FUNDAMENTAL OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN

GROUP PROJECT
DESIGN OF EARTH DAMS PROJECT

Lecturer name: Ir Dr Norizam Ayob

NO STUDENT NAME ID NO
1 MUSTAFE ABDIRAHMAN OMAR 50229121290
2 MOHAMMAD HAFIZ BIN MOHAMAD MOKHTAR 50229121395
Table of Content

Bill Description Page

1 Group project description

1
2 Objective project
2
3 Introduction
3

4 Hydrological study
4

5 Risk assessment
5

6 Mitigation design
6-7

7 Cost-benefit analysis
8-9

8 Catchment analysis
10 -
11
9 Hydraulic modeling
12 -
13
10 Design of flood mitigation measures
14 -
21
11 Sustainability and resilience
22 -
23
12 Conclusion
24

I
 1. Introduction

In the broad field of civil engineering, the conception and design of earth dams stand as a
remarkable example of the complex relationship between basic engineering principles, careful
environmental considerations, and the need to promote sustainable infrastructure. This large-
scale project embarks on a revolutionary voyage that delves into the complex craft of earth dam
design, a tremendous undertaking that goes beyond simple structural engineering. Rather, it
transforms into a masterful composition that necessitates extreme caution regarding the three
factors of seepage management, slope stability, and the ensuing environmental effects.

This project is fundamental to its dedication to managing the difficulties involved in

building earth dams. It is an investigation that goes far beyond the traditional engineering
boundaries, exploring the fields of hydraulic engineering, geological dynamics, and
environmental science. Fundamentally, this project is evidence of the mutually beneficial
relationship that exists between the necessity of protecting the delicate balance of the natural
world and humanity's need for robust infrastructure.

Slope stability must be carefully considered as we begin the process of designing an earth
dam. This goes beyond the simple architecture of the dam; it is a complex interaction with the
terrain, a symphony of forces, in which stability is not only a structural requirement but also a
critical component of long-term resilience. The design of a dam that not only withstands the
forces of nature but also coexists peacefully with its surroundings must consider the land's
contours, geological formations, and gravitational interaction.

Another crucial aspect in this story of engineering creativity is seepage control. The project
aims to create an impermeable barrier against the relentless forces of water, not just build a dam.
When intricate measures to regulate and direct water flow are incorporated into the design, the
delicate dance between soil mechanics and hydraulic engineering becomes an art form,
strengthening the dam against future vulnerabilities.

But fundamentally, this project goes beyond the practical domain of engineering. It explores
the ethics of environmental impact, acknowledging the relationship between human actions and
the environments they are a part of. The project is a careful attempt to evaluate and lessen any
possible ecological effects, rather than just building a dam. The environmental impact
assessment serves as a compass, steering the project in the direction of sustainability and making
sure that the dam serves as both an environmental guardian and a means of supplying utility
needs.

This project, which has its roots in civil engineering principles, aims to accomplish more
than the sum of its structural parts. It seeks to convey a story in which complex human-made
structures coexist peacefully with powerful natural forces rather than being subdued. This is
more than just an earth dam design; it's a story of engineering genius combined with
environmental responsibility, producing infrastructure that honors human ingenuity as well as
our duty to care for the planet we live on.

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 2. Design criteria

Designing Dams
A multidisciplinary team effort is required to plan and design a dam. Ultimately, a civil
engineer is responsible for the structure, but the civil engineer relies on information and advice

These are some of specialists involved with the engineering design:

Civil engineers, Geologists, Geotechnical engineers, Hydrologists, Surveyors

Other specialists are also involved in the planning of a dam, including economists who work out
the costs of the project, and environmentalists, biologists and conservationists who consider the
effects that a reservoir will have on the local environment and the animal and plant life.

