1940-Independence

Pakistan Resolution:

What:

 At the annual session of the Muslim League held in Lahore in 1940, the
premier of Bengal, Maulvi Fazl-Ul-Haq put forward the Pakistan
Resolution (2 points)
 In his welcome address, Jinnah’s welcome speech, during which he
endorsed the Two-Nation Theory. According to Stanley Wolport “this
was the moment when Jinnah, the former ambassador of Hindu-
Muslim unity, totally transformed himself into Pakistan’s great leader.”
 Initially, it was called the Lahore Resolution. However, after Hindu
press began to refer to it as the Pakistan Resolution, that name was
adopted
 It was passed unanimously on 23rd March 1940
 It took place at Minto park, later named Iqbal park where the Minar e
Pakistan was built.

Maulvi Fazl ul Haq:

 He was a Bengali politician born in 1873 part of the Muslim League

 First Prime Minister of Bengal
 He was known as Shehr-e-Bangla (tiger of Bengal)
 He put forth the Pakistan resolution

Description:
 Regions in which muslims are numerically a majority as in the North-
Western and Eastern zone of India, should be grouped to constitute
independent states in which the constituent units shall be
autonomous and sovereign
 It was inspired by Sir Syed’s Two Nation Theory, Allama Iqbal’s
Allahabad Address, and Rehmat Ali’s Pamphlet

Why it was passed:

 Make a separate homeland for Muslims

 Muslims deserved this as they had a separate culture, religion and
language
 Muslims had suffered under the tyranny the INC imposed upon them
in their rule from 1937-39. Thus, they knew how they would be treated
if the British left India. Thus, in order to protect their rights, they
passed the Pakistan Resolution
 The Muslim League passed the Pakistan resolution in order to unite
Muslims for a common cause – working for a separate homeland.
Thus, it was passed to gain the massive support of Muslims all over
India

Importance of the Pakistan Resolution:

 It united Muslims all over India towards a common cause

 It became the basis for further negotiations by the Muslim League
 It popularised the idea of a separate homeland amongst Muslims in
India
 It solidified the acceptance of the Two-Nation Theory
 Highlighted Hindu-Muslim differences
 August Offer:

What:

 In August 1940, Lord Linlithgow made Indians an offer on the behalf

of the British parliament to:
 Expand the Executive Council of the Governor General to include more
members from political parties
 To set up an advisory council comprising of members from the Indian
Princely States
 To set up a council to decide a new constitution for India with due
regard for minorities after the war had ended
 All of this was if they helped the British in World War 2
 It ended up as a failure since Congress and ML both rejected it.

Lord Linlithgow:

 He was born in Britain in 1887

 He was a unionist politician and colonial administrator
 He was the governor-General of Australia
 He presented the August offer to India in 1940

Why:

 The British government was in need of Indian assistance in the war.

However, this was not being given as:
 The INC was demanding complete transfer of power to Indians
 The ML wanted partition of India
 Germany was achieving significant victories in the war and now, after
the fall of France, Britain was alone
 Indians were shocked by British powerlessness, spurring thoughts of
resolution. British wanted full cooperation from Indians in this time,
due to which they sent the August Offer

Reasons for Its Rejection:

 The Muslim League rejected it as:

 It did not mention the formation of Pakistan
 The demand of partition was not met
 Jinnah had demanded:
 The end of anti-Muslim policies by the INC
 No law affecting Muslims should be passed unless ⅔ members of the
Converse supported it
 The INC should agree to form provincial coalitions
 But these, too, were rejected
 The Congress rejected it as:
 They wanted a complete and total transfer of power; no compromise
would be accepted.

Cripps Mission:

What:

 In 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to win its support on the war
issue (3 points)
 They offered:
 Post war dominion status in India
 To allow the elected legislature to draft the future constitution
 To allow provinces to opt out of the future constitution
 This was known as the Non-Accession Clause
 The new legislature was to be elected immediately after the war.
 Defence of India, Finance, and Foreign Policy would remain in the
hands of the British Government, and the Finance Minister shall be a
British National

Sir Stafford Cripps:

 He was a British politician born in 1889

 He was part of the Labour Party
 He led the Cripps Mission
 He was part of the Cabinet Mission Plan

Why it was sent:

 To win Indian support on the issue of war.

 Indians were currently not cooperating with them
 Japan had recently invaded Singapore. Due to this, there was a fear of
a Japanese invasion of India. The Cripps mission aimed to gain Indian
support to prevent this
 They wanted to announce their proposals, such as of post-war
dominion status, in India.

