LESSON 2

III: EMERGENCY CARE

OBJECTIVES:

1. Explain the need of preparation to a proper emergency care.

2. Describe the four emergency action principles.
3. Enumerate the Golden Rules in giving emergency care.
4. Demonstrate how to do a primary survey.

DISCUSSION:

EMERGENCY CARE:

1. "Emergency care" means the performance of acts or procedures under emergency conditions
in the observation, care and counsel of persons who are ill or injured or who have disabilities;
2. Emergency Care' means inpatient and outpatient hospital services necessary to prevent the
death or serious impairment of the health of the recipient.
3. Emergency care refers to emergency medical attention given to an individual who needs it. It
includes those medical services required for the immediate diagnosis and treatment of
medical conditions which, if not immediately diagnosed and treated, could lead to serious
physical or mental disability or death.

TYPES OF EMERGENCY CARE:

There are so many types of emergency care that needs an urgent attention, be it at home,
work place, inside a building, in school, when riding a vehicle, when camping, along the beach or
when you go hiking, etc.

Emergency care is a type of medical care performed in situations that threaten patients' life,
limbs, or senses. It can be performed in a hospital or clinical setting by doctors and nurses or in the
field by emergency medical technicians. The primary goal of emergency care is to stop the immediate
threat; treating the underlying condition comes after the team stabilizes the patient. Types of
emergency care include cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), injections and intravenous fluids,
measures to stop excessive bleeding, and vital sign monitoring.

1. CPR
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a lifesaving technique useful in many emergencies,
including a heart attack or near drowning, in which someone's breathing or heartbeat has
stopped.

2. Injections
Heart Attack - Emergency life saving injection of Adrenaline - a hormone secreted by the
adrenal glands that increases blood circulation, breathing, and prepares muscles for exertion.

3. Vital Signs Monitoring

 Vital signs reflect essential body functions, including your heartbeat, breathing rate,
temperature, and blood pressure. Your health care provider may watch, measure, or monitor
your vital signs to check your level of physical functioning.
Normal vital signs change with age, sex, weight, exercise capability, and overall health.
Normal vital sign ranges for the average healthy adult while resting are:
Blood pressure: Blood pressure: 90/60 mm Hg to 120/80 mm Hg
Respiration rate: Breathing: 12 to 18 breaths per minute
Pulse rate: Pulse: 60 to 100 beats per minute
Body Temperature: Temperature: 97.8°F to 99.1°F (36.5°C to 37.3°C); average 98.6°F (37°C)

4. Intravenous Fluids-Intravenous fluids consist of large volumes of water mixed with essential
vitamins and electrolytes to restore your body’s vitality within a short period.

There are several reasons for receiving IV fluids. Some of the treatments that rely on
intravenous administration are:
Rehydration after dehydration due to excessive activity or an illness
Treatment of infections using antibiotics
Cancer treatment with chemotherapy medication
Pain management through certain medicines
Hangovers
Food Poisoning

5. Measures to stop Excessive Bleeding

For severe bleeding, take these first-aid steps and reassure the injured person.
1. Remove any clothing or debris on the wound. Don't remove large or deeply
embedded objects. Don't probe the wound or attempt to clean it yet. Your first job is to
stop the bleeding. Wear disposable protective gloves if available.
2. Stop the bleeding. Place a sterile bandage or clean cloth on the wound. Press the bandage
firmly with your palm to control bleeding. Apply constant pressure until the bleeding stops.
Maintain pressure by binding the wound with a thick bandage or a piece of clean cloth. Don't
put direct pressure on an eye injury or embedded object.
Secure the bandage with adhesive tape or continue to maintain pressure with your
hands. If possible, raise an injured limb above the level of the heart.
3. Help the injured person lie down. If possible, place the person on a rug or blanket to
prevent loss of body heat. Calmly reassure the injured person.
4. Don't remove the gauze or bandage. If the bleeding seeps through the gauze or other
cloth on the wound, add another bandage on top of it. And keep pressing firmly on the area.
5. Tourniquets: A tourniquet is effective in controlling life-threatening bleeding from a limb.
Apply a tourniquet if you're trained in how to do so. When emergency help arrives, explain
how long the tourniquet has been in place.
6. Immobilize the injured body part as much as possible. Leave the bandages in place and
get the injured person to an emergency room as soon as possible.
Call 911 or emergency medical help for severe bleeding that you can't control.
GUIDELINES IN GIVING EMERGENCY CARE:
A. GETTING STARTED
1. PLAN OF ACTION
Emergency plan should be established based on anticipated needs and available resources.
2. GATHERING OF NEEDED MATERIALS
The emergency response begins with the preparation of equipment and personnel before any
emergency occurs.
3. INITIAL RESPONSE A. Ask for HELP.
B. Intervene
C. Do no further harm.
4. INSTRUCTION TO HELPER/S
Proper information and instruction to a helper/s would provide organized first aid care.