Civil engineers work with other engineering specialists to draw together all the information they
provide to plan and design the overall layout of the dam and the other structures at the site. The
position selected for the dam will depend on the amount of water it will hold back in the
reservoir. It also needs to be located where the rock or soil is strong enough to support its weight.
The civil engineers decide on the best type of dam for the site and on the most suitable materials
to be used.
They must consider all of the forces that can act on the dam and its foundation. These include the
force of the reservoir water on the dam and the effect of the weight of the dam on the materials
within it and on the foundation below. In some regions, the effects of earthquakes must be
considered.
Civil engineers carry out mathematical calculations to model the dam and the effects of the
forces on them. When the calculations get too complicated to do by hand, they use computers.
With these calculations they can make sure that they are designing safe structures.
The pipework, valves and floodgates for dams were designed by mechanical engineers.
The civil engineering designers are responsible for producing technical drawings showing how
the dam is to be constructed. They also produce documents stating exactly how some of the
construction processes should be carried out to make sure that the final dam is built to a high
standard. Civil engineering contractors use this information to build the dam.

Figure 1: Planning the position for a dam across a river valley

4
Engineering geologists investigate the geology of the dam site and the area to be occupied by
the reservoir. They provide an overall picture of the types of soils and rocks below the earth's
surface, their thickness, and the directions in which they slope. They assess the quality of the
ground to determine whether leakage of water from the reservoir could occur.

For embankment dams, geologists investigate nearby areas where natural materials can be
excavated for their construction.

Figure 2: The Shih kang Dam Ruptured by the Chi-Chi Earthquake, Tiwan in 1999

Engineering geologists also consider whether the site of the proposed dam is in a region where
earthquakes can occur. They look for the presence of any faults in the rocks and consider
whether an earthquake could cause the fault to rupture. During the 1999 Chi-Chi Earthquake in
Taiwan, the movement of a fault below the Shih kang Dam broke the dam in two.

2.1 Geotechnical engineers

Geotechnical engineers consider whether the rock or soil foundation below a dam is strong
enough to support its weight. They check whether the dam foundation is permeable. If it is, then
the foundation must be treated to prevent water from the reservoir leaking out below or around
the dam. They are responsible for designing embankment dams, as they have an understanding
of how rockfill and earth fill behave. Geotechnical engineers investigate the stability of the
slopes around the reservoir too. If a landslide into the reservoir occurred, it could cause a large
wave that could flow over the top of the dam and cause flooding of properties and
deaths downstream. This happened at Valiant Reservoir in Italy in 1963, and the resulting flood
killed about 2200 people. Some geotechnical engineers spend a lot of time outdoors, collecting
soil and rock samples from proposed dam sites. These samples are tested in laboratories to
determine their properties, e.g. their strength and permeability.

2.2 Hydrologists

Engineering hydrologists, involved in the design of a dam, are interested in the quantity and
movement of water at the site. They need to know how much rain and snow is likely to fall there,
how much of it will soak into the ground and how it will move through the ground. With this
knowledge they can work out the amount of water that would normally flow into
the reservoir each year, and how big the reservoir needs to be to store it. They also estimate the
size of the waves on the reservoir that would be caused by wind. This information helps
determine the height of the dam.
They also have to consider the worst snow or rainfall that could possibly occur, and they
5
design spillways to make sure that excess floodwater can be passed safely through the reservoir
without overtopping the dam.

Figure 3: A laboratory model of the spillways at a dam showing how the water flows over them.

2.3 Surveyors

Engineering surveyors measure and survey the land at different sites that may be suitable for a
proposed dam. They do this using computer-based measuring instruments, geographical
knowledge, and aerial photographs. With this information, they prepare up-to-date and detailed
maps of the sites, which are used when choosing the best location for the dam and reservoir. The
maps for the selected site are then used to help with the planning and design of the dam.

6
 3. Dam design

3.1 Geology Contents

The geological services required for the engineering of a large dam are in the following areas.
 The safety of the dam on its foundations.
 The watertightness of the reservoir basin.
 The availability of natural materials for its construction.