Reasons for its Rejection:

 The Muslim League rejected it as:

 It contained no reference to the creation of Pakistan. However, Jinnah
liked the Non-Accession Clause
 There was an inadequate representation of Muslims in the
Government
 The Congress Rejected it as:
 They did not want the disintegration of India
 They wanted complete control of India to be handed over to Indians
immediately, not Dominion status to be handed to them after the war
 The British would probably be too weak after the war to even enforce
these promises.
 Again, Ghandi didn’t trust the British to keep their promises.
 Due to this, Gandhi called the proposals ‘a post-dated cheque of a
failing bank.’
 The INC wanted to take advantage of the weak status of the British to
gain their political goals. The same can arguably be said about the
Muslim League, but we don’t talk about that
 There was a fear that the Japanese would annexe India. Gandhi argued
that if the British left, there would be no need for them to do this
 It was said that these offers would be given after the war. Both parties
wanted their demands then. Furthermore, it was possible that after the
war, the British wouldn’t be powerful enough to give them their
demands

Importance:

 British weakness was seen

 Non accession clause was an important step in acceptance of
separation
 Hindu-Muslim diametrically opposing views highlighted
 British began to realize more and more how independence was the
only feasible option.

Quit India Movement:

What:
 In 1942, Gandhi called for the British to immediately leave India.
 This was because if they did, the Japanese would have no reason to
invade India. Even if Japan did invade India after the British left, they
could resist ‘nonviolently’
 Thus, a massive Civil Disobedience Movement was launched. Gandhi
referred to it as an ‘open rebellion’
 The call for determined but passive resistance was given in his call to
‘Do or Die’
 By the end of September, the British had arrested more than 50,000
Indians
 All Congress leaders were arrested and the INC was declared an illegal
organization
 >1000 lives were lost and thousands more injured
 The short-lived yet violent Quit India Movement is considered by
many to be the most serious threat to British rule since 1857
 In it, strikes were called in many places. People burnt down
government offices; violence could not be controlled by the Congress.
It was ended only by the introduction of the British army

Gandhi:

 Mahatama Gandhi was an Indian politician born in 1869

 He was the President of the Indian National Congress
 He was a political ethicist in support of peaceful protests
 He launched the Quit-India Movement

Reasons for its Launching:

 To get the British to leave India

 Indians feared Japanese invasion. They wanted the British to leave due
to this as:
 They had seen that the British were incapable to defend them
 If the British left, India would no longer be such an enticing target for
the Japanese
 The Indian demands were not met in the August Offer and Cripps
Mission
 The INC was demanding that power be handed over to them.
However, this was not met, due to which they felt the need to take the
matter in their own hands
 The INC wanted to pressurize the British government to immediately
transfer power to the elected legislature
 As the INC was the largest party in India, this would effectively mean a
transfer of power to them

Reactions:

 The Muslim League referred to it as ‘blackmail’.

 They feared that it would lead to the INC gaining complete control of
India
 Jinnah referred to it as ‘Divide and Quit India’ as he wanted Hindu-
Muslim settlement first but the opposite was occuring
 The British immediately imprisoned all Congress leaders and declared
it an illegal party
 Thousands of protesters were arrested

Importance:

 Showed the British that India:

 Couldn’t be made without the support of Indians
 Was ungovernable in the long run
 This raised the question as to how power would be transferred
 It placed the demand for complete independence on the British
Government
 It united the Indian people against British rule
 It kept the INC united through the trials that followed – they were able
to organize protests even when all leaders were imprisoned

Gandhi Jinnah Talks:

What:

 In 1944, the Gandhi-Jinnah talks were held to try to resolve the

looming issue of what to do about the demand for Pakistan, given that
the British seemed to be on the verge of leaving the subcontinent
 They were held at Jinnah’s house in Bombay
 It was initiated by a lawyer Raj Gopal something, a friend of both
Gandhi and Jinnah

Why they were Held:

 Gandhi wanted:
 To win Muslim support for the Quit India Movement
 To convince Jinnah to let go of the Pakistan Resolution and Two-
Nation theory
 Transfer of power to Indians first and Hindu-Muslim settlement
afterwards. He was here to convince Jinnah to join him in these
thoughts

Why they Failed:

 Gandhi insisted that the British depart first, and then there should be
talks about partition
 Gandhi wanted this as he wanted the League to aid their pressure
tactics for the British to leave right away
 Jinnah wanted the division to happen before the British departed as
the Congress rule of 1937-9 and the Nehru Report created some
distrust
 Gandhi wanted to give only three provinces to future Pakistan while
Jinnah was demanding 6 Muslim majority provinces
 Gandhi believed that because Punjab, Bengal and Assam were only
partly Muslim, they should be divided along communal lines
 Jinnah disagreed and wanted all 6 to be a part of Pakistan
 Gandhi declared himself as representative of all of India, which
annoyed Jinnah
 He made it clear that he believed Gandhi represented the Hindus only.
 Gandhi’s declaration that as Muslims were converts from Hinduism,
they were not a separate nation and the Two-Nation Theory was false
 Jinnah disagreed and countered that the Muslims were a separate
nation by any standard and definition of one
 Gandhi wanted a close federation with strategic areas like defence and
foreign affair in the hands of the federation
 Jinnah, on the other hand, wanted provincial autonomy
 Ultimately, Gandhi confessed that he disagreed with the Two-Nation
Theory
 He believed that, at best, there could only be division of certain rights
 Of course, Jinnah disagreed absolutely

Importance:

 Until now, the INC had refused to negotiate with the ML on an equal
footing. Now, it was forced to do so
 The INC, by negotiating possible terms of a partition, was accepting
the ML’s claim that it spoke for Muslims, thus going against its own
claims that it spoke for all Indians
 By speaking intelligently and assertively, Jinnah proved that he was the
most capable Muslim leader. These properties helped him deal with
Muslim problems, especially in Punjab, with a firm hand

Simla Conference:

What:

 Lord Wavell, the new Viceroy of India, was a reputed military

commander who declared that the British government wanted to see
India as an independent country
 In May 1945, he went to London and discussed his ideas about the
future of India. The talks resulted in the formulation of the Wavell Plan,
made public in 1945
 Simla Conference was held at Simla in 1945 to discuss the setting up
of an executive council/interim government with a parity of seats
between Hindus and Muslims, with reserved seats for other minorities.
 Important political parties which participated in the Simla Conference
were the INC, the ML, the Hindu Mahasabha, the Sikhs, and others
 The Muslim League was represented by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Liaqut
Ali Khan, Khwaja Nazimuddin, and Sir Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah
 The INC was represented by Gandhi, Maulana Abul Kalam, and Khizar
Hayat Tiwana
 A Muslim was chosen to prove that the ML was not the only
representative of Muslims

Lord Wavell:
 He was a Britisher born in 1883
 He was appointed the Viceroy of India
 He was Field Marshall of the British army
 He led the Simla Conference

Terms:

 The Viceroy’s Executive Council would be immediately reconstituted

and the number of its members would be increased.
 In the Council there would be equal representation of high-caste
Hindus and Muslims.
 All the members of the Council, except the Viceroy, member-
controlling defense and the Commander-in-Chief, would be Indians.
 An Indian would be appointed as the member for Foreign Affairs in
the Council. However, a British commissioner would be responsible for
trade matters.
 The defense of India would remain in British hands until power was
ultimately transferred to Indians.
 The Viceroy would convene a meeting of Indian politicians including
the leaders of Congress and the Muslim League at which they would
nominate members of the new Council.
 If this plan were to be approved for the central government, then
similar councils of local political leaders would be formed in all the
provinces.
 None of the changes suggested would in any way prejudice or
prejudge the essential form of the future permanent Constitution of
India.

Describe the Wavell Plan:

 The Wavell plan suggested reconstitution of the Viceroy’s executive
council in which the Viceroy was to select persons nominated by the
political parties
 The executive council/interim government would work under the
current constitution until the new constitution is made and drafted
 There shall be parity of representation between Hindus and Muslims in
this executive council with one seat reserved for Sikhs and one for
Scheduled-Caste Hindus
 One out of five Muslim seats in the executive council must be given to
a non-ML member
 To this, Jinnah brought up the fact that they had won every by-
election for the past two years

Why it was held:

 Due to the Cripps Mission, Quit India Movement, and the Pakistan
Resolution, the British wanted to transfer power to the Indians
 Prior to this, Indians had proven that they were unable to reach an
agreement regarding the transfer of power, as shown by the Gandhi-
Jinnah talks. Due to this, the British had to step in
 It was held to discuss the proposal of setting up and interim
government council and to decide its details in order to give Indians
experience in government
 WWII had exhausted the resources of the British, and left Britain
financially bankrupt
 They wanted to focus more on domestic issues than worrying about
the subcontinent.
 As a result, they believed that it was time to discuss the future of the
subcontinent.

