Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine xxx (2016) 1e4

H O S T E D BY Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jtcme

Review article

A glimpse of Ayurveda e The forgotten history and principles of Indian

traditional medicine
Yogini S. Jaiswal, Leonard L. Williams*
Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, North Carolina Research Campus, Kannapolis,
NC 28081, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ayurveda is considered as one of the oldest of the traditional systems of medicine (TSMs) accepted
Received 11 December 2015 worldwide. The ancient wisdom in this traditional system of medicine is still not exhaustively explored.
Received in revised form The junction of the rich knowledge from different traditional systems of medicine can lead to new av-
19 January 2016
enues in herbal drug discovery process. The lack of the understanding of the differences and similarities
Accepted 1 February 2016
Available online xxx
between the theoretical doctrines of these systems is the major hurdle towards their convergence apart
from the other impediments in the discovery of plant based medicines. This review aims to bring into
limelight the age old history and the basic principles of Ayurveda. This would help the budding scholars,
Keywords:
Ayurveda
researchers and practitioners gain deeper perspicuity of traditional systems of medicine, facilitate
Naturopathy strengthening of the commonalities and overcome the challenges towards their global acceptance and
Unani harmonization of such medicinal systems.
Siddha Copyright © 2016, Center for Food and Biomolecules, National Taiwan University. Production and hosting
Homeopathy by Elsevier Taiwan LLC. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction Knowledge of systems from different ethnic origins would bring

Ayurveda is one of the most renowned traditional systems of
medicine that has survived and flourished from ages till date. With
the enormous knowledge of nature based medicine, the relation-
ship of human body constitution and function to nature and the
elements of the universe that act in coordination and affect the
living beings, this system will continue to flourish in ages still to
come. There are many avenues still to be explored by the re-
searchers, practitioners and experts in the field who carry the re-
sponsibility of keeping the traditional systems of medicine (TSMs)
alive and contributing to their growth in the future. However, due
to many barriers such as lack of literature sources in different
languages and insufficiency of awareness about the basic principles
and histories of the systems from different ethnic origins, there is a
lacuna of exchange of information from systems around the globe.
about interchange of knowledge and increase the understanding of
different systems, and this can ultimately contribute to integration
and advancement of herbal drug research when accompanied by
collaborative work of researchers from different countries. These
futuristic goals can be accomplished when one gains insights about
the systems, the principles and histories and works upon the
strengthening aspects common between the various TSMs. In this
review, we have made an attempt to put forth the basic principles
of doctrine and history of Ayurveda to contribute to the above said
perspectives.
To date, there have been several reviews detailing Ayurveda.
However, very few reviews detail the modalities of the basic
principles and history of Ayurveda.1 Through this review the au-
thors wish to provide the readers an understanding of the age old
history and the basic principles of Ayurveda.

* Corresponding author. Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, 2. History of Ayurveda