B. EMERGENCY ACTION PRINCIPLES

1. SURVEY THE SCENE
Once you recognized that an emergency has occurred and decide to act, you must make sure
the scene of the emergency is safe for you, the victim/s, and any bystander/s.

Elements of Survey the Scene

a. Scene safety
b. Mechanism of injury or nature of illness
c. Determine the number of patients and
d. Additional resources.

2. ACTIVATE EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICES (EMS) OR TRANSFER FACILITY:

In some emergency, you will have enough time to call for specific medical advice before
administering first aid. But in some situations, you will need to attend to the victim first.
Phone First and Phone Fast Both trained and untrained bystanders should be instructed to
Activate Medical Assistance as soon as they have determined that an adult victim requires
emergency care “Phone First”. While for infants and children a “Phone Fast” approach is
recommended.

3. DO A PRIMARY SURVEY OF THE VICTIM

In every emergency situation, you must first find out if there are conditions that are an
immediate threat to the victim’s life.
a. Check for Consciousness
b. Check for Breathing
c. Check for Airway
d. Check for Circulation

4. DO A SECONDARY SURVEY
It is a systematic method of gathering additional information about injuries or conditions that
may need care.
a. Interview the victim.
b. Check vital signs.
c. Perform head-to-toe examination.
IV: GOLDEN RULES IN GIVING EMERGENCY CARE

1. What to DO :
a. Do obtain consent, when possible.
b. Do think the worst. It’s best to administer first aid for the gravest possibility.
c. Do remember to identify yourself to the victim.
d. Do provide comfort and emotional support.
e. Do respect the victim’s modesty and physical privacy.
f. Do be as calm and as direct as possible.
g. Do care for the most serious injuries first.
h. Do assist the victim with his or her prescription medication.
i. Do keep onlookers away from the injured person.
j. Do handle the victim to a minimum.
k. Do loosen tight clothing.

2. What not to DO :
a. Do not let the victim see his/her own injury.
b. Do not leave the victim alone except to get help.
c. Do not assume that the victim’s obvious injuries are the only ones.
d. Do not make any unrealistic promises.
e. Do not trust the judgment of a confused victim and require them to make decision.

PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT DISEASE TRANSMISSION

Standard Precautions
Standard Precautions are the minimum infection prevention practices that apply to all patient care,
regardless of suspected or confirmed infection status of the patient, in any setting where health care
is delivered. These practices are designed to both protect DHCP and prevent DHCP from spreading
infections among patients. Standard Precautions include —

A. Hand hygiene.
Hand hygiene is the most important measure to prevent the spread of infections among
patients.

B. Use of personal protective equipment (e.g., gloves, masks, eyewear).

Personal protective equipment (PPE) refers to wearable equipment that is designed to protect
both patients and health providers from exposure to or contact with infectious agents. PPE that is
appropriate for various types of patient interactions and effectively covers personal clothing and skin
likely to be soiled with blood, saliva, or other potentially infectious materials (OPIM) should be
available. These include gloves, face masks, protective eye wear, face shields, and protective
clothing (e.g., reusable or disposable gown, jacket, laboratory coat). Examples of appropriate use of
PPE for adherence to Standard Precautions include—

b.1. Use of gloves in situations involving possible contact with blood or body fluids, mucous
membranes, non-intact skin (e.g., exposed skin that is chapped, abraded, or with dermatitis)
or OPIM.
b.2. Use of protective clothing to protect skin and clothing during procedures or activities
where contact with blood or body fluids is anticipated.
 b.3 Use of mouth, nose, and eye protection during procedures that are likely to generate
splashes or sprays of blood or other body fluids.

C. Respiratory hygiene / cough etiquette.

Respiratory hygiene/cough etiquette infection prevention measures are designed to limit the
transmission of respiratory pathogens spread by droplet or airborne routes. The strategies target
primarily patients and individuals accompanying patients to the dental setting who might have
undiagnosed transmissible respiratory infections, but also apply to anyone (including DHCP) with
signs of illness including cough, congestion, runny nose, or increased production of respiratory
secretions.

D. Sharps safety (engineering and work practice controls).

All used disposable syringes and needles, scalpel blades, and other sharp items should be placed in
appropriate puncture-resistant containers located close to the area where they are used. Sharps
containers should be disposed of according to state and local regulated medical waste rules.
Place used disposable syringes and needles, scalpel blades, and other sharp items in appropriate
puncture-resistant containers located as close as possible to the area where the items are used.

E. Safe injection practices (i.e., aseptic technique for parenteral medications).

Safe injection practices are intended to prevent transmission of infectious diseases between one
patient and another, or between a patient and health care provider during preparation and
administration of parenteral (e.g., intravenous or intramuscular injection) medications.

