Practical Research 2
(Quarter 2)
The Research Design
The research design drafts the strictures
and limitations of your research project: it
regulates exactly what will and will not be
involved. It also delineates the conditions
by which you will estimate and evaluate
your results and construct
your conclusions.
The reliability and validity of your data is
based on how you collect, measure,
analyze, and interpret your data.
This learning material includes two (2)
learning competencies that you need to
finish within two (2) week period.
Steps in making the Research Design
The research design is considered as a framework
in the formation your research project, hence, also
in answering your research specific problems.
Drafting the research design implies you are
making decisions about the:
 type of data you need;
 location and timescale of the research;
 participants and sources;
 variables and hypotheses (if relevant); and
 methods for collecting and analyzing data.
Step 1: Consider your Priorities
 For several research problems, there is no
one probable research
design, but a set of possibilities to choose
from. The choices you
make depend on your urgencies in the
research, and often involve some
compromises – one that is strong in one
area may be weaker in another.
Step 2: Identify the Type of your Research
Data
 You probably already have an idea of the
type of research you need to do based on
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your problem statement and research
questions. There are two main choices that
you need to start with.
Step 3: Decide How you will Collect the Data
 Once you know what kind of data you
need, you need to decide how, where and
when you will collect it.
Step 4: How to Analyze the Data
 To answer your research questions, you
will have to analyze the data you collected.
The final step in designing the research is
to consider your data analysis methods.
Quantitative Data Analysis
 Statistical methods can be used to analyze
averages, frequencies, patterns,
and correlations between variables. When
creating your research design, you should
clearly define your variables and
formulate hypotheses about the relations
between them. Then you can choose
appropriate statistical methods to test these
hypotheses.
Qualitative Data Analysis
 Analyzing words or images is often a more
flexible process that involves the
researcher’s subjective judgements. You
might focus on identifying and
categorizing key themes, interpreting
patterns and narratives, or understanding
social context and meaning.
What to consider in Framing Research
DESIGN?
1) Descriptive – Qualitative
The study seeks to determine only what
are the possible problems (research
variable) encountered by
community/hospital nurses during this
hard times brought by covid-19 pandemic.
Thus, the best design is descriptive-
qualitative approach.
2) Descriptive – Quantitative
In the study, it will determine whether the
independent variable/intervention may
give impact on the comprehension skills of
the students – which could be measured
using independent t-test based on the
results of simulated pre and post
 assessments on the students’
comprehension skills. Thus, the approach
is descriptive-quantitative.
3) Mixed Method
(Qualitative and Quantitative)
The study will describe the comprehension
level of the students – which will use
qualitative type of research. Hence, the
study will also determine whether the
independent variable/intervention may
give impact on the comprehension skills of
the students – which could be measured
using independent t-test based on the
results of simulated pre and post
assessments on the students’
comprehension skills.
Research Methods
 Surveys
 Interviews
 Experiments
 Secondary Data
4) Descriptive – Comparative
In the study, it will determine whether the
independent variable/intervention may
give impact on the comprehension skills of
the students – which could be measured
using independent t-test based on the
results of simulated pre and post
assessments on the students’
comprehension skills. variations on the pre
and post assessment scores of the students,
thus, the study will use descriptive-
comparative approach of research.
5) Descriptive – Correlational
The study will further investigate if the
problems encountered by the target
participants is significantly related to their
stress-coping mechanisms, thus, the study
will employ descriptive-correlational
approach.
6) Pre – experimental
The study will determine the
comprehension level of the students using
the intervention “30-minute daily reading
program”. However, it would only use one
group of respondents with post-assessment
only. Thus, the design to be used shall be
pre-experimental method.
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7) Quasi – Experimental
The study will determine the
comprehension level of the students using
the intervention “30-minute daily reading
program”. The study will be using One
Group Pretest-Posttest Design – using one
class with pre and post assessments, thus,
the design to be employed is quasi-
experimental method.
8) Experimental Approach
The study will use two groups – one as
experimental group (for the proposed
intervention) and another for control group
(for conventional intervention). The study
will then use experimental research.
Research Methodology
A Research methodology is composed of
the specific processes or approaches used
to determine, select, process, and assess
information about a concept or research
topic.
What is the difference between Research
Method and Research Design?
 Research methods are generalized and
established ways of approaching research
questions (e.g., qualitative vs. quantitative
methods). Not all methods can be applied
to all research questions, so the choice of
method is limited by the area of research
that you wish to explore.
 Research design involves determining how
your chosen method will be applied to