Importance:
 The British government realised the importance of Muslims in the
future of India
 By reserving an equal number of seats for Muslims and HIndu, they
accepted the Two-Nation Theory
 This showed that Britain was willing to hand over power to the Indians
and to negotiate
 For the first time, they handed over the important ministries of Finance
and Foreign Affairs to Indians
 It proved the now weakened British after the severe draining of
resources during WWII. They were in a vulnerable state and very open
to negotiations

Reasons for its Failure:

 The Wavell plan included no mention of Indian independence

 Muslims were not given a separate homeland
 Congress continued to claim that they represented all Indians,
including Muslims
 To show this, they sent Maulana Azad, a Muslim leader from Congress,
as the leader of their delegation
 This plan did not accept the ML as the sole representative of Muslims
in India
 Jinnah opposed this and pointed out that the League had won every
by-election for the past 2 years
 The composition of the Executive Council with parity of seats between
Hindus and Muslims and seats reserved for Sikhs and scheduled caste
Hindus could not be agreed upon
 Gandhi did not like the inclusion of the scheduled caste Hindus, nor
did he like how they were referred to
 Jinnah pointed out that the Sikhs and scheduled caste Hindus would
be bound to vote in favor of the Hindus and thus the Muslims would
be a permanent minority on the council
 Jinnah opposed the ability for Congress to put forward Muslim
representatives of the Congress Party as part of the Executive Council
 Congress continued to claim that they represented all Indians,
including Muslims
 To show this, they sent Maulana Azad, a Muslim leader from Congress,
as the leader of their delegation
 Even though Muslims and Hindus were to have an even number of
seats, as Sikhs voted with Hindus, Muslims would be in an eternal
minority

The 1945-46 Elections:

 In 1945, the war-time prime minister, Winston Churchill, and his
Conservative Party were defeated in the general elections
 The new Prime Minister, Element Attlee, and the Labour Party, were
committed to self-government in India. Wavell was told to organise
elections to both provincial and central assemblies and the set up an
Executive Council with the support of the main Indian parties
 During these elections the INC and the ML competed with simple but
diametrically opposing manifestos:
 The INC stood for an undivided India independent from the British
 The ML held that the only solution to future religious communal
conflicts between Hindus and Muslims was to create a Muslim
homeland independent from both the British and India
 “If you want Pakistan, vote for Muslim League”

Results:
 Muslim League:

 They won all 30 seats in the Central Legislature that were reserved for
Muslims
 They won 87% of the seats reserved for Muslims in the Provinces
(446/495)
 Punjab: 79/86 Muslim seats
 Bengal: 113/119 Muslim seats
 Sindh: 28/35 Muslim Seats
 NWFP: 17/36 Muslim seats
 They made ministries in two provinces:
 Bengal, where Hussain Shaheed Suharwrdy was made the chief
minister
 and Sindh
 In Punjab, even though they were the single largest party, the UP, INC,
and Akalis made a coalition to form the government

Indian National Congress:

 The INC won most of the non-Muslim seats, winning 80% of the
general seats and 91.3% of the Non-Muslim votes
 The INC won in NWFP, winning 19 of the 36 Muslim seats
 This is because Doctor Khan Sahib, the leader of the red shirt
movement, was campaigning on the behalf of the INC there

Why the Muslim League Performed so Well:

 After the elections of ‘37, the ML had become a more well-organized

and mature political party under the leadership of Jinnah, who was
made its lifetime president.
 They fixed their ‘image’ problem by allowing common Indians to
 The tyrannies Muslims had faced under Congress Rule made them
realise that if they didn’t stand up for their rights (by voting for the
ML), they would have to face another 5 years of the same treatment
 The social and political climate of India was different
 Most Muslims were now for an independent homeland after the
Muslim passing and propagation of the Lahore Resolution.
 The communal divide was much greater, which ML was being able to
capitalise on by using religious symbolism in their campaigning

Importance:

 The results of this election marked the ending of the days when the
ML could be ignored as they confirmed Jinnah’s two claims:
 The ML was the sole representative of Muslims
 Most of them want a separate Muslim state.
 The results of these elections revealed how divided India had become,
which was proven due to the fact that the ML and the INC, with their
directly opposing manifestos, had won most of the Muslim and non-
Muslim seats respectively.
 It made the Pakistan Resolution much more viable by revealing its
support and how relevant it was in the current social conflict

Cabinet Mission Plan:

What:

 In March 1946, the British made their final effort to settle the
differences in India and keep the subcontinent together as a
federation
 The new (Labour) British government sent three senior Cabinet
Members (Led by Sir Stafford Cripps and containing Mr AV Alexander
and Lord Pethic-Lawrence) to India to try to negotiate a settlement
acceptable to all parties
 It met with representatives of the ML, INC, Sikhs, and the Hindu
Mahasabha.
 There was little in common between the ML and INC. Jinnah was
insisting on the formation of Pakistan while the INC was opposed to
any partition. Thus, they took a different approach in their statement
 As there was a great deal of unrest and political activity, as long as the
deteriorating economic and political situation of the country, people
looked towards the mission with hope and expectation.
 Lord Wavell published a statement in May 1946, containing their
solutions to the constitutional deadlock. There were two plans: a short
term plan and a long-term plan.

Why it was Sent:

 To save Indian unity by solving the constitutional deadlock

 After the World War, Britain were weak and didn’t have the resources
to manage India
 To discuss the future of India and how power would be transferred
from Britain to India
 The new Labour Party was anti-colonization and keen to give India
independence

Plan:

Long-Term:
 There would be no Pakistan in a post-British India. Instead it would be
divided into three groups of provinces:
 Hindu Majority Provinces:
 Muslim Majority Provinces
 Bengal and Assam
 Each group of provinces would have provincial autonomy and would
be able to draw up its own constitution.
 The foreign affairs, defence, and communication of the country would
be managed by a Central Indian Union.

Short-Term:

 An interim government would be set up in which all positions would

be held by Indians
 Any party that accepted the Plan would be invited to make up the
interim government

Reactions:

 At first, Jinnah and the Muslim League accepted it.

 However, Nehru then announced that after the British left, he would
not be bound to this plan.
 This wasn’t even his whole party’s position and Gandhi did scold him
quite a lot over this. It seems like one foolish man was able to ruin the
future of United India
 This destroyed any confidence the ML had in the INC, causing them to
reject the plan. Thus, the Plan was dropped

Importance of the Cabinet Mission Plan:

 This destroyed any possible negotiations between the INC and ML in
the future as now the ML had absolutely no trust left in the INC
 There was now no chance left for any United India as this, the final
gamble, had failed.
 It marked the beginning of the independence negotiations and was
the first time the British actually offered India a chance to be
separated from the Empire

Direct Action Day:

 By summer 1946, it was clear that British withdrawal was imminent.
Therefore, in July 1946, the ML passed a resolution declaring that it
should prepare for the final struggle against both the Congress and
the British
 On 16th August 1946, upon the recommendation of Jinnah, the ML
called a direct action day to show their solidarity
 All Muslims who had received British titles were asked to hand them
back
 Jinnah stated that up till now, the British and the Hindus both had
been pointing a pistol on them while they negotiated peacefully. Now,
it was time for Muslims (who were not reliant on ‘any group for help
but would seek independence themselves’), to use their own pistols
 In Calcutta, this demonstration turned violent, due to which up to
4000 people were killed in the ‘Great Calcutta Killings:
 This marked the start of the “Week of the Long Knives”

Reasons:

 To show Muslim solidarity and power to the British and INC

 The ML feared that the British might pull out prematurely, leaving the
Muslims to suffer under the hands of the Hindu Majority
 To make their demand for independence even more clear

Importance:

 The Calcutta massacres caused the worsening of the Hindu Muslim

Relations, making the Partition even more likely
 British gained a physical, not numerical, sense of the Muslim power
and solidarity
 The ML was now preparing for the final struggle for independence

Interim Government:
 After the ML rejected the Cabinet Mission Plan, the INC promptly
accepted it. However, the Viceroy soon realized the futility of the
scheme without the participation of the ML and organized a meeting
with Jinnah
 In it, he convinced Jinnah to participate in it, advising him to protect
the rights of Muslims by doing so
 Jinnah then joined the council, nominating five members, including
one Hindu (in order to show that they weren’t anti-Hindu). The
nominated members were:
 Liaqut Ali Khan
 Raja Ghazanfar Ali Khan
 Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar
 Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar
 Jogindar Nath Mendal
 Although Muslims had an equal number of seats, they were not given
an equal number of ministries
 The INC agreed to give the finance ministry to the ML, who nominated
Liaqut Ali Khan
 Even though the INC though it would be difficult to handle this
complicated industry with their minimal resources, Liaqut Ali Khan
took over the issues and presented the first budget of United India
very efficiently
 The budget Liaqut Ali Khan presented was called a “Poor Man’s
Budget” as it adversely affected Hindu capitalists. This made it very
difficult for the Congress ministers to run their industries as they found
it difficult to release finances, thus effectively placing the
governmental setup under the Muslim League
 The elections for a Constituent Assembly were held between July and
December 1946.
 However, when it first met on 9th December, the ML refused to attend
 In retaliation, the INC demanded that, as the ML had rejected the
Cabinet Mission Plan, they should be forced to resign. Otherwise, the
INC would withdraw their own member
 Seeing this, the British Viceroy entered a series of talks with the INC
and ML. Jinnah made it clear that the demand for Pakistan had the
support of all Muslims, due to which Lord Mountbatten prepared for
the partition of the subcontinent and announced it on June 3rd, 1947.

