmit visible
light and absorbs specific radiant energy like ultraviolet rays.
1.Filter Factor
Because a filter prevents or subtracts some portions of the exposing
energy from reaching the film, exposure must be increased in order
to obtain proper result. The amount of increase required with
panchromatic film is expressed by a number called filter factor. Since
the wavelength composition of a tungsten light and daylight is not
the same, different factors may be required to obtain correct
exposure. Film data and instructional sheets usually include factors
of a number of different filters. For example a filter factor of 2 require
one stop more exposure for compensation.
2. Types of filters
a. Light balancing filter
A filter used to change the color quality of the exposing light in order
to secure proper color balance for artificial light films.
b. Color compensating filter
The used to change the over-all color balance of photographic result
obtained with color films and to compensate for deficiencies in the
quality of exposing energy.
c. Neutral Density filter
This filter is used when light is too bright to allow the use of desired
f -number or shutter speed with a particular film.
d. Polarizing filter - is used to reduce or minimize reflections on
subjects like water glass, and highly polished surfaces.
3. Special application of filter.
Filter can be used:
a. To introduce deliberate departures from normal color balance
either to enhance a particular color for mood and preference of the
photographer.
b. For critical work with films that are not ordinary like infrared rays
or in ultraviolet fluorescence method.
c. To correct undesirable overall tint of color especially in color
positive film or transparency.
d. To modify the color balance of transparencies which show overall
tint
e. To balance light sources used in color printing.
f. To compensate for particular absorption like in taking photographs
under water, or through tinted windows.
R. Camera Care
Most modern cameras are designed to give a long term service. You
can add to its service by handling them carefully and taking care of
your equipment properly.
Here are some useful tips:
1. Keep it clean and dry always. The camera body is made up of
metal parts, and is subject to rust and corrosion. Keep it out of water
specially sea or salt water. When using it during rains or at sea,
protect it by placing it in a plastic bag or cover. Should you
accidentally drop it in water, dry it immediately by wiping the water
with an absorbent material then with clean warm air. If it is in sea or
salty water, rinse it first with fresh or tap water before drying it
thoroughly. Because of the probability of moisture in its small nooks
and crevices, it is advice that you bring it to a reputable camera
repairman.
2. Have a cleaning kit with these simple items.
a. A bristle brush for cleaning the exterior
b. A soft camels-hair brush for cleaning lens. A squeeze bulb syringe
may also be used to blow away dust and dirt. Do not wipe the lens of
camera with tissue papers, handkerchief, cottons clothing except a
soft flannel fabric. Use lens cleaning fluid and lens tissue.
c. For camera body protection, have a camera case with strap. For
the protection of the lens, cover it with a lens cap; place a U.V. filter
over the lens and from direct sunlight, a lens hood.