answer your research question. The design
of your study can be thought of as a
blueprint detailing what will be done and
how this will be accomplished.
Sampling Techniques
What is the difference between Research
Method and Research Design?
 Research methods are generalized and
established ways of approaching research
questions (e.g., qualitative vs. quantitative
methods). Not all methods can be applied
to all research questions, so the choice of
method is limited by the area of research
that you wish to explore.
 Research design involves determining how
your chosen method will be applied to
 answer your research question. The design
of your study can be thought of as a
blueprint detailing what will be done and
how this will be accomplished.
Population vs sample
Foremost, you should have a clear
understanding on the difference between a
population and a sample, and determine the target
population of your study.
 The population is the whole group that
you wanted to craft conclusions.
 The sample is the selected group of people
(from the general population) that you
shall collect data from.
a) Probability sampling method
Probability sampling means that every member of
the population has a chance of being selected. It is
mainly used in quantitative research. If you want
to produce results that are representative of the
whole population, you need to use a probability
sampling technique.
1. Simple Random Sampling
In a simple random sample, every member
of the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
2. Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple
random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier
to conduct.
3. Stratified Sampling
This sampling method is appropriate when
the population has mixed characteristics, and you
want to ensure that every characteristic is
proportionally represented in the sample.
4. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing
the population into subgroups, but each subgroup
should have similar characteristics to the whole
sample.
b) Non – Probability Sampling Method
In a non-probability sample, individuals are
selected based on non-random criteria, and not
every individual has a chance of being included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to
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access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias,
and you can’t use it to make valid statistical
inferences about the whole population.
1. Convenience Sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the
individuals who happen to be most accessible to
the researcher.
2. Voluntary Response Sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a
voluntary response sample is mainly based on
ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing
participants and directly contacting them, people
volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a
public online survey).
3) Purposive Sampling
This type of sampling involves the
researcher using their judgement to select a
sample that is most useful to the purposes of the
research.
4. Snowball Sampling
If the population is hard to access,
snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. The number of
people you have access to “snowballs” as you get
in contact with more people.
Instruments and Data Collection and
Analysis Procedures
 Part of the research methods in the
selection and/or construction of research
instruments, which shall be used primarily
to collect data that may answer your
research specific problems. Hence, the
construction may involve varied tests for
validity and reliability. Research
methodology also includes systematic
planning on both data collection
procedures and data analysis.
Research Instrument
Basically, a research instrument may be
considered as a tool, which is imperative to
acquire, obtain, measure, and analyze data
from subjects about the research theme.
You also need to choose the instrument to
use centered on the type of study you are
piloting and conducting: whether it’s
 quantitative or qualitative, or even mixed-
method.
Constructing Research Instrument
Step 1: Background
In this initial step, the purpose, objectives,
research questions, and hypothesis of the proposed
research are examined. Determining who is the
audience, their background, especially their
educational/readability levels, access, and the
process used to select the respondents (sample vs.
population) are also part of this step.
Step 2: Questionnaire Conceptualization
After developing a thorough understanding
of the research, the next step is to generate
statements/questions for the questionnaire. In this
step, content (from literature/theoretical
framework) is transformed into
statements/questions. In addition, a link among the
objectives of the study and their translation into
content is established.
Step 3: Format and Data Analysis
In Step 3, the focus is on writing
statements/questions, selection of appropriate
scales of measurement, questionnaire layout,
format, question ordering, font size, front and
back cover, and proposed data analysis. Scales are
devices used to quantify a subject's response on a
particular variable.
Step 4: Establishing Validity
As a result of Steps 1-3, a draft
questionnaire is ready for establishing validity.
Validity is the amount of systematic or built-in
error in measurement (Norland, 1990). Validity is
established using a panel of experts and a field
test.
Step 5: Establishing Reliability
In this final step, reliability of the
questionnaire using a pilot test is carried out.
Reliability refers to random error in measurement.
Reliability indicates the accuracy or precision of
the measuring instrument (Norland, 1990).
Reliability and Validity
What’s the difference? (Middleton, 2020)
 Reliability and validity are concepts used
to evaluate the quality of research. They
indicate how well a method, technique or
