Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
Region V
12
Schools Division of Sorsogon
BULUSAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL

Practical Research 2
Learning Activity Sheet 8
Name of Student: ______________________________________________ Date: __________________________

Research Design and Methodology

I. Introductory Concept
In order to understand research, the steps in the process of research serve as your map while the
two major types of research – quantitative and qualitative are the two different paths you can take. Now we
will explore some distinguishing features along the two paths. These features are the research designs
you can use to collect, analyze, and interpret data using quantitative and qualitative research. Some of the
research designs may be familiar; others may be new, such as how these paths can converge with two
designs called mixed methods research and action research.

The discussion of designs will provide a more advanced understanding of research on your journey.
In this learning activity sheet, you will learn about each design: its definition, its historical development,
its key characteristics, and the steps and procedures of conducting and evaluating a study. Research
design and methodology are presented and explained in Chapter 3 of the conventional format of a research
manuscript.

II. Learning Skills from MELCs

In this activity sheet you will chooses appropriate quantitative research design (CS_RS12-IIa-c-1).

III. Activities
A. Let Us Review
The first Learning Activity Sheet (LAS 1) introduced you to the fundamentals of quantitative
research. It also provided you inputs on the different types of quantitative research as well as their
strengths and weaknesses. Check the type/s of quantitative research to which each statement applies.
Write your answer on your answer sheet.

Types of Quantitative Research

Descriptions Survey Correlational Ex post facto Experimental
Research Research Research Research
1. uses objective measurement to gather
numeric data to answer questions
2. utilizes preset questionnaires to ask
people’s opinions or beliefs
3. finds out how members of a population
distribute themselves among the
variables studied
4. determines the strength of relationship
between or among variables
5. deals on cause-and-effect relationships
between identified variables
6. involves introducing a treatment to an
experimental group

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 B. Let Us Study
What is Research Design?
Research design is the entire strategic plan or blueprint of how to go about finding the answers to
research question/s. It refers to the overall strategy used to logically and coherently integrate the various
components of a study and provides the glue that holds the research project together.
Research Design provides detailed information about the following aspects of the study:
 Who will constitute the study population?
 How will the study population be identified?
 Will a sample or the whole population be selected?
 If a sample is selected, how will it be contacted?
 How will consent be sought?
 What method of data collection will be used and why?
 In the case of interviews, where will they be conducted?
 How will ethical issues be taken care of?
Research Design vs. Research Methodology

Research design is different from the research method by which data are collected. Many tend to
confuse research designs with research methods and treat it as a mode of data collection rather than as
a logical structure of the research inquiry. Failing to distinguish between design and method leads to poor
evaluation of designs.

Research Design Research Methodology

Focuses on the end-product: What kind of study is
being planned and what kind of results are aimed
at.
e.g., historical-comparative study, interpretive
approach or exploratory study, inductive and
deductive, etc.
Point of departure (driven by) = Research problem
or question
Focuses on the logic of research: What evidence is
required to address the question adequately?
Articulates what question or problem to study,
what data are relevant, what method to be used to
collect data and how to analyze the data
Focuses on the research process and the kind of
tools and procedures to be used.
e.g., document analysis, survey methods, analysis
of existing secondary data/statistics, etc
Point of departure (driven by) = Specific tasks
(data collection or sampling) at hand.
Focuses on the individual (not linear) steps in the
research process and the most ‘objective’
(unbiased) procedures to be employed.
Refers to the step-by-step on how the data will be
gathered and analyzed the general framework
guiding a research project

Research Design and Methods

Research Designs Aim Methods

 Descriptive research
 Case study
Descriptive Designs Observe and describe
 Naturalist observation
 Survey

 Case control study

Correlational Studies Predict
Semi-experimental Design
Determine cause and
effect relationship
Experimental Design
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 Observation study
 Longitudinal study
 Cross-sectional study
 Field experiment
 Quasi-experiment
 True experiment
 Double blind experiment
Types of Research Designs
1. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Descriptive research encompasses a variety of methodologies that are best suited to examining and
trying to make sense of a situation or event as it currently exists in the world. By and large, descriptive
research does not involve changing or modifying a situation under investigation, nor is it intended to
determine cause-and-effect relationships. This general category of research designs includes both

 designs aimed at characterizing the general nature of an observed phenomenon; and

 designs aimed at revealing possible associations among two or more phenomena.
A. Observation Study

An observation study in quantitative research might be conducted with plants rather than animals,
or it might involve nonliving objects (e.g., rock formations, soil samples) or dynamic physical phenomena
(e.g., weather patterns, black holes). It tends to have a limited, prespecified focus.