F. Sterile instruments and devices.

Instrument processing requires multiple steps using specialized equipment.

Cleaning, disinfection and sterilization of equipment should be assigned to personnel with training in
the required reprocessing steps to ensure reprocessing results in a device that can be safely used for
patient care. Training should also include the appropriate use of PPE necessary for safe handling of
contaminated equipment.

G. Clean and disinfected environmental surfaces.

Policies and procedures for routine cleaning and disinfection of environmental surfaces should be
included as part of the infection prevention plan. Cleaning removes large numbers of microorganisms
from surfaces and should always precede disinfection. Disinfection is generally a less lethal process
of microbial inactivation (compared with sterilization) that eliminates virtually all recognized
pathogenic microorganisms but not necessarily all microbial forms (e.g., bacterial spores).

3. Body Substance Isolation or Body Precautions and Practices

Body substance isolation (BSI) is a system of infection precautions intended to reduce nosocomial
transmission of infectious agents among patients and to reduce the risk of transmission of hepatitis B
virus, human immunodeficiency virus, and other infectious agents to health care personnel.

What is Body Substance Isolation (BSI) and why it is important? BSI basically means protecting
yourself from germs and bacteria found in bodily fluids like blood, urine, mucus, feces, etc. As
personal caregivers, we are exposed to these substances on a daily basis.
Body substance isolation is a practice of isolating all body substances (blood, urine, feces, tears, etc.)
Types of body substance isolation included:
Hospital gowns.
Medical gloves.
Shoe covers.
Surgical mask or N95 Respirator.
Safety Glasses

Body precautions and practices:

Universal precautions refers to the practice, in medicine, of avoiding contact with patients' bodily
fluids, by means of the wearing of nonporous articles such as medical gloves, goggles, and face
shields.

Standard Precautions
Standard precautions apply to the care of all patients, irrespective of their disease state. These
precautions apply when there is a risk of potential exposure to (1) blood; (2) all body fluids,
secretions, and excretions, except sweat, regardless of whether or not they contain visible blood; (3)
non-intact skin, and (4) mucous membranes. This includes the use of hand hygiene and personal
protective equipment (PPE), with hand hygiene being the single most important means to prevent
transmission of disease.
Personal protective equipment is used as a barrier to protect skin, mucous membranes, airway, and
clothing, and includes gowns, gloves, masks, and face shields or goggles.
The following list of standard precautions is not all-inclusive, and contains some of the most
commonly used recommendations for healthcare workers.

Standard Precautions commonly used:

A. Hand Hygiene
Hand washing with soap and water for at least 40 to 60 seconds, making sure not to use clean hands
to turn off the faucet, must be performed if hands are visibly soiled, after using the restroom, or if
potential exposure to spore-forming organisms.
Hand rubbing with alcohol applied generously to cover hands completely should be performed and
hands rubbed until dry.
Hand Hygiene Indications
1. Before and after any direct patient contact and between patients, whether or not gloves are
worn.
2. Immediately after gloves are removed.
3. Before handling an invasive device.
4. After touching blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions, non-intact skin, and contaminated
items, even if gloves are worn.
5. During patient care, when moving from a contaminated to a clean body site of the patient.
6. After contact with inanimate objects in the immediate vicinity of the patient.
 B. Personal Protective Equipment
Gloves
Must be worn when touching blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions, mucous membranes,
or non-intact skin. Change when there is contact with potentially infected material in the same
patient to avoid cross-contamination. Remove before touching surfaces and clean items.
Wearing gloves does not mitigate the need for proper hand hygiene.

Mask, Goggles/Eye Visor, and/or Face Shield

Wear a mask and eye protection or face shield during procedures that may spray or splash
blood, body fluids, secretions, or excretions.

Gown
Wear to protect skin or clothing during procedures that may spray or splash blood, body fluids,
secretions, or excretions.

C. Needles and Other Sharps

Do not break, bow, or directly manipulate used needles. Recapping is not recommended, but
if necessary, “use a one-handed scoop technique only.” Discard all used sharps in appropriate
puncture-resistant containers.

Transmission-based Precautions
A. Airborne Precautions
These precautions are used in patients with known or suspected infection with pathogens that
are spread by airborne transmission, i.e., “airborne droplet nuclei (small-particle residue {5 um
or smaller in size} of evaporated droplets that may remain suspended in the air for long
periods of time) or dust particles containing the infectious agent.”

B. Droplet Precautions
These precautions are used in patients with known or suspected infection with pathogens that
are spread by droplet transmission. “Droplets are particles of respiratory secretions +/- 5
microns. Droplets remain suspended in the air for limited periods. Transmission is associated
with exposure within three to six feet (one to two meters) of the source.”