The engineering geologist is a key member of an engineering team, since he will ensure the
feasibility of the project, continuing through the design stage and terminating only when
construction has either proved that geological conditions revealed are in conformity with the
premises adopted in design, or he has made possible proper evaluation of any conditions not
foreseen in the earlier stages.

The safety, viability and cost of a dam are all dependent upon geology. Most rocks have
adequate strength, but their weakness is in the orientation and dip of discontinuities relative to
the loading from the dam, as well as the infilling material in, and depth of, weathering in such
discontinuities.

It is necessary to investigate both the regional geology and the specific local geology to ensure a
global picture is developed.

3.2 Geology Terminology

Fresh Rock No visible signs of weathering

Slightly Penetrative weathering developed in open discontinuity surfaces but only
Weathered slight weathering of rock material.
Moderately Weathering extends throughout the rock mass, but the rock is not friable.
Weathered
Highly Weathered Weathering extends throughout the rock mass, but the rock material is
partly friable.
Completely Rock is wholly decomposed, and in a friable condition but rock texture
Weathered and structure are preserved.
Soil A soil material with the original texture, structure and mineralogy of the
rock destroyed.

3.3 Classification of rocks

a. Uniaxial Compressive Strength

a. Weak - less than 35MPa, Strong 35-115MPa, Very Strong - greater than
115MPa
b. Prefigure Deformation
a. Elastic, Viscous
c. Failure Characteristics
a. Brittle, Plastic
d. Gross Homogeneity
a. Massive, Layered
e. Continuity in Formation
a. Solid - joint spacing greater than 2m, Blocky - joint spacing 1-2m, Broken -
fragmented.
7
3.4 Types of Rock

 Granite
 Gabbro, Andesites, Dolerite and Basalt
 Amphibolite
 Metamorphic Rocks
 Limestone
 Sandstones
 Clays
 Gravel, Sands and Boulder Clays

3.5 Crushing Strength

In general, the compressive load from a dam on to its foundations will not exceed 10 MPa.
The strength of a rock will depend upon its –
 Quality
 The degree of weathering
 Presence of micro-cracks

The strength of a rock mass will depend upon –

 The number of cracks and joints
 The nature of their infilling material
 Whether there are any rock-to-rock contacts across the joints
 Planarity and continuity of seams and foliations

Table - Unconfined compressive strength of rocks

Rock type Strength (MPa)

Siltstone 24-120
Greywacke 20-30
Shale 35-110
Sandstone 40-200
Limestone 50-240
Dolomite 50-150
Granite 90-230
Basalt 200-350
Dolerite 240-320
Gneiss 80-330

The shear strength of a rock mass may be seriously affected by saturation since both the
cohesion and angle of friction will decrease.

8
 Figure 4: Shear failure and slope stability of valley sides

4. Gravity slip dislocations in steep-walled valleys

Gravity slip dislocations in steep-walled valleys the alluvial, glacial, and landslide deposits
on the floors and sides of valleys generally have locations, configurations, and physical
properties that are identified in the field with relative ease. During planning, design, and
construction of a dam and reservoir an assessment of these deposits can be made without
difficulty, and appropriate measures can be taken for their removal or stabilization.

In many steep-walled valleys, stream-cut or glaciated a relatively inconspicuous kind of

slope failure is present, especially in highly competent, crystalline igneous and metamorphic
bedrocks. Although they may not be easily observed, gravity-slip surfaces may be present in
bedrock as indicated in the figure below and contribute to the instability of the foundation
and abutments of a dam that might be constructed at the site.

Figure 5: Gravity slip

9
4.1 Obstructions in Stream Valleys

The two major consequences of impounding water in a natural or artificial reservoir are -

 Deposition of all or much of the suspended and traction load transported by the stream.
 Increase in downward and lateral erosion by clear or desilted water downstream from the
obstruction.