When human beings are the topic of study, the focus is usually on a certain aspect of behavior.
Furthermore, the behavior is quantified in some way. In some situations, each occurrence of the behavior is
counted to determine its overall frequency. In other situations, the behavior is rated for accuracy,
intensity, maturity, or some other dimension. But regardless of approach, a researcher strives to be as
objective as possible in assessing the behavior being studied. To maintain such objectivity, the
researcher is likely to use strategies such as the following:

 Define the behavior being studied in such a precise, concrete manner that the behavior is easily
recognized when it occurs.
 Divide the observation period into small segments and then record whether the behavior does
or does not occur during each segment.
 Use a rating scale (e.g., Likert Scale) to evaluate the behavior in terms of specific dimensions.
 Have two or three people rate the same behavior independently, without knowledge of one
another’s ratings.

B. Correlational Study
A correlational study examines the extent to which differences in one variable are associated with
differences in one or more other variables. A correlation exists if, when one variable increases, another
variable either increases or decreases in a somewhat predictable fashion. Knowing the value of one
variable, then, enables us to predict the value of the other variable with some degree of accuracy.

In correlational studies, researchers gather quantitative data about two or more characteristics for
a particular group of people or other appropriate units of study. Whatever the nature of the data, at least
two different variables are assessed in order to determine whether and in what way these variables are
interrelated.

When two variables are correlated, researchers sometimes conclude that one of the variables must
in some way cause or influence the other. But ultimately, we can never infer a cause-and-effect
relationship on the basis of correlation alone. Simply put, correlation does not, in and of itself, indicate
causation.

Ideally, a good researcher isn’t content to stop at a correlational relationship because beneath the
correlation may lie some potentially interesting dynamics. One way to explore these dynamics is through
structural equation modeling (SEM) which is a statistical procedure.
C. Developmental Designs

Oftentimes, when researchers want to study how a particular characteristic change as people grow
older, they use one of two developmental designs: either a cross-sectional study or a longitudinal study.

In a cross-sectional study, people from several different age groups are sampled and compared.
For instance, a developmental psychologist might study the nature of friendships for children at ages 4, 8,
12, and 16. A gerontologist might investigate how retired people in their 70s, 80s, and 90s tend to spend
their leisure time.
In a longitudinal study, a single group of people is followed over the course of several months or
years, and data related to the characteristic(s) under investigation are collected at various times. For
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example, a psycholinguist might examine how children’s spoken language changes between 6 months and
5 years of age. Or an educational researcher might get measures of both academic achievement and social
adjustment for a group of fifth-graders and then, 10 years later, find out what their high school grades
were and whether they had actually graduated and earned a diploma.

D. Experience-Sampling Methods
An experience-sampling method (ESM) is an approach in which a researcher collects frequent
and ongoing data about people as they live their normal, everyday lives. Many ESM studies require some
kind of technological device that people wear or carry with them. For example, a study might involve
having participants (a) wear small electronic devices that measure their movements, heart rate, or blood
pressure; (b) carry smartphones that regularly ask brief survey questions; or (c) carry cameras with which
they take pictures of their immediate surroundings or current activities.
E. Survey Research

In survey research, a researcher obtains information about one or more groups of people—
perhaps about their behaviors, opinions, attitudes, or previous experiences—by asking them questions
and either directly tabulating or systematically coding their answers. Often, it involves collecting data
about a sample of individuals that is presumed to represent a much larger population.

In survey research design, the researcher:

a. poses a series of questions to willing participants;

b. systematically classifies and codes any complex responses to open-ended questions;
c. summarizes both the coded responses and participants’ cut-and-dried, it’s-clearly-this-or-
that responses with percentages, frequency counts, or more sophisticated statistical
indexes; and then
d. draws inferences about a particular population from the sample participants’ responses.

Survey research typically employs a face-to-face interview, a telephone interview, or a written

questionnaire. A fourth approach involves using the Internet that addresses strictly online methods of data
collection.
2. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

In the descriptive designs described earlier, there was no systematic attempt to determine the
underlying causes of the phenomena being studied. In order to convincingly pin down cause-and-effect
relationships, experimental design is used. In such a design, many possible factors that might cause or
influence a particular behavior, characteristic, or other phenomenon are considered. Such factor that
influences behavior or phenomenon is called an independent variable while the behavior is considered the
dependent variable. All influential factors except those whose possible effects are the focus of investigation
are controlled.