C. Contact Precautions
These precautions are used in patients with known or suspected infection or colonization with
pathogens that are spread by direct and indirect patient contact. Indirect patient contact
occurs when physical contact is made with items or surfaces in the patient’s environment.

4. Equipment, Cleaning and Disinfecting Procedures. Give the steps to follow.

The cleaning and disinfection (C&D) of equipment, materials, and premises is done to prevent
or mitigate the spread of foreign animal diseases (FADs) during an outbreak. As part of a
wider response, this helps to stabilize animal agriculture, the food supply, the economy, and to
protect public health and the environment.
 Definition:
A. Cleaning = The removal of gross contamination, organic material, and debris from the
premises or respective structures, via mechanical means like sweeping (dry cleaning)
and/or the use of water and soap or detergent (wet cleaning). The goal is to minimize
organic material so disinfection can be effective.
B. Disinfection = Methods used on surfaces to destroy or eliminate a specific species of
infectious microorganism through physical (e.g., heat) or chemical (e.g., disinfectant)
means. A combination of methods may be required

PROCEDURES:
How to clean and disinfect

1. Wear disposable gloves to clean and disinfect.

2. Clean surfaces using soap and water, then use disinfectant.
3. Cleaning with soap and water reduces number of germs, dirt and impurities on the surface.
4. Practice routine cleaning of frequently touched surfaces.

How To Clean and Disinfect Schools To Help Slow the Spread of Flu
Cleaning and disinfecting are part of a broad approach to preventing infectious diseases in schools.
To help slow the spread of influenza (flu), the first line of defense is getting vaccinated. Other
measures include staying home when sick, covering coughs and sneezes, and washing hands often.
Below are tips on how to slow the spread of flu specifically through cleaning and disinfecting.
1. Know the difference between cleaning, disinfecting, and sanitizing
a. Cleaning removes germs, dirt, and impurities from surfaces or objects. Cleaning works by
using soap (or detergent) and water to physically remove germs from surfaces. This process
does not necessarily kill germs, but by removing them, it lowers their numbers and the risk of
spreading infection.

b. Disinfecting kills germs on surfaces or objects. Disinfecting works by using chemicals to

kill germs on surfaces or objects. This process does not necessarily clean dirty surfaces or
remove germs, but by killing germs on a surface after cleaning, it can further lower the risk of
spreading infection.

c. Sanitizing lowers the number of germs on surfaces or objects to a safe level, as judged
by public health standards or requirements. This process works by either cleaning or
disinfecting surfaces or objects to lower the risk of spreading infection.

2. Clean and disinfect surfaces and objects that are touched often
Follow your school’s standard procedures for routine cleaning and disinfecting. Typically, this means
daily sanitizing surfaces and objects that are touched often, such as desks, countertops, doorknobs,
computer keyboards, hands-on learning items, faucet handles, phones, and toys. Some schools may
also require daily disinfecting these items. Standard procedures often call for disinfecting specific
areas of the school, like bathrooms.
Immediately clean surfaces and objects that are visibly soiled. If surfaces or objects are soiled with
body fluids or blood, use gloves and other standard precautions to avoid coming into contact with the
fluid. Remove the spill, and then clean and disinfect the surface.
3. Simply do routine cleaning and disinfecting
It is important to match your cleaning and disinfecting activities to the types of germs you want to
remove or kill. Most studies have shown that the flu virus can live and potentially infect a person for
up to 48 hours after being deposited on a surface. Flu viruses are relatively fragile, so standard
cleaning and disinfecting practices are sufficient to remove or kill them. Special cleaning and
disinfecting processes, including wiping down walls and ceilings, frequently using room air
deodorizers, and fumigating, are not necessary or recommended. These processes can irritate eyes,
noses, throats, and skin; aggravate asthma; and cause other serious side effects.
4. Clean and disinfect correctly
Always follow label directions on cleaning products and disinfectants. Wash surfaces with a general
household cleaner to remove germs. Rinse with water, and follow with an EPA-registered disinfectant
to kill germs. Read the label to make sure it states that EPA has approved the product for
effectiveness against influenza A virus.
5. Use products safely
Pay close attention to hazard warnings and directions on product labels. Cleaning products and
disinfectants often call for the use of gloves or eye protection. For example, gloves should always be
worn to protect your hands when working with bleach solutions.
6. Handle waste properly
Follow your school’s standard procedures for handling waste, which may include wearing gloves.
Place no-touch waste baskets where they are easy to use. Throw disposable items used to clean
surfaces and items in the trash immediately after use. Avoid touching used tissues and other waste
when emptying waste baskets. Wash your hands with soap and water after emptying waste baskets
and touching used tissues and similar waste.

V: EMERGENCY SITUATIONS:

An emergency is a situation that poses an immediate risk to health, life, property or environment.
Situation means the way in which something is placed in relation to its surrounding or positions with
respect to conditions and circumstances.