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test measures something. Reliability is
about the consistency of a measure, and
validity is about the accuracy of a measure.
 It’s important to consider reliability and
validity when you are creating
your research design, planning your
methods, and writing up your results,
especially in quantitative research.
Understanding Reliability and Validity
 Reliability and validity are closely related,
but they mean different things. A
measurement can be reliable without being
valid. However, if a measurement is valid,
it is usually also reliable.
What is reliability?
 Reliability refers to how consistently a
method measures something. If the same
result can be consistently achieved by
using the same methods under the same
circumstances, the measurement is
considered reliable.
What is Validity?
 Validity refers to how accurately a method
measures what it is intended to measure. If
research has high validity, that means it
produces results that correspond to real
properties, characteristics, and variations
in the physical or social world.
 High reliability is one indicator that a
measurement is valid. If a method is not
reliable, it probably isn’t valid.
Types of Reliability
 Test – retest
The consistency of a measure across time:
do you get the same results when you
repeat the measurement?
 Interrater
The consistency of a measure across raters
or observers.
 Internal Consistency
The consistency of the measurement itself:
do you get the same results from different
parts of a test that are designed to measure
the same thing?
Types of Validity
 Construct
 The adherence of a measure to existing
theory and knowledge of the concept being
measured.
 Content
The extent to which the
measurement covers all aspects of the
concept being measured.
 Criterion
The extent to which the result of a measure
corresponds to other valid measures of the
same concept.
Data Collection Procedures
o Data collection is a systematic process of
gathering observations or measurements.
Whether you are performing research for
business, governmental or academic
purposes, data collection allows you to
gain first-hand knowledge and original
insights into your research problem.
Step 1: Define the Aim of Your Research
Before you start the process of data collection, you
need to identify exactly what you want to achieve.
 Quantitative data is expressed in
numbers and graphs and is analyzed
through statistical methods.
 Qualitative data is expressed in words
and analyzed through interpretations and
categorizations.
Step 2: Choose Your Data Collection Method
Based on the data you want to collect, decide
which method is best suited for your research.
Data Collection Method
 Experiment
Manipulate variables and measure their
effects on others.
 Survey
Distribute a list of questions to a sample
online, in person or over-the-phone.
 Interviews/focus group
Verbally ask participants open-ended
questions in individual interviews or focus
group discussions.
 Observation
Measure or survey a sample without trying
to affect them.
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 Ethnography and participate in a
community and record your observations
and reflections.
 Archival Research
Access manuscripts, documents or records
from libraries, depositories or the internet.
 Secondary data collection
Find existing datasets that have already
been collected, from sources such as
government agencies or research
organizations.
Step 3: Plan Your Data Collection
ProceduresWhen you know which method(s) you
are using, you need to plan exactly how you will
implement them.
 Sampling
You may need to develop a sampling plan
to obtain data systematically. This involves
defining a population, the group you want
to draw conclusions about, and a sample,
the group you will actually collect data
from.
 Standardizing Procedures
If multiple researchers are involved, write
a detailed manual to standardize data
collection procedures in your study.
 Creating a Data Management Plan
Before beginning data collection, you
should also decide how you will organize
and store your data.
Step 4: Collect the Data
Finally, you can implement your chosen
methods to measure or observe the variables you
are interested in.
Hypothesis Testing
There are two type of hypothesis – the
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) and the Null
Hypothesis (Ho). Depending on which to
use, there are statistical procedures to be
done to test whether to accept or to reject
the statement of hypothesis.
Steps in hypothesis testing
Statistical tests are used in hypothesis testing.
They can be used to:
  determine whether a predictor variable
has a statistically significant
relationship with an outcome variable.
 estimate the difference between two or
more groups.

What does a statistical test do?

 Statistical tests work by calculating
a test statistic – a number that
describes how much the relationship
between variables in your test differs
from the null hypothesis of no
relationship.
 It then calculates a p-
value (probability value). The p-value
estimates how likely it is that you
would see the difference described by
the test statistic if the null hypothesis
of no relationship were true.
 If the value of the test statistic is
more extreme than the statistic
calculated from the null hypothesis,
then you can infer a statistically
significant relationship between the
predictor and outcome variables.

 Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure

for investigating our ideas about the world
using statistics. It is most often used by
scientists to test specific predictions, called
hypotheses, that arise from theories.
o Step 1: State your null and alternate
hypothesis
o Step 2: Collect data
o Step 3: Perform a statistical test
o Step 4: Decide whether the null hypothesis
is supported or refuted
o Step 5: Present your findings

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