Attempts to control the rate of filling of reservoirs by sediment may include construction of
dams and reservoirs to intercept sediment upstream from a major facility, such as a large dam
for electric power generation, and regional programs for soil stabilization and conservation in
upstream drainage basins.

4.2 Topographical and Geological Conditions for Different Types of Dams

When the size of the dam has been determined, the type of dam envisaged requires certain
geological and topographical conditions which, for the main types of dams, may be stated as
follows.

Concrete Dams Embankment Dams

1. Gravity Dams  Rockfill Dams
2. Buttress Dams  Hydraulic Fill Dams
3. Multiple Arch Dams  Earthen Embankments
4. Thick Arch Dams  Composite Dams
5. Thin Arch Dams

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5. HYDROLOGY CONTENTS

5.1 Hydrological Cycle

The cyclic movement of water from the sea to the atmosphere and thence by precipitation to the
Earth, where it collects in streams and runs back to the sea, is referred to as the hydrological
cycle. The cycle is not as simple as that, firstly, precipitation may fall at all stages, secondly,
there is no uniformity in the time a cycle takes, thirdly, the intensity and frequency of the cycle
depend on geography and climate.

Figure 6: Hydrological Cycle

Water in the sea evaporates under solar radiation, and clouds of water vapor move over land
areas. Precipitation occurs as snow, hail, rain, and condensate in the form of dew, over land and
sea. Snow and ice on land are water in temporary storage. Rain falling over land surfaces may be
intercepted by vegetation and evaporate back to the atmosphere. Some of it infiltrates into the
soil and moves down or percolates into the saturated ground zone beneath the water table, or
phreatic surface. The water in this zone flows slowly through aquifers to river channels or
sometimes directly to the sea. The water that infiltrates also feeds the surface plant life and some
gets drawn up into this vegetation where transpiration takes place from leafy plant surfaces.

The water remaining on the surface partially evaporates back to vapors, but the bulk of it
coalesces into streamlets and runs as surface runoff to the river channels. The river and lake
surfaces also evaporate, so still more is removed here. Finally, the remaining water that has not
infiltrated or evaporated arrives back at the sea via the river channels. The groundwater, moving
much more slowly, either emerges into the stream channels or arrives at the coastline and seeps
into the sea, and the whole cycle starts again.

5.2 Hydrology of Anisotropic Bedrocks

Almost an infinite number of possibilities exists with respect to the magnitude and space
distribution of zones of potential seepage in bedrock in the vicinities of dams and in the
reservoirs behind the dams. A few of the many possible configurations of zones of potential are
shown below.

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Idealised cross sections of dams showing various kinds of zones of potential seepage in
bedrock.

Brittle, fractured sandstones in horizontal

sedimentary sequence beneath dam present a
potential seepage.

Dam is situated on basltic lava flows and

interlayered pyroclastic deposits. Lava flows
are fractured, brecciated at their tops, and
contain lava caves.

A brittle layer of quartzite in tightly folded

metamorphic rocks is likely to contain
numerous intersecting fractures.

Sandstone layers alternating with shale layers

in a syncline contain fractures associated with
development of a syncline.

A fault provides access of water to brittle

sandstone layers which dip upstream.

A fault provides egress for water moving

through inclined, brittle sandstone layers.

Brittle sandstone layers have been

extensively fractured during development of
an anticline.

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 Fractured sandstones in folded rocks are
intersected by a fault zone which expedites
groundwater movement to the surface
beneath the dam.

Faults in brittle crystalline rock provide

channelways for groundwater circulation.

Fractured sandstones, a weathered zone on

granite beneath the sediments, and a fault
zone create channelways for subsurface
circulation of water.

Extensively jointed crystalline rocks are

permeable to groundwater flow.

A closely jointed igneous dike intersects a

sedimentary sequence and provides a channel
for groundwater movement.

Idealised cross section of valleys at dam and/or reservoir sites.

Jointed sandstones present potential for

seepage around dam abutments when
reservoir is full.