Emergency situation means, a situation that would, if allowed to continue, pose a substantial risk,
threat, impediment or danger to the present or future viability and sustainability of services needed by
the people.

It also refers to a circumstance in which a person is suffering from a major mental illness or
developmental disability, or a minor is suffering from a serious emotional disturbance. Furthermore, it
refers to a situation in which the specific conditions of these Regulations are unable to be met for a
limited time and which needs rapid action due to the potential for public health harm.

Here are some types of emergency situations that could affect, threat, or put into risk lives pf people.

a. Workplace hazards- A workplace hazard is a scenario in the workplace that has the potential to injure
or harm people, as well as cause damage to the plant and/or equipment. Hazards exist in any job and
can originate from a variety of places.
 Example situations are: chemicals spills, car or boat accidents, faulty and dangerous equipment,
power failures, etc. These situations are seen as workplace hazards because they happen at
workplaces and endangers the welfare of the workers. So, workers must be cautious and implement
safety measures in their workplaces.

b. Natural disasters- Natural disasters are any sort of severe weather that has the potential to endanger
human health and safety, property, key infrastructure, and homeland security. Natural disasters occur both
seasonally and without warning, subjecting the nation to frequent periods of insecurity, disruption, and
economic loss.

Example situations are; winter storms, tornadoes, hurricanes, wildfires, earthquakes, cyclones, floods,
severe storms, fire, etc. These situations are due to natural phenomenon and not man made. So,
people should be more careful by making pre-disaster safety measure such as conducting earthquake
drills and ensuring calamity funds.

c. Environment hazards- Extreme events or substances in the Earth's and its ecological systems are
characterized as environmental risks that may have negative implications for humans and the things they
value. These are threats to people and things we care about. Hazards can come from a variety of sources, but
we usually think of them as the result of interactions between natural systems, technology systems, and
human systems.

Example situations are; snake and spider bite, falling branches, drowning, earthquakes, droughts, etc.
These situations are found everywhere in the environment. Hence, people should be more careful and
eco-friendlier.

d. Catering hazards- Catering dangers can affect restaurant cooks as well as restaurant patrons. Specifically,
these hazards are what you experience in catering areas like kitchen. When you are cooking, preparing,
providing foods and even cleaning in food services. In order to avoid injuries or diseases, cooks must adhere to
a variety of safety rules when working in the kitchen. There is no justification for a kitchen hazard hurting a
client or employee. Food preparation equipment, physical handling, the way stock is stored, and the hygiene
of the surroundings are all common hazards in commercial kitchens.

Example situations are; fire injuries, electrical issues, burns, slipping, improper handling of kitchen
equipment, food poisoning, improper storage, etc. The foodservice industry is required to meet
compliance guidelines to ensure workplace safety for both employees and the customers. Hence, by
educating yourself and others of the risks will go a long way in reducing workplace accidents and
ensure you and your colleagues return home safely after every shift.

e. People- It is somewhat specifying most on what can happen if you did not take good care of
yourself. Moreover, it surrounds your holistic well-being as a person, physical, emotional, mental
and social aspect. These are the causes of your own actions that may affect your own health and
how you deal with others. This is also hazard in which it is a potential source of harm or adverse
health effect on a person or persons. This could be an ill-health, damage to property or environment
and human injury.
Example situations are; intoxication, violence, bomb threats, medical conditions, suicide, getting lost,
etc. With these situations, self-care is very important. People should be more aware and cautious to
keep their life safer and healthier holistically.
REFERENCES:
https://www.makrosafe.co.za/blog/principles-of-emergency-care
http://firstaidcourse101.blogspot.com/2010/08/emergency-action-principles.html
http://thenursingprofession.blogspot.com/2015/02/golden-rules-in-giving-emergency-care.html
https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/ic/precautions.htm
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470223/
https://www.cdc.gov/flu/school/cleaning.htm
https://www.oregonlaws.org/glossary/definition/emergency_care
https://publichealth.gwu.edu/departments/healthpolicy/CHPR/nnhs4/PCCM/subheads/pccm116.html
https://definitions.uslegal.com/e/emergency-care/
(https://www.slideshare.net/davejaymanriquez/module-1-guidelines-in-giving-emergency-care)
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION 03
Prelim Grading Period

A: THE HUMAN BODY

The human body is the structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types
of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organ systems. They ensure
homeostasis and the viability of the human body.
It comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and
hands, legs and feet.
The study of the human body involves anatomy, physiology, histology and embryology. The
body varies anatomically in known ways. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of
the human body and their functions. Many systems and mechanisms interact in order to
maintain homeostasis, with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the
blood.
The body is studied by health professionals, physiologists, anatomists, and by artists to
assist them in their work.