3rd June Plan:

What

 The British Prime Minister, Clement Atlee, declared in the British

Parliament that India would be freed by February 1948
 Lord Mountbatten was to replace Lord Wavell as the last Viceroy
 He arrived in India in 1947, charged with the mission to make a
peaceful transfer of power. There were several challenges, discussed
below.
 Seeing the riots and killings between Hindus and Muslims in Punjab,
he realised the need for speedy settlement. He soon began
negotiations with the political leaders, and after prolonged talks
worked out a partition plan by April 1947.
 He himself took the plan to London, where he got it approved without
any alterations. However, the approval he received from the cabinet
lasted not more than five minutes.
 He came back to Britain on May 31st, and on June 2nd met Indian
leaders.
 After Indian leaders approved the plan, Mountbatten met with Gandhi
and convinced him that it was the best plan under the circumstances.
It was made public on June 3rd
 Both the INC and the ML accepted it

Problems while Making the Plan:

 The ML was demanding partition of India, unprepared to accept

anything less than Pakistan
 On the other hand, the INC was pressuring hard for the transfer of
power to the Hindu dominated constituent assembly
 The choice of June 1948 for the transfer of power was too close for the
innumerable political, constitutional, and administrative decisions
involved

The Partition Plan:

 The sub-continent would be divided into to independent states, India,

and Pakistan
 The interim constitution of both states was the 1935 Government of
India Act
 Each state was to have Dominion status and an Executive responsible
to a Constituent Assembly
 Punjab and Bengal would decide which country to opt and whether
the provinces would be partitioned
 A referendum would be held in NWFP and Jirga in Balochistan to
decide their future
 Princely States would be free to join either country. They wouldn’t be
independent
 A boundary commission would be set up to demarcate the Punjabi
and Bengali borders between Pakistan and India
 Assets including Army, Civil Services, and Finance would be divided
between India and Pakistan

Reasons:

 To ensure a peaceful transfer of power

 The failure of the interim government
 The riots in Punjab, the vies for independence, and the protests
 After WW2, British were too weak to run an Empire
 Gandhi had failed, now, there was a power struggle between Jinnah
and NehruJinnah wanted independence, Nehru a combined
constitution

Preponement:

 Due to the Punjabi massacres and communal riots, the British felt the
need to prepone the transfer of power from June 1948 to 1947 in
order to prevent a Civil War on June 4th
 However, there were still quite a few problems left to be solved:
 There was still a need to draw boundaries between Muslim and non-
Muslim areas
 The issue of princes had to be resolved – what was to happen if they
went against the wish of the people when deciding which country to
join?
 How would assets be divided?
 Pakistan’s relationship with Britain still had to be resolved – although
India’s first Governor General was to be Mountbatten, Jinnah was to
be Pakistan’s

Violence in Punjab:

 For quite a few months before March, there was agitation in Punjab,
with the Muslim League criticizing the Hindu and Sikh government
 The UP’s proximity to the British government was a major source for
their power in Punjab. Thus, when the British announced their plan to
leave, they quickly lost most of their prestige
 Sir Khizr Hayat decided to resign on 3rd March
 In response to this, Hindus and Sikhs held demonstrations, which
Muslims violently retaliated against
 In the following days, violence quickly broke out
 ~3500 (overwhelmingly non-Muslim) citizens were killed, with
kidnappings of non-Muslim women and forced conversions to Islam,
especially in Rawalpindi
 In order to escape, many Sikh women jumped into wells to save their
honour
 Some 40,000 non-Muslims had to migrate
 Soon, Congress started to demand the division of Punjab

The Independence Act:

 On 14th July, the Indian Independence Act was passed.
 It stated the India would be separated into two dominion states –
India and Pakistan ON 15th August. They would be separated from
Britain on that day
 Princely states could join either country
 Government of India Act 1935 would remain enforced until the
constituent assemblies of either countries could from their own
constitution
 The states of India and Pakistan were to be in the British
Commonwealth if they so Desired
 On 14th August, Jinnah celebrated the creation of Pakistan
 India was created the next day, on 15th August
 This was so rushed as Jinnah couldn’t afford to drag it out – he was
extremely ill and had no good replacement in the ML

Radcliffe Award:
 One issue that couldn’t be resolved by 15th August was the border
between the two countries
 Originally, Rehmat Ali presented a border which consisted of
a very divided Pakistan, with dozens of Muslim enclaves inside Hindu
India. Because it was completely stupid and impractical, no-one paid
any attention to this nutcrack
 Mountbatten appointed Sir Radcliffe to head a Boundary Commission
to establish the new borders (particularly in Punjab and Bengal)
 He had four assistants, two from the ML and two from the INC
 The decision of the Boundary Commission (known as the
Boundary/Radcliffe Award) was announced on 16th August.
 In it, Kashmir and Hyderabad weren’t given to Pakistan. Both
Ferozepur and Gurdaspur were given to India
 Pakistan Movement:

Do you agree that during World War 2, there was no

significant progress towards independence? Give
reasons for your answer.

 No significant progress
 Failure of the Cripps Mission
 Arrest of Congress leaders during Quit India campaign
 Failure of Simla Conference
 All parties agree that an Executive Council should be formed
 Failure of the Gandhi Jinnah Talks
 This could also be seen as a success – the INC were now willing
 Some Significant Progress
 End of Congress tyranny
 Pakistan Resolution
 Cripps Mission
 This showed that the British accepted the need to protect the
minorities
 Quit India Campaign
 Shows that Congress was taking radical action
 By the end of the war, British withdrawal was inevitable
 Simla conference proposals:
 The British acted according to the two nation theory
 Conclusion
 It appears that no real progress had been made as the Cripps Mission
and Simla Conference had been unsuccessful. However, underneath
this apparent failure was progress. Both the Muslims and HIndus had
come to see that British rule must end immediately, and the British
were beginning to realize this, too.
 How Did the Pakistan Movement Become and
Important Force:

 Hindu opression during their reign led Muslims to realize this would
be the status even after independence
 The impending British exit pressed the need of the issue
 Fear of Hindu domination after indepenence
 Support for Muslim League incraesed rapidly after 1937 culminating in
their victory in by-elections and next election, which solidified the
support of their manifesto
 The Pakistan Resolution stated and popularized the Muslim demand
for a separate state

Which Event Was More Important For Independence:

 Pakistan Resolution – Extremely Important:

 This was a vital step towards the creation of Pakistan by the Muslim
League. It clearly stated their aims – the creation of Pakistan, thus
uniting Muslims in India under a common cause. It also formed the
basis of their future negotiations with Britain and the Congress.
 August Offer – Not important at all:
 The August Offer contained no reference to the creation of Pakistan or
any special rights for Muslims. It was a clear depiction of the fact that
Britain had not yet realised the importance of Muslims in the future of
India. Thus why the Muslim League rejected it immediately as Britain
still had a long way to travel till their plans were acceptable for
Muslims.
 Cripps Mission – Important:
 In this offer, British for the first time made any reference to the
separation of provinces into a separate state. This showed a change in
their mindset – now, they were willing to accept the power of Muslims
 and respond to their wishes. However, they had not yet accepted the
prospect of full independence, due to which Jinnah rejected the
Mission while simultaneously expressing his appreciation for the Non-
Accession Clause.
 Quit India Movement – Not important at alll:
 In this movement, the Congress placed pressure on Britain to
immediately transfer power to the Hindu government (which had
already shown how little they cared about Muslims in their rule). This
would no doubt be terrible for the future of Muslims, due to which the
Muslim League referred to it as the ‘divide and Quit India Movement’.
The Indian National Congress movement’s gaining of traction was bad
for the Pakistan Movement for an increased chance of the Hindu’s
wishes coming true meant a decreased chance of Muslim’s coming
true
 Gandhi-Jinnah Talks – Partially Importnat:
 Even though Gandhi had not yet accepted the idea of Pakistan, by
negotiating on an equal footing with Jinnah, he was accepting the
Muslim League’s claim that they were the sole representatives of
Muslims in India. Furthermore, this gave Jinnah a chance to portray his
intelligence and worth as the most capable Muslim leader
 However, no agreement could be reached as to independence and
partition
 Simla Conference – Not Important:
 According to the Wavell Plan, Muslims were to be given an equal
number of seats to Hindus. However, as Sikhs (who had also been
awarded reserved seats) always voted with Hindus, Muslims would be
in a permanent minority. Furthermore, it gave no mention to the
creation of a separate state for Muslims, which showed that their
mindset had not progressed any further since the Cripps Mission. It is
for this reason that the Simla Conference was a failure for the Pakistan
Movement, which is why the Muslim League rejected it.
 Elections of 1945 – Important:
 As the Muslim League won most of the Muslim vote, this prove that
not only were they the sole representative of Muslims, but also that
their manifesto, the creation of Pakistan, was extremely popular. This
cemented their importance as a political party, giving them much
more power in future negotiations. It is likely that Pakistan would not
have been created if the Muslim League didn’t perform as well in the
elections.
 Cabinet Mission Plan – Depends:
 The Cabinet Mission Plan was an excellent compromise between the
Indian National Congress and Muslim League’s Manifestos – while
India itself was not officially divided, Jinnah was also provided with the
substance of Pakistan while avoiding it being ‘moth-eaten’ as it was
after the partition. It is a shame that it had to be rejected.
 After Nehru’s statement in the Cabinet Mission Plan, any trust between
the Muslim League and Congress was destroyed. This would make
future negotiations much more difficult.
 This can be the most or least important event depending on how you
look at it – while it did make any hope for a united India go away and
also led to the formation of the interim government, it was also yet
another failed attempt at a settlement between HIndus and Muslims
 Direct Action Day – Important:
 During these demonstrations, Muslims were able to portray their
power and unity, thus increasing their bargaining strength with the
British. The week of long knives that followed also portrayed the
animosity between separate religious groups, pressing the need for it
 3rd June Plan – Important:
 In the 3rd June Plan, both the British and the Congress finally accepted
the creation of Pakistan. The efforts of Muslim League and Jinnah had
finally come into being, only seven years after they had set their goal.
 The Independence Act – Depends:
 Due to the independence act being so rushed, important issues such
as borders and the citizenship of princely states had to be decided in
 an extremely short period of time, which could not be done effectively.
This created many problems for Pakistan, such as the unjust Radcliffe
Award, and the Kashmir Issue.
 However, Jinnah’s health was rapidly declining. As he was the only
capable Muslim Leader, if he passed away before negotiations were
complete, the partition would probably never occur. The
Independence Act removed the chance for this by cementing the
creation of Pakistan. It also prevented a full-out civil war in India due
to the many riots and massacres occurring then.
 Radcliffe Awards:
 The boundaries drawn under this award were extremely controversial
due to its heavy preference for Hindus. Due to the partition of Bengal,
Jinnah said that it left Muslims with a ‘moth-eaten Pakistan’.
Furthermore, some Muslim-Majority areas were given to India, such as
Ferozepur and Gurdaspur. Gurdaspur was proved especially important
during the war of 1948 as it gave Indians easy access to Jammu and
Kashmir.

Why did Pakistan Come into Existence:

 The British refusal to leave in the 1920s/30s led to the worsening of

communal divides in the nation
 The election of the Labour party, who were anti-colonialism, after the
failure of several ploys to solve the war issue meant that the British
government were much more eager to get out however they could
 The INC:
 They turned a blind eye to the Hindu-Muslim issues, thus leading to
their substantial worsening during their rule
 Their refusal to include ML in their coalitions and further refusals to
negotiate properly (for example, in the Gandhi-Jinnah talks) made any
negotiations for a United India difficult
 The Muslim League:
 By passing the Pakistan Resolution, they united and riled up Muslims
to protect their identity
 Quaid-e-Azam individually was very important – he singlehandedly
negotiated everything
 Community:
 The Hindu-Muslim divides got worse due to communal violence and
racism, such as during the massacres in Punjab and discrimination
during Congress Rule

Reasons for the Creation of Pakistan in 1940s:

 Pakistan Resolution
 Cripps Mission
 Gandhi Jinnah Talks
 Simla Conference
 Elections of ‘46
 Cabinet Mission Plan
 Day of Deliverance and Calcutta Killings
 3rd June Plan

British-India Relationships:

 August Offer
 Rejected by Indians
 Cripps Mission
 A post dated cheque on a failing bank
 Quit India Movement
 Failure to win independence
 Simla Conference
 An agreement could not be reached
 Cabinet Mission Plan
 Direct Action Day and the Great Calcutta Killings