Basaltic lava flows and layers of pyroclastic

rocks create potential for seepage. Lava flows
are jointed, have breccia tops, and contain
lava caves.

13
Fractured sandstones in a strike valley are
prone to seepage.

A subsided block (arrow) has created an open

channelway in a massive horizontal
sandstone layer.

Gravity-slip faults and fractures formed by

elastic rebound produce potential zones for
groundwater movement in a glaciated valley.

A strong fault system renders crystalline

rocks permeable on one side of a valley.

A wide fault zone promotes deep circulation

of water beneath dam.

Fractured sandstones and a weathered zone

beneath an angular unconformity enable easy
circulation of groundwater.

Fractured sandstones in an anticline create a

permeable zone parallel to the valley.

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Folded, jointed rocks and a strong fault create
a potential for groundwater flow.

A sheeted, jointed zone in crystalline rocks

create a permeable zone.

Joints in a brittle quartzite layer and a fault

produce channelways for underground water
circulation.

15
6. FOUNDATION CONTENTS

6.1 Pressures Associated with Dams and Reservoirs

Construction of a dam and filling of the reservoir behind it create load stresses on the floor and
sides of a valley that did not exist previously.

The kinds and distributions of imposed stresses created by a dam on its foundation depend on the
shape of the dam and the materials used in its construction.

The pressures exerted by earth and rock-fill dams resemble in some respects those exerted by the
water in a reservoir, but pressure distribution is modified by the fact that the materials of
construction have some inherent strength and fail only after some threshold stress has been
exceeded. Pressures exerted by water in the reservoir behind a dam are hydrostatic and increase
linearly with depth.

Figure 7: Pressures due to water in a reservoir

The pressures are hydrostatic and increase with depth. On the assumption that the pressures are
directed normally to the floor and sides, they are shown as vectors of increasing magnitude with
depth.

Figure 8: Pressures from the weight of a rigid concrete dam

The deadweight load of a concrete dam is distributed over the total area of the foundation and is
shown by vectors normal to the surface beneath the dam. The figures are essentially static and
depend only on the weight of the dam and the area of the foundation.

Water exerts hydrostatic pressures not only on the floor and walls of a reservoir but also on the
upstream face of a dam. D is the depth of water in a reservoir, P is the hydrostatic pressure per
unit area acting on the vertical face of a concrete dam assumed to behave as a rigid body. The
change in pressure with depth (in the y direction) is given by dP/dY=þg in which þ is the density
of water and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

16
 Figure 9: Figure - Forces acting on a rigid dam owing to hydrostatic pressures.

In calculations of the stability of the dam the torque tending to rotate the dam about 0 should be
added to the tendency of the dam to be rotated in the same direction about the same point by
uplift forces related to seepage beneath the dam.

Figure 1 illustrates an earth dam, a nonrigid structure that

under stress behaves simplistically. Because of relatively
easy internal adjustments to loads, the pressure exerted on
the foundation are approximately equal to the weight of
overlying prisms of material of different heights. Pressures
exerted on the dam by water in the reservoir tend to cause greater adjustments near the base of
the dam than at shallower depths.

A cross section of a concrete gravity dam, presumed to

behave as a rigid body. When the reservoir is empty, the
weight of the dam is directed vertically downward. When
the reservoir is full, a combination of hydrostatic pressure
on the upstream face of the dam and the weight of the dam
produces a force vector inclined downstream away from
the vertical force vector, and there is a tendency for the
dam not only to be displaced downstream but also to rotate
about the downstream toe of the dam because of a torque.

These figures show force vectors for empty and filled

reservoirs behind concrete arch dams. Unlike gravity dams,
arch dams because of the egg-shell effect tend to resist
downstream dislocation and the displacing forces, instead,
are transmitted laterally through the dam and toward the
abutments.