In experimental research, two groups are considered. We take steps to make sure that, on average,
the two groups are so similar that, for all intents and purposes, we can call them equivalent. One group is
called the control group while the other is the experimental group. Only one of the groups is exposed to a
treatment or intervention.

Diagramming Experimental Designs

 A diagram is one way to represent the experimental design when you are either conceptualizing or
designing one.
 Experimental designs can be represented using four (4) symbols – O, X, R and a dashed line.
 The symbol “X” represents the independent variable (experimental manipulation) which is presumed
“cause” for the behavior.
 In simple experiment, one group is exposed to the experimental treatment and a control group is not
exposed to the experimental treatment.
 Absence of “X” indicates no treatment.
 The symbol “O” represents the dependent variable which is the observed variable and is measured
at more than one point in the study.
 The symbols are arranged to represent order of events in the study.
 This means that the first symbol stands for the first thing that happened in the experiment –
was it experimental intervention “X” or was it “O” to assess the participant’s behavior?

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  Either “X” or “O” can come first.
 An initial “O” is called a pretest and provides baseline information to the researcher.
 An “O” that follows experimental treatment is a posttest.
 When there is more than one experimental group, one more design feature is added to the diagram.
 How were the participants assigned to the different groups?
 If they were assigned randomly, the symbol “R” is written at the beginning of each row of “Os”
and “Xs”.
 Randomization creates equivalent groups such that extraneous variables like socioeconomic
status and personality characteristics are randomly distributed.
 If random assignment is not used, the groups are said to be nonequivalent and is represented
by a dashed line between the rows of “Os” and “Xs”.

A. Pre-Experimental Designs

In pre-experimental designs, it isn’t possible to show cause-and-effect relationships because

either (a) the independent “variable” doesn’t vary or (b) experimental and control groups are not comprised
of equivalent or randomly selected individuals. Such designs are helpful only for forming tentative
hypotheses that should be followed up with more controlled studies.

Design 1: One-Shot Experimental Case Study

In this design, a single group of participants/respondents is studied only once after an
experimental manipulation of some kind. This design is shown in the following diagram:
X O (X represents independent variable; O represents the dependent variable under study)

Design 2: One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design

In a one-group pretest–posttest design, a single group (a) undergoes a pre-experimental
assessment, then (b) is administered the experimental treatment, and finally (c) is assessed again after the
treatment. It provides a comparative description of a group of subjects before and after the experimental
treatment. The procedure is summarized as:
O X O (O-pretest, X- treatment, O-posttest)

Design 3: Static Group Comparison or Nonequivalent Control Group Design

The static group comparison involves both an experimental group and a control group. An
experimental group is exposed to a particular treatment; the control group is not. After the treatment, both
groups are assessed and their respective performances compared.
In this design, however, no attempt is made to obtain equivalent groups or even to examine the
groups to determine whether they are similar before the treatment. Thus, we have no way of knowing if the
treatment actually causes any observed differences between the groups. Its design takes the following
form:
Experimental Group X O
Control Group O

B. True Experimental Designs

Experimental designs offer a considerable degree of control and, as a result, greater internal
validity. People or other units of study are randomly assigned to groups. Such random assignment
guarantees that any differences between the groups are probably quite small and, in any case, are due
entirely to chance.
Design 4: Control-Group Pretest–Posttest Design

In a control-group pretest–posttest design, people or other units of study (e.g., members of a

particular plant or animal species) are randomly assigned to either an experimental group or a control
group. The experimental group is observed (assessed), subjected to the experimental treatment, and
observed again. The control group is isolated from any influences of the experimental treatment; it is
simply observed both at the beginning and at the end of the experiment.

The basic format for the control-group pretest–posttest design is as follows:

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 Assignment
Experimental Group O X O

Random
Control Group O O

Design 5: Solomon Four-Group Design

Solomon (1949) proposed an extension of the control-group pretest–posttest design that involves
four groups in order to address the question “What effect does pretesting have?”. Its principal value is in
eliminating pretest influence; when such elimination is desirable, the design is ideal.

The addition of two groups who are not pretested has a particular advantage. If the researcher
finds that in the final assessment, Groups 3 and 4 differ in much the same way that Groups 1 and 2 do,
then the researcher can more easily generalize his or her findings to situations in which no pretest has
been given. In other words, the Solomon four-group design enhances the external validity (i.e.,
generalizability) of the study.