1. Anatomical Terminologies on Positions and Directions

Anatomy Terms

Anatomic terms describe the directions within the body as well as the body’s reference planes, cavities
and regions. There are many times in medicine that a doctor has to record information in a medical record or
tell another doctor the exact body part or location of disorders or damage to your body or an organ. To do that,
there are standard terms for describing human anatomy including the body and it’s organs.

The terms used to describe locations and positions reference a person in the standard anatomical
position. The standard anatomical position for humans is standing upright as seen in the image below. By
using this as a standard posture for anatomical descriptions, we can avoid confusion even when in reality the
person is in some other position. For example, suppose the doctor was describing someone lying down? The
doctor’s description would be described as if the person were standing up and in the standard anatomical
position.

Anatomy is the study of the structure of the human body. The standard anatomical position for
humans is the feet together (or slightly apart), and the forearms are rotated with the palms forward and the
thumbs pointed away from the body. The arms are usually moved slightly out and away from the body, so that
the hands don’t touch the sides of the body. The positions of the arms and legs (and the arms in particular) have
important implications for directional terms in those appendages (limbs).

The head is upright and facing forward so that certain parts of the eyes and ears are in the same
horizontal plane. The penis in men is considered to be erect in the anatomical position, hence the dorsal surface
of the penis is actually the anterior surface in the flaccid state.

For “normal” human bodies, the right and left sides are mirror images if divided right down the center by the
sagittal plane as shown in the image below. The center line represents an axis or dividing line.
Directional Terms
In general, directional terms are grouped in pairs of opposites based on the standard anatomical
position.
▪ Superior and Inferior. Superior means above, inferior means below. The elbow is superior
(above) to the hand. The foot is inferior (below) to the knee.
▪ Anterior and Posterior. Anterior means toward the front (chest side) of the body, posterior
means toward the back.
▪ Medial and Lateral. Medial means toward the midline of the body, lateral means away from
the midline. Ipsilateral means on the same side—the left arm is ipsilateral (on the same side)
to the left leg.
▪ Proximal and Distal. Proximal means closest to the point of origin or trunk of the body, distal
means farthest away. Proximal and distal are often used when describing arms and legs. If
you were describing the shin bone, the proximal end would be the end close to the knee and
the distal end would be the end close to the foot. In the fingers of the hand, a proximal joint
is closest to the wrist and a distal joint is farthest from the wrist.
▪ Superficial and Deep. Superficial means toward the body surface, deep means farthest from
the body surface.

Other directional terms:

Intermediate – means between—your heart is intermediate to your lungs.
Caudal – at or near the tail or posterior end of the body.
Visceral – may be used instead of deep.
There are also terms that describe specific body parts. Palmar describes the palm side of the hand. Dorsal
describes the back side of the hand. Plantar describes the bottom of the foot.

Anatomical Reference Planes

A plane is a two-dimensional surface — its

dimensions are length and width. The body
reference planes are used to locate or describe the
location of structures in the body. These terms are
often used to describe medical imaging such as
CAT scans, PET scans and MRIs where the scans
take pictures of the body in flat slices. Brain scans
are often of sagittal plane slices (from ear to ear).
Abdominal CAT scans are often transverse plane
slices (like a stack of coins).
The three basic planes intersect at right
angles to each other. When the three basic planes
intersect in the center of the body (as seen in the
image to the right) they can be used to describe various relationships within the body.

Main Reference Planes

▪ Sagittal plane (median, wheel) — this vertical (top to bottom) plane divides the body
into left and right sides; a plane that divides the body down the middle into equal left
and right sides is the Median Sagittal Plane.
▪ Coronal (vertical, frontal, door) plane — a vertical plane that divides the body into
front (anterior or ventral) and back (posterior or dorsal)
 ▪ Transverse (horizontal, table) plane — this horizontal plane is parallel to the ground and
divides the body into up (toward the head) and down (toward the feet)
▪ Oblique plane is not shown; it is a slanted plane (at an angle) that lies between the horizontal
and vertical planes.

Body Cavities

Body cavities are areas in the body that contain our internal
organs. The dorsal and ventral cavities are the two main
cavities. The dorsal cavity is on the posterior (back side) of
the body and contains the cranial cavity and spinal cavity. In
human anatomy, dorsal, caudal and posterior mean the same
thing. The ventral cavity is on the front (anterior) of the body
and is divided into the thoracic cavity (chest) and
abdominopelvic cavity.

Dorsal Cavity
The dorsal cavity is further divided into subcavities:
▪ cranial cavity (also called the calvaria) which surrounds and holds the brain
▪ vertebral cavity (also called the spinal cavity) which includes the vertebrae (spinal column)
and spinal cord.