6.2 Mechanisms of Foundation Failure

17
In general, failures in flat, nearly horizontal foundations of earth and rock-fill dams are not
the result of shearing dislocations owing to the load of the dam. Instead, foundations give
way because of inadequate treatment for seepage, either within the dam or beneath it, or
because of construction of a dam on a foundation which slopes steeply upstream or
downstream.

The figure below shows a mechanism of foundation failure under load that has been widely
employed in the analysis of bearing strengths of soils. This mechanism responds to analysis
by application of Mohr's theory of shear failure called the plastic method of analysis of
bearing capacity.

Figure 10: 'Plastic' Mechanism for shear failure of foundation materials; Load is directed
vertically.

For a load directed vertically downward it is assumed and borne out by model studies that a
symmetrical wedge is formed by shear dislocation. Extension of the shear surfaces bounding
the wedge, first as curved surfaces, and then as planar surfaces intersecting the earth's
surface, provides a mechanism for shear failure along symmetrically disposed surfaces
beneath the dam.

Figure 11: - 'Plastic' Mechanism for shear failure of foundation materials; Load is directed
asymmetrically.

Figure 2 shows the consequences of application of an inclined load, either because of an

inclined surface at the base of the dam or because of an interaction between the load
component acting vertically due to the weight of the dam and the pressure exerted on the
dam by the hydrostatic pressure of the water in the reservoir. The result is a tendency to
shear along a single surface that intersects the earth's surface downstream from the dam. If
pre-existing planes of weakness of appropriate orientation exist in the foundation materials,
it should be expected that the shear surfaces will deflect into them.

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 7. Seepage Analysis

Seepage under an embankment is much more dangerous than that for a concrete dam, since
embankments are usually built on soft material which is liable to be scoured out and it is also
vulnerable to influx of water; whereas a concrete dam is usually built on rock which is not worn
away so rapidly by the scouring action of water; and even then a defective dam will not
necessarily be endangered by passage of water through it or even under it.

7.1 Basic seepage problems

Stored water behind dams, gives rise to three basic seepage problems, which can lead to
difficulties and in serious cases to total failure:

 Piping occurs when water picks up soil particles and moves them through unprotected
exits, developing unseen channels or pipes through a dam or its foundation.
 Heave or slope failures caused by seepage forces.
 Excessive loss of water.

Three basic methods for controlling seepage are:

 Use of filters to prevent piping and heave

 Seepage reduction
 Drainage

Seepage Reduction

7.2 Basic considerations

Seepage-reduction methods make use of impermeable cutoffs, grout curtains, and

upstream blankets, which consume energy at locations within cross sections where large water
pressures and seepage forces have no detrimental effects. The net result of these methods is that
water pressures and seepage forces are reduced in the downstream region. These seepage-
reducing features are usually combined with properly designed filters and drainage features since
seepage reduction can only be partially effective by itself.

19
 Figure 12: Seepage

7.3 Drainage Methods

Permeable downstream shells

At dam sites where there is an abundance of at least two different materials with significantly
different permeabilities, a zoned dam may be constructed. In such cases permeable material
is placed downstream of less permeable material, often with a transition zone between. For
example, in a zoned dam which has a thick impermeable core and rests on an impermeable
foundation, the flow paths within the downstream portion of the dam will be low. Thus,
seepage has a negligible effect on the stability of the downstream slope, which is the ideal
condition in zoned earth dams.

Figure 13: Drainage Methods

Purpose
A homogeneous dam with a height of more than about 6 m to 8 m should have some type of
downstream drain. The purpose of a drain is:

 to reduce the pore water pressures in the downstream portion of the dam therefore
increasing the stability of the downstream slope against sliding.
 to control any seepage that exits the downstream portion of the dam and prevent
erosion of the downstream slope: i.e. to prevent 'piping'.

The effectiveness of the drain in reducing pore pressures depends on its location and extent.
However, piping is controlled by ensuring that the grading of the pervious material from
which the drain is constructed meets the filter requirements for the embankment material.