Experimental Group 1 O X O
Assignment
Random

Control Group 1 O O
Experimental Group 2 X O
Control Group 2 O

Design 6: Control-Group Posttest-Only Design

Some life situations defy pretesting. Additionally, sometimes you may be unable to locate a suitable
pretest, or, as just noted, the very act of pretesting can influence the results of the experimental
manipulation. In such circumstances, the control-group posttest-only design offers a possible solution.
The design may be thought of as the last two groups of the Solomon four-group design. The paradigm for
the posttest-only approach is as follows:
Assignment

Experimental Group X O
Random

Control Group O

Design 7: Within-Subjects Design or Repeated-Measures Design

In a strictly within-subjects design, all subjects or participants are exposed to all experimental
treatments and any control conditions. In a good within-subjects design, the various treatments are
administered very close together in time, in some cases simultaneously. If we use the subscripts a and b
to designate the different treatments and treatment-specific measures, then in its simplest form, a within-
subjects design is as follows:

Xa Oa
Experimental Group
Xb Ob

C. Quasi-Experimental Designs

The quasi-experimental research design aims to establish a causal relationship between two
variables. This effect is presumed to have occurred during the study itself. In this type of study, there is
no randomization. When quasi-experimental studies is conducted, researchers don’t control for all
confounding variables, and so they can’t completely rule out some alternative explanations for the results
they obtain.
Design 8: Nonrandomized Control-Group Pretest–Posttest Design
The nonrandomized control-group pretest–posttest design can perhaps best be described as a
compromise between the static group comparison (Design 3) and the control-group pretest–posttest design
(Design 4). Like Design 3, it involves two groups to which participants haven’t been randomly assigned.
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But it incorporates the pretreatment assessments of Design 4. In sum, the nonrandomized control-group
pretest–posttest design can be depicted as follows:

Experimental Group O X O
Control Group O O
Identifying matched pairs in the two groups is one way of strengthening the non-randomized
control-group pretest–posttest design.
Design 9: Simple Time-Series Design
A time-series design consists of making a series of observations (i.e., assessing the dependent
variable on several occasions), introducing an intervention or other new dynamic into the system, and
then making additional observations. If a substantial change is observed in the second series of
observations in comparison to the first series, we might reasonably conclude that the cause of the change
was the factor introduced into the system. The design thus looks something like the following:

Experimental Group O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

where O1, O2, O3 stand for pretest (multiple observations)

O4, O5, O6 stand for posttest (multiple observations)
Design 10: Control-Group Time-Series Design

In a variation of the time-series design, two groups are observed over a period of time, but one
group (a control) doesn’t receive the experimental treatment. The general design takes the following form:

Experimental Group O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
Control Group O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8

Design 11: Reversal Time-Series Design

The reversal time-series design uses a within-subjects approach as a way of minimizing—although

not entirely eliminating—the probability that outside effects might bring about any changes observed. The
intervening experimental treatment is sometimes present and sometimes absent, and the dependent
variable is assessed at regular intervals. Thus, we have the following design:

Experimental Group X O1 - O2 X - O3

Design 12: Alternating-Treatments Design

A variation of the reversal time-series design involves including two or more different forms of
experimental treatment in the design. Referring to the two different forms of treatment with the notations
Xa and Xb, we can depict this design in the following manner:

Experimental Group Xa O1 - O2 Xb O3 - O3 Xa O4 - O5 Xb O6

Design 13: Multiple-Baseline Design

Designs 11 and 12 are based on the assumption that the effects of any single treatment are
temporary and limited to the immediate circumstances. Thus, these designs won’t work if a treatment is
likely to have long-lasting and perhaps fairly general effects. Furthermore, if an experimental treatment is
apt to be quite beneficial for all participants, then ethical considerations may discourage us from including
an untreated control group.
In such instances, a multiple-baseline design provides a good alternative. This design requires at
least two groups. Prior to the treatment, baseline data are collected for all groups, and then the treatment
itself is introduced at a different time for each group. In its simplest form, a multiple-baseline design might
be configured as follows:

Baseline Treatment
Experimental Group 1
- O1 X O2 X O3
Baseline Treatment
Experimental Group 2
- O1 - O2 X O3