Ventral Cavity

The ventral cavity is on the front of the trunk. The diaphragm (the main muscle of breathing) divides the ventral
cavity into two simple subcavities: thoracic and abdominal.
▪ thoracic cavity which is surrounded by the ribs and chest muscles is superior (above) to the
diaphragm and abdominopelvic cavity. It is further divided into the pleural cavities (left and
right) which contain the lungs, bronchi, and the mediastinum which contains the heart,
pericardial membranes, large vessels of the heart, trachea (windpipe), upper esophagus,
thymus gland, lymph nodes, and other blood vessels and nerves.
▪ abdominopelvic cavity is divided into the abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity. The abdominal
cavity is between the diaphragm and the pelvis. It is lined with a membrane and contains the
stomach, lower part of the esophagus, small and large intestines (except sigmoid and
rectum), spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, adrenal glands, kidneys and ureters. The
pelvic cavity contains the bladder, some reproductive organs and the rectum.

The thoracic cavity is open at the top and the abdominal cavity is open at the bottom. Both
cavities are bound on the back by the spine. Even though their location is defined, the shape of
these cavities can change. How they change is very different. Breathing is the main way the shape
of these two cavities changes.
 The abdominal cavity changes shape similar to a
water-filled balloon. When you squeeze the balloon, the
shape changes as the balloon bulges. When breathing
compresses the abdominal cavity it “bulges” into a
different shape. The abdominal cavity can also change
shape based on volume—that is how much you eat and
drink. The more you eat and drink, the harder it is for the
diaphragm to compress the abdominal cavity—which is
why it is harder to breathe after a large meal. Also, an
increase in volume of the abdominal cavity decreases the
volume in the thoracic cavity—you can take in less air.

The thoracic cavity changes both shape and

volume when you breathe. When you breathe out, the
volume decreases; when you breathe in the volume
increases. Because of how these two cavities are linked
together in shape change, you can see that the quality of
breathing affects the health of abdominal organs and the health of our organs affects the quality of
our breathing.

Other Cavities
▪ oral cavity – the space in the mouth inside the teeth and gums and is filled with the tongue
when it is relaxed.
▪ nasal cavity – in the nose
▪ orbital cavities (left and right) – hold the eyes
▪ middle ear cavities (left and right) – hold the small bones of the middle ear
▪ synovial cavities – are inside the joint capsules that surround freely moving joints (such as
the hip, knee, elbow, and shoulder)

Body Quadrants

Quadrants are another way our bodies are divided into regions for both diagnostic and descriptive purposes.

Body Regions Body regions describe areas of the body that have a special function or are supplied
by specific blood vessels or nerves. The most widely used terms are those that describe the
9 abdominal regions shown in the image to the right. The regions are named below and the
corresponding regions are labeled 1-9.
Abdominal Regions
▪ right (1) and left (3) hypochondriac regions – on either side of the epigastric region. Contains
the diaphragm, some of the kidneys, right side of the liver, the spleen and part of the
pancreas.
▪ epigastric region (2) – superior (above) the umbilical region and contains most of the
pancreas, part of the stomach, liver, inferior vena cava, abdominal aorta and duodenum
▪ right (4) and left (6) lumbar (lateral) regions – on either side of the umbilical region. They
contain portions of the large and small intestines and kidneys.
▪ umbilical region (5) – area around the umbilicus (belly button). Includes sections of the large
and small intestines, inferior vena cava and abdominal aorta
▪ right (7) and left (9) iliac (inguinal) regions – are on either side of the hypogastric region and
include portions of the large and small intestines.
 ▪ hypogastric (pubic) (8) region – inferior (below) the umbilical region. Contains parts of the
sigmoid colon, the urinary bladder and ureters, the uterus and ovaries (women), and portions
of the small intestines.
Abdominal Quadrants
Quadrants are divide our bodies into regions for diagnostic
and descriptive purposes. The quadrants are defined by
drawing an imaginary line vertically (top to bottom) and
horizontally (sideways) though the umbilicus (belly button).
The following is a list of the organs in the four quadrants.

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) – right lobe of

liver, gallbladder, part of the transverse colon, part of
pylorus, hepatic flexure, right kidney, and duodenum.
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) – cecum, ascending colon, small
intestine, appendix, bladder if distended, right ureter, right
spermatic duct (men), right ovary and right tube and uterus
if enlarged (women).

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) – Left lobe of liver, stomach,

small intestine, transverse colon, splenic flexure,
pancreas, left kidney and spleen.
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) – small intestine, left ureter,
sigmoid flexure, descending colon, bladder if distended, left
spermatic duct (men) left ovary and left tube and uterus if enlarged (women).