Toe drains

For low dams, a simple toe drain can be used successfully. Toe drains have been installed in
some of the oldest homogeneous dams in an effort to prevent softening and erosion of the
downstream toe.

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 Figure 14: Toe drains

For reservoir depths greater than 15 m, most engineers would place a drainage system further
inside the embankment where it will be more effective in reducing pore pressures and controlling
seepage.

7.4 Settlement

All structures undergo some settlement, regardless of their construction or of the quality of their
foundations. Structures made of soil or founded on soil settle so much that their performance is
affected, and their safety is compromised.

Concrete dams are almost always based on strong rock foundations where settlement of the dam
is kept to a minimum otherwise the dams would crack leading to serious structural faults.
Embankment dams can be founded on soft compressible materials and are able to withstand
large settlements.

Causes of settlement

1. Bearing capacity failure or instability, including landslides.

2. Failure or deflection of the foundation structure.
3. Elastic or distortion of the soil or rock.
4. Consolidation (compression) of the soil or rock.
5. Shrinkage due to desiccation.
6. Change in density due to shock or vibration.
7. Chemical alteration of constituents, including decay.
8. Underground erosion.
9. Collapse of underground openings such as caves or mines.
10. Structural collapse due to weakening of cementation upon saturation.

7.5 Measurement of Crest Settlement

Crest settlement is measured by benchmarks placed at intervals along the top of the dam.
Obviously, these are tied to a reference benchmark on the abutment which is immovable.

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7.6 Measurement of Internal Settlement

Measurement of internal settlement is made using settlement plates embedded in the dam or the
foundation.

Figure 14: Diagram of settlement plates

 Effects of settlement on structures

The settlement configuration of a uniform load on a thick deposit of compressible soil is a saucer
shaped depression which extends beyond the limits of the structure. If the loading is irregular or
the soil uniform, the saucer shaped curve is distorted. If the deposit is thin, the 'saucer' is
flattened at the center. The effect that the settlement has on a structure depends on where the
structure is in the depression and on how the movements at that location influence the
performance of the structure.

 Total Settlement
The total amount of settlement a structure can undergo without damage is large provided it is
relatively uniform. However, with large amounts of settlement several forms of trouble develop.
In embankments and dams on earth’s foundations the result will be a lowering of the crest. This
is an insidious form of trouble since it usually develops slowly, often without the operators of
maintenance personnel being aware of the loss of height and free board.

Allowances must be made for settlement in the design height, and periodic measurements should
be taken to be sure that the proper crest level is maintained. A considerable part of the
settlement, both foundation and of the embankment, occurs during the construction period. This
can result in discrepancies in the computed volume of the structure unless it is anticipated, and
careful records of the settlement are kept. With proper allowances, embankment settlements of a
few metres can be tolerated. Total settlement is not a serious matter if it is anticipated, and
provisions made beforehand.

 Tilting
Tilting occurs in the parts of the structure that are outside the center of the saucer-like
depression. It also takes place when the structure is unevenly loaded, or when the soil is non-
uniform. It is of importance mainly with tall structures such as large retaining walls, transmission
towers, water tanks, and smokestacks. It is particularly serious in structures that are

22
interconnected. The amount of tilt which can be tolerated depends on the height-width ratio of
the structure.
7.7 Dam Construction on Unconsolidated Deposits

There are many locations where the depth of valley fill is too great to remove and so the dam or parts of it
may have to be built on unconsolidated deposits. Cross sections of several earth and/or rockfill dams
constructed at least in part on unconsolidated subsurface deposits are shown below. Considerable
information as to the distribution and permeabilities of subsurface materials is required prior to the design
and construction of cut-off features.

Rockfill dam. Impervious membrane (asphaltic

concrete) extends to a grout cap on bedrock.

Cut-off trench extends to bedrock

Cut-off trench penetrates impervious layer in

unconsolidated valley fill

Cut-off extends to layer of impervious material

in unconsolidated valley fill. Grout holes extend
through a limestone layer in bedrock below
valley fill.

