Biological Molecules

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4. Biological Molecules
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IGCSE Biology CIE
Y O U R  N O T E S  

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4 .  B i o l o g i c a l  M o l e c u l e s

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CONTENTS

 
4 . 1  C a r b o h y d r a t e s ,  F a t s  &  P r o t e i n s

4 . 1 . 1  C h e m i c a l s  &  L i f e

4 . 2  F o o d  T e s t s

4 . 2 . 1  F o o d  T e s t s

4 .

4
3

.


3
D

.
N

1 
A

Facebook D
 S

N
t

A
r u

 S
c

t
t

r
u

u
r

c
e

t u r e
Twitter
4 . 4  W a t e r


4 . 4 . 1  W a t e r  i n  L i v i n g  O r g a n i s m s

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Page 1 of 16
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4 . 1 . 1  C h e m i c a l s  &  L i f e

4 . 1  C a r b o h y d r a t e s ,  F a t s  &  P r o t e i n s

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Y O U R  N O T E S  

Chemical Elements
M o s t  o f  t h e  m o l e c u l e s  i n  l i v i n g  o r g a n i s m s  f a l l  i n t o  t h r e e  c a t e g o r i e s :

carbohydrates, proteins and lipids

T
all contain carbon h e s e   a n d  s o  a r e  d e s c r i b e d  a s  o r g a n i c  m o l e c u l e s

Page 2 of 16
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Large Molecules are Made from Smaller Molecules Y O U R  N O T E S  

Carbohydrates 

L simple sugars o n g  c h a i n s  o f 

Glucose  i s  a  s i m p l e  s u g a r  (  a  m o n o s a c c h a r i d e )

W
2 glucose molecules join together maltose is formed h e n   ( a  d i s a c c h a r i d e )

W lots starch, glycogen or cellulose h e n   o f  g l u c o s e  m o l e c u l e s  j o i n  t o g e t h e r   c a n

f o r m  ( a  p o l y s a c c h a r i d e )

Glycogen, cellulose and st arch are all made from glucose molecules

Fats

M o s t  f a t s  ( l i p i d s )  i n
triglycerides  t h e  b o d y  a r e  m a d e  u p  o f 

T h e i r  b a s i c  u n i t  i s  1 glycerol molecule chemically bonded to 3 fatty acid chains

T h e  f a t t y  a c i d s  v a r y  i n  s i z e  a n d  s t r u c t u r e

L i p i d s  a r e  d i v i d e d  i n t o 
fats  ( s o l i d s  a t  r o o m  t e m p e r a t u r e )  a n d 
oils  ( l i q u i d s  a t  r o o m

t e m p e r a t u r e )

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Y O U R  N O T E S  

Structure of a triglyceride

Proteins

L o n g  c h a i n s  o f 
amino acids
T h e r e  a r e  a b o u t  2 0  d i ff e r e n t  a m i n o  a c i d s

T h e y  a l l  c o n t a i n  t h e 
same basic structure  b u t  t h e 
ʻRʼ group is different for each
one

W h e n  a m i n o  a c i d s  a r e  j o i n e d  t o g e t h e r  a  p r o t e i n  i s  f o r m e d

T h e  a m i n o  a c i d s  c a n  b e  a r r a n g e d  i n  a n y  o r d e r ,  r e s u l t i n g  i n  h u n d r e d s  o f  t h o u s a n d s

ff
o f  d i e r e n t  p r o t e i n s

ff ff
E v e n  a  s m a l l  d i e r e n c e  i n  t h e  o r d e r  o f  t h e  a m i n o  a c i d s  r e s u l t s  i n  a  d i e r e n t  p r o t e i n

b e i n g  f o r m e d

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Protein Shape Y O U R  N O T E S  

T h
M a
e r e  a r e  t h o u s a n d s  o f  d i
ff
e r e n t  p r o t e i n s  i n  t h e  h u m a n  b o d y  a n d  o t h e r  o r g a n i s m s

n y  o f  t h e s e  p r o t e i n s  a r e 
different shapes  a n d  t h e  s h a p e  o f t e n  h a s  a n  i m p o r t a n t

e ff
e c t  o n  t h e  f u n c t i o n  o f  t h e  p r o t e i n

F o r  e x a m p l e :

Enzymes  h a v e  a n  a r e a  i n  t h e m  k n o w n  a s  t h e 
active site  -  t h i s  i s  i m p o r t a n t  a s

#
t h i s  i s  t h e  p l a c e  w h e r e  a n o t h e r  m o l e c u l e  t s  i n t o  t h e  e n z y m e  i n  o r d e r  f o r  a

r e a c t i o n  t o  t a k e  p l a c e

I f  t h e 
shape of the active site does not match the shape of the molecule  t h a t

#
t s  i n t
reaction will not take place o  i t ,  t h e 

E v e r y  e n z y m e  h a s  a  d i ff e r e n t  s h a p e d  a c t i v e  s i t e

Antibodies  a r e  p r o t e i n s  p r o d u c e d  b y  c e r t a i n  t y p e s  o f 
white blood cell  t o

a t t a c h  t o  a n t i g e n s  o n  t h e  s u r f a c e  o f  p a t h o g e n s

T h e  shape of the antibody must match the shape of the antigen  s o  t h a t  i t  c a n

a t t a c h  t o  i t  a n d  s i g n a l  i t  f o r  d e s t r u c t i o n

T
different sequences of amino acids h e 
 c a u s e  t h e  p o l y p e p t i d e  c h a i n s  t o 
fold in
different ways  a n d  t h i s  g i v e s  r i s e  t o  t h e  d i ff
e r e n t  s h a p e s  o f  p r o t e i n s