Body Areas
Abdominal — relating to the abdomen. The
abdomen is the part of the trunk between
the chest and pelvis. It can be divided into
three regions: the front, the belly; in back
the loins; and on the sides, the flanks.
Antecubital — region of the arm in front of
the elbow
Brachial — over the brachial artery in the
upper arm
Buccal — of or relating to the cheeks or
the mouth
Calf — of or relating to the calf
Femoral — relating to the femur or thigh
Inguinal — the groin or area in lower
lateral regions of the abdomen
Lumbar — area over the lumbar spine
Popliteal — region on the back of the knee
Scapular — of or relating to the area near
the shoulder blade (scapula)
https://www.healthpages.org/anatomy-
function/anatomy-terms/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body
2. THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS:

The human body consists of eleven organ systems, each of which contains several specific organs.
An organ is a unique anatomic structure consisting of groups of tissues that work in concert to
perform specific functions. Table 1 includes the structures and functions of these eleven organ
systems.

Body systems
Our bodies consist of a number of biological systems that carry out specific functions
necessary for everyday living.

The job of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
hormones, around the body. It consists of the heart, blood, blood vessels, arteries and veins.

The digestive system consists of a series of connected organs that together, allow the body to
break down and absorb food, and remove waste. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The liver and pancreas also play a role in the
digestive system because they produce digestive juices.

The endocrine system consists of eight major glands that secrete hormones into the blood.
These hormones, in turn, travel to different tissues and regulate various bodily functions, such
as metabolism, growth and sexual function.

The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens that
may be harmful. It includes lymph nodes, the spleen, bone marrow, lymphocytes (including B-
cells and T-cells), the thymus and leukocytes, which are white blood cells.

The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymph ducts and lymph vessels, and also plays a
role in the body's defenses. Its main job is to make is to make and move lymph, a clear fluid
that contains white blood cells, which help the body fight infection. The lymphatic system also
removes excess lymph fluid from bodily tissues, and returns it to the blood.

The nervous system controls both voluntary action (like conscious movement) and involuntary
actions (like breathing), and sends signals to different parts of the body. The central nervous
system includes the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves
that connect every other part of the body to the central nervous system.

The body's muscular system consists of about 650 muscles that aid in movement, blood flow
and other bodily functions. There are three types of muscle: skeletal muscle which is
connected to bone and helps with voluntary movement, smooth muscle which is found inside
organs and helps to move substances through organs, and cardiac muscle which is found in
the heart and helps pump blood.

The reproductive system allows humans to reproduce. The male reproductive system includes
the penis and the testes, which produce sperm. The female reproductive system consists of
the vagina, the uterus and the ovaries, which produce eggs. During conception, a sperm cell
fuses with an egg cell, which creates a fertilized egg that implants and grows in the uterus.
 Our bodies are supported by the skeletal system, which consists of 206 bones that are
connected by tendons, ligaments and cartilage. The skeleton not only helps us move, but it's
also involved in the production of blood cells and the storage of calcium. The teeth are also
part of the skeletal system, but they aren't considered bones.

The respiratory system allows us to take in vital oxygen and expel carbon dioxide in a process
we call breathing. It consists mainly of the trachea, the diaphragm and the lungs.

The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called urea from the body, which is
produced when certain foods are broken down. The whole system includes two kidneys, two
ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra. Urine produced by the kidneys
travels down the ureters to the bladder, and exits the body through the urethra.

The skin, or integumentary system, is the body's largest organ. It protects us from the outside
world, and is our first defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens. Our skin also
helps regulate body temperature and eliminate waste through perspiration. In addition to skin,
the integumentary system includes hair and nails.
Vital organs
Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival. These are the brain, heart,
kidneys, liver and lungs.

The human brain is the body's control center, receiving and sending signals to other organs
through the nervous system and through secreted hormones. It is responsible for our thoughts,
feelings, memory storage and general perception of the world.

The human heart is a responsible for pumping blood throughout our body.

The job of the kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from the blood. The kidneys take
urea out of the blood and combine it with water and other substances to make urine.

The liver has many functions, including detoxifying of harmful chemicals, breakdown of drugs,
filtering of blood, secretion of bile and production of blood-clotting proteins.

The lungs are responsible for removing oxygen from the air we breathe and transferring it to
our blood where it can be sent to our cells. The lungs also remove carbon dioxide, which we
exhale.
Fun facts
• The human body contains nearly 100 trillion cells.
• There are at least 10 times as many bacteria in the human body as cells.
• The average adult takes over 20,000 breaths a day.
• Each day, the kidneys process about 200 quarts (50 gallons) of blood to filter out about 2
quarts of waste and water
• Adults excrete about a quarter and a half (1.42 liters) of urine each day.
• The human brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells
• Water makes up more than 50 percent of the average adult's body weight
You use your eyes to see, your ears to hear and your muscles to do the heavy lifting. Well, sort
of. In fact, most body parts are far more complicated than that, while some seem to have no
business being inside there at all.

https://toxtutor.nlm.nih.gov/08-003.html
https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps
https://www.livescience.com/37009-human-body.html
http://www.arvindguptatoys.com/arvindgupta/human-body-systems.pdf