A cut-off is provided by sheet piling driven into

an impervious layer in valley fill.

Flow beneath the dam is reduced by a layer of

impervious material placed upstream from the
dam.

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7.8 Grout
Grout is a liquid, either a uniform chemical substance or an aqueous suspension of solids that is injected
into rocks or unconsolidated materials through specially drilled boreholes to improve bulk physical
properties and/or to eliminate seepage of groundwater.

There are three basic types.

1. Portland cement-base slurries

2. Chemical Grouting solutions
3. Organic resins, including epoxy resins.

Portland based are the most widely used.

7.9 Types of Grouting

In dam foundations three kinds of grouting programs are identified:

1. Shallow blanket or consolidation grouting over critical portions.

2. Curtain grouting from a gallery or concrete grout cap
3. Off pattern, special purpose grouting to improve strength.

Some cross sections of dams with rock foundations showing locations of drilled holes for foundation
treatment.

 A - Curtain grout holes

 B - Blanket grout holes
 C - Special purpose, off-pattern grout holes
 D - Drain holes

Rockfill dam with impermeable concrete face

Zoned earth and rock-fill dam

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Zoned earth and rock-fill dam

Earth dam

Concrete gravity dam with 'C' holes intersecting a fault zone

Concrete gravity dam with double grout curtain and 'C' holes
intersecting a permeable fault zone

Concrete gravity dam with special purpose 'C' holes

Concrete gravity dam wiht a porous filter to collect seepage

water

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Hollow conrete gravity dam

Concrete buttress dam

Concrete arch-dam

Concrete arch-dam

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 8. Gravity Dam Contents

Typical Section Example

Hoover Dam, Nevada-Arizona (221m)

Grand Coulee Dam, Washington State (168m)

Fontana Dam, Tennessee (137m)

Studen Kladenetz, Bulgaria (67.5m)

Sakuma Dam, Japan (140m)

Topolintza Dam, Bulgaria (85m)

(C) Wahlstrom, Ernest Dams, Dam Foundations and Reservoir Sites

8.1 Design Concepts and Criteria

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A gravity dam shall be:

 Safe against overturning at any horizontal plane within the dam.

 Safe against sliding at any horizontal place within the dam.
 So proportioned that the allowable stresses in both the concrete and the foundation shall not be
exceeded.

Drainage is in the form of curtain of cored vertical holes 150mm or

more in diameter at 3-5m spacing and located 304m from the
upstream face. A gallery runs from one end to the other of the dam,
above the tailwater level. Drainage from the holes is led away via
open gutters, with measuring weirs installed to record the flow.

It is now general to adopt a distribution of uplift pressure as above,

the value of factor k being decided having due regard to the porosity
of foundation rock and the existence of joints and cracks therein. It is
important to expend effort and money on a drainage system to ensure
satisfactory function over the entire life of the dam.

Variation in contraction joints and uplift.

(C) Wahlstrom, Ernest Dams, Dam Foundations and Reservoir Sites
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams

9. Earthfill Dam Contents

28
 Figure 15: Kollgaard & Chadwick, Development of Dam Engineering in the US

Types of Earthfill Dam

Figure 16: Types of Earthfill Dam

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 10. Conclusion:

In summary, designing an earth dam involves considering the following key aspects:

 Design Criteria: Understand the site's characteristics like rainfall, soil, and ecology to set
design standards.
• Dam Design: Use soil mechanics and hydraulic engineering principles to design the dam
structure, including the core, shells, and spillway. Ensure slope stability to prevent
failures.
• Seepage Analysis: Identify and control potential water seepage through the dam by using
impermeable materials and filters.
• Environmental Impact: Assess the project's environmental effects on ecosystems, water
quality, and wildlife. Include measures like fish passages or habitat restoration to
minimize negative impacts.
• In essence, a successful earth dam project integrates engineering and environmental
considerations for a safe and sustainable outcome.

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