I n
unique 3-D shape  t h i s  w a y  e v e r y  p r o t e i n  h a s  a   t h a t  e n a b l e s  i t  t o  c a r r y  o u t  i t s

f u n c t i o n

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4 . 2 . 1  F o o d  T e s t s

4 . 2  F o o d  T e s t s

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Y O U R  N O T E S  

Describing Food Tests

Test for g lucose (a reducing sugar)

A Benedict's solution d d   i n t o  s a m p l e  s o l u t i o n  i n  t e s t  t u b e

Heat  a t  6 0  -  7 0  ° c  i n  w a t e r  b a t h  f o r 
5 minutes
T a k e  t e s t  t u b e  o u t  o f  w a t e r  b a t h  a n d  o b s e r v e  t h e  c o l o u r

A  p o s i t i v e  t e s t  w i l l  s h o w  a  c o l o u r  c h a n g e  f r o m 
blue to orange or brick red

The Benedict's test for glucose

Test for star ch using iodine

W e  c a n  u s e  i o d i n e  t o  t e s t  f o r  t h e  p r e s e n c e  o r  a b s e n c e  o f  s t a r c h  i n  a  f o o d  s a m p l e .

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Y O U R  N O T E S  

The iodine test for starch

A d d  d r o p s  o f 
iodine solution  t o  t h e  f o o d  s a m p l e

A  p o s i t i v e  t e s t  w i l l  s h o w  a  c o l o u r  c h a n g e  f r o m 
orange-brown to blue-black

Testing a potato to prove the presence of starch

Test for protein

A d d  d r o p s  o f 
Biuret solution  t o  t h e  f o o d  s a m p l e

A  p o s i t i v e  t e s t  w i l l  s h o w  a  c o l o u r  c h a n g e  f r o m  blue to violet / purple

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Y O U R  N O T E S  

The Biuret test for protein

Test for lipids

F o o d  s a m p l e  i s  m i x e d  w i t h 
2cm3 of ethanol  a n d  s h a k e n

T h e  e t h a n o l  i s  a d d e d  t o  a n  e q u a l  v o l u m e  o f  cold water
A  p o s i t i v e  t e s t  w i l l  s h o w  a  cloudy emulsion  f o r m i n g

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Y O U R  N O T E S  

The ethanol test for lipids

Test for vitamin C

A d d  1cm3 of DCPIP solution  t o  a  t e s t  t u b e

A d d  a  s m a l l  a m o u n t  o f  f o o d  s a m p l e  ( a s  a  s o l u t i o n )

A  p o s i t i v e  t e s t  w i l l  s h o w  t h e 
blue colour of the dye disappearing

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Y O U R  N O T E S  

The DCPIP test for vitamin C

 E

W
x

h
a

e n
m

 d
 T

e s
i

c
p

r i b i n g  f o o d  t e s t s  i n  e x a m  a n s w e r s ,  m a k e  s u r e  y o u  g i v e  t h e

starting colour  o f  t h e  s o l u t i o n  a n d 
the colour it changes to  f o r  a  p o s i t i v e

r e s u l t .

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4 . 3 . 1  D N A  S t r u c t u r e

4 . 3  D N A  S t r u c t u r e

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Y O U R  N O T E S  

Describing DN Structure
D N A ,  o r  d e o x y r i b o n u c l e i c  a c i d ,  i s  t h e  m o l e c u l e  t h a t  c o n t a i n s  t h e  i n s t r u c t i o n s  f o r

g r o w t h  a n d  d e v e l o p m e n t  o f  a l l  o r g a n i s m s

I t  c o n s i s t s  o f  t w o  s t r a n d s  o f  D N A  w o u n d  a r o u n d  e a c h  o t h e r  i n  w h a t  i s  c a l l e d  a

double helix

DNA, chromosomes and the nucleus

T h e  i n d i v i d u a l  u n i t s  o f  D N A  a r e  c a l l e d 
nucleotides

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Y O U R  N O T E S  

A nucleotide

ff
A l l  n u c l e o t i d e s  c o n t a i n  t h e  s a m e  p h o s p h a t e  a n d  d e o x y r i b o s e  s u g a r ,  b u t  d i e r  f r o m

e a c h  o t h e r  i n  t h e  base  a t t a c h e d

T h e r e  a r e  f o u r  d i
ff
e r e n t  b a s e s , 
Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) and
Guanine (G)
T h e  b a s e s  o n  e a c h  s t r a n d  p a i r  u p  w i t h  e a c h  o t h e r ,  h o l d i n g  t h e  t w o  s t r a n d s  o f  D N A

i n  t h e  d o u b l e  h e l i x

T h e  b a s e s  a l w a y s  p a i r  u p  i n  t h e  s a m e  w a y :

A d e n i n e  a l w a y s  p a i r s  w i t h  T h y m i n e 
(A-T)
C y t o s i n e  a l w a y s  p a i r s  w i t h  G u a n i n e 
(C-G)

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Y O U R  N O T E S  

DNA base pairs

T h e  p h o s p h a t e  a n d  s u g a r  s e c t i o n  o f  t h e  n u c l e o t i d e s  f o r m  t h e  ʻ b a c k b o n e ʼ  o f  t h e

D N A  s t r a n d  ( l i k e  t h e  s i d e s  o f  a  l a d d e r )  a n d  t h e  b a s e  p a i r s  o f  e a c h  s t r a n d  c o n n e c t  t o

f o r m  t h e  r u n g s  o f  t h e  l a d d e r