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 3. EX POST FACTO DESIGNS
Ex post facto designs (the term ex post facto literally means “after the fact”) provide an alternative
means by which a researcher can investigate the extent to which specific independent variables may
possibly affect the dependent variable(s) of interest. In an ex post facto study, a researcher identifies
events that have already occurred or conditions that are already present and then collects data to
investigate a possible relationship between these factors and subsequent characteristics or behaviors.
Design 14: Simple Ex Post Facto Design

Design 14 is similar to the static group comparison (Design 3) described in the previous section on
pre-experimental designs. The critical difference is one of timing: In this case, the “treatment” in question
occurred long before the study began; hence, we call it an experience rather than a treatment because the
researcher hasn’t been responsible for imposing it. A simple ex post facto design can be depicted as
follows, where Exp refers to a prior experience that one group has had and another has not:

Prior event (s) Investigation period

Experimental Group Exp O
Control Group O

Such designs are common in studying the possible effects of previously occurring environmental
variables such as television viewing habits, child abuse, and malnutrition. They are also used in studying
the potential influences of pre-existing characteristics—perhaps those that are inherited or congenital—
such as gender, mental illness, and physical disability.

4. FACTORIAL DESIGNS
The designs discussed previously dealt with only one independent variable. If a researcher
examines the effects of two or more independent variables in a single study; this approach is a factorial
design.

Design 15: Two-Factor Experimental Design

In its simplest form—one involving two independent variables, which we will call Variable 1 and
Variable 2—such a design might look like the following:

Treatments related to the two variables

may occur simultaneously
or sequentially
Treatment related Treatment related
to Variable 1 to Variable 2
Experimental Group 1 X1 X2 O
Assignment
Random

Experimental Group 2 X1 - O
Experimental Group 3 - X2 O
Control Group - - O

We can determine the effects of the first independent variable by comparing the performances of
Groups 1 and 2 with those of Groups 3 and 4. We can determine the effects of the second independent
variable by comparing Groups 1 and 3 with Groups 2 and 4. Such a design allows us to examine not only
the possible effects of two independent variables but also the possible interaction of the variables as they
influence the dependent variable.

Sample Output

Improving the Conceptual Understanding and Problem-Solving Skills Suggestions in

of Grade 11-SMAW Students in Physical Science through the Writing Research
Implementation of PO2E2W Learning Model Design
(An Action Research presented by Jay N. Beltran and
Bernadette B. Pura, 2020)
A pre-experimental research design involving one-group, pretest-
posttest design was employed to determine quantitatively the effects of the  Mention the type
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 PO2E2W learning model aided with interactive simulations in enhancing the of research
students’ conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills in Newton’s Laws design
of Motion. This design is appropriate for this study as it enabled the researchers employed in the
to measure the effects of an intervention to the identified dependent variable study.
which are the conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills involving one
group of respondents. The variables were measured before and after the use of  Define the
the intervention through pretest and posttest. research design
which you have
chosen taken
from literature
PO2E2W and provide a
Grade 11 Pretest Learning brief
SMAW A Posttest
Model explanation of
your choice.

Suggestions in
Acceptability of the Innovated Hand Tool Shadow Board Writing Research
Design
(A thesis presented by Gerald D. Plazo, MAT-Technology Education major in
Electrical Technology, 2020)
This study determined the acceptability of the Innovated Hand Tool  Explain the
Shadow Board. This study employed a developmental-descriptive research research design
method. In this context, it is descriptive because this study aimed to determine which you have
the acceptability of the innovated product through these variables: functionality, chosen
usability, mobility and safety using a survey questionnaire. This paper utilized the particularly on
developmental research method because it involved procedures and steps such as its
planning, design, construction, testing and revisions to develop an innovated appropriateness
hand tool shadow board. Moreover, it also includes the problems met during the and how it
construction of the innovated product. Purposive sampling method was used for applies to your
more credible responses. Likewise, survey questionnaire was administered to a study.
total of 59 respondents. Furthermore, the statistical tools used are frequency
count, percentage, ranking and weighted mean.

C. Let Us Practice
Your Turn! Write down the Research Design section of your research paper using the example
given as your guide.

(Write your working research title here)

By: (Your Name, Grade Level - Section )

Research Design
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

D. References
Creswell, J. 2012. Educational Research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and
qualitative research. USA: Pearson.

Leedy, P., and Ormrod, JE. 2021. Practical Research: planning and design. United Kingdom: Pearson
Education Limited.
Sevilla, C.G., et al. 1992. Research Methods. Manila: Rex Bookstore.