North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, North Carolina Research
Campus, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 28081, USA. Tel.: þ1 704 250
Ayurveda has an age old history since the 2nd Century BC. Ay-
5700x5703; fax: þ1 704 250 5709.
E-mail address: llw@ncat.edu (L.L. Williams).
urveda has its foundations laid by the ancient schools of Hindu
Peer review under responsibility of The Center for Food and Biomolecules, Philosophical teachings named Vaisheshika and the school of logic
National Taiwan University. named as Nyaya. It is also related to the manifestation framework,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.02.002
2225-4110/Copyright © 2016, Center for Food and Biomolecules, National Taiwan University. Production and hosting by Elsevier Taiwan LLC. This is an open access article
under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article in press as: Jaiswal YS, Williams LL, A glimpse of Ayurveda e The forgotten history and principles of Indian traditional
medicine, Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.02.002
2 Y.S. Jaiswal, L.L. Williams / Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine xxx (2016) 1e4
well-known as Samkhya, and it was established in the same period
when schools of Nyaya and Vaisheshika flourished.
The Vaisheshika School preached about inferences and percep-
tions that should be obtained about a patient's pathological con-
dition for treatment. Whereas, Nyaya school propagated its
teachings on the basis that one should have an extensive knowl-
edge of the patient's condition, and the disease condition before
proceeding for treatment. The school of Vaisheshika, classifies the
attributes of any object into six types: substance, particularity, ac-
tivity, generality, inherence and quality called as Dravya, Vishesha,
Karma, Samanya, Samavaya and Guna respectively, in Sanskrit
language.2,3 Later, Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools worked together
and jointly founded the nya
yaevaiseṣika school. The
nya
yaevaiseṣika school, in the later years brought glory to the
ancient knowledge and helped in disseminating the knowledge
about Ayurveda. Even before these schools were established and
also today, the origin of Ayurveda is considered to be divine, from
the Hindu God, Brahma who is called as the creator of the uni-
verse.4,5 It is believed that the creator of the universe passed on this
holistic knowledge of healing onto the sages for the well-being of
mankind. From the sages the knowledge of traditional medicines
was passed on to the disciples and then to the common man by
various writings and oral narrations. The information about the
healing properties of the herbs was composed in the form of
poems, called “Shlokas”. These were used by sages to describe the
use of medicinal plants. The Hindu system of healing is believed to
be based on four eminent compilations of knowledge (Vedas) called
as Yajur Veda, Rig Veda, Sam Veda, and Atharva Veda. The Rig Veda is
the most well-known of all the four Vedas and describes 67 plants
and 1028 Shlokas. The Atharva Veda and Yajur Veda describe 293
and 81 medicinally useful plants. The practice of Ayurveda is based
upon the knowledge gained from these Vedas. The writings in Rig
Veda and Atharva Veda are attributed to “Atreya” who is believed to
have been conferred with this knowledge from Lord Indra, who
initially received it from Lord Brahma.6,7 Agnivesha compiled the
knowledge from the Vedas, and it was edited by Charaka and some
other scholars and is presently called as “Charaka Samhita”. Charaka
Samhita describes all aspects of Ayurvedic medicine and Sushruta
Samhita describes the Science of Surgery.8e11 Both these legendary
compilations are still used by practitioners of traditional medicine.
These ancient texts are available in various translations and lan-
guages like Tibetan, Greek, Chinese, Arabic and Persian.12 There are
several other allied minor compilations like Nighantu Granthas,
Madhava Nidana and Bhava Prakasha from the contributions of
various scholars, however Charaka Samhita is the most respected of
all the records.13,14
3. Basic doctrine principles of Ayurveda
Ayurveda believes that the entire universe is composed of five
elements: Vayu (Air), Jala (Water), Aakash (Space or ether), Prithvi
(Earth) and Teja (Fire). These five elements (referred to as Pancha
Mahabhoota in Ayurveda) are believed to form the three basic hu-
mors of human body in varying combinations. The three humors;
Vata dosha, Pitta dosha and Kapha dosha are collectively called as
“Tridoshas” and they control the basic physiological functions of the
body along with five sub-doshas for each of the principal doshas.
Ayurveda believes that the human body consists of Saptadhatus
(seven tissues) Rasa (tissue fluids), Meda (fat and connective tissue),
Rakta (blood), Asthi (bones), Majja (marrow), Mamsa (muscle), and
Shukra (semen) and three Malas (waste products) of the body, viz.
Purisha (faeces), Mutra (urine) and Sweda (sweat). Vata dosha
maintains the cellular transport, electrolyte balance, elimination of
waste products and its effect is increased by dryness. Pitta dosha
regulates the body temperature, optic nerve coordination and
Please cite this article in press as: Jaiswal YS, Williams LL, A glimpse of Ayurveda e The forgotten history and principles of Indian traditional
medicine, Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.02.002
hunger and thirst management. Heat conditions of the body
aggravate Pitta. Kapha dosha is increased due to sweet and fatty
food and it provides lubrication to the joints for proper functioning.
The catabolism of the body is believed to be governed by Vata,
metabolism by Pitta and anabolism by Kapha.15 For a healthy state
of health, a balance between the three doshas and other factors
should be maintained. Any imbalance between the three causes a
state of illness or disease.16 In Ayurveda it is believed, that a perfect
balance between the nature elements and the Tridoshas of the
human body should be maintained for a healthy state of living by
following the principles of divine wisdom.17 The body is believed to
be composed of seven types of tissues called as “Sapta Dhatus”.
These seven tissues work in coordination with each for proper
physiological functioning of the human body. The Rakta Dhatu re-
sembles the blood and regulates the circulation of blood cells and
provision of blood components to the body. The Mamsa Dhatu
(Muscle tissue) provides supports in the form of skeletal muscles
for the Meda Dhatu (adipose fat). The Asthi Dhatu comprises the
bones of the body and the Majja Dhatu is made up of the bone
marrow and fluids required for the oleation of the bones and their
functioning. The Shukra Dhatu is responsible for functions of the
reproductive organs of the body.
Apart from the Doshas and the Dhatus, the other important
factors considered in the doctrine of Ayurveda are the Tri Malas and
Trayo Dosa Agni. Tri Malas are the three types of waste products
formed in the body due to metabolic and digestive functions of the
body. They comprise of the Mutra (urine), Purisa (faeces), and Sveda
(sweat). Ayurveda explains that if the balance between Tridosha is
not maintained the waste products of the body are not effectively
eliminated and these lead to further complications like diarrhea,
constipation, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis and such other com-
plications. If the Mutra Mala (urine) is not removed from the body, it
can lead to urinary tract infections, cystitis and gastric pain. If the
Sveda Mala is not cleared from the body, it can lead to skin irritation
problems, and improper fluid balance. As per the principles of
Ayurveda the biological fire of the body for all the metabolic
function is called as “Agni”. There are thirteen categories of Agni in a
human body and the most important is the one responsible for
digestive fire, called as Jatharagni. Jatharagni has a close relation
with Pitta and ultimately Vatta of the body. If the digestive fire of
the body is increased in the body by increase in acidity conditions,
the elevation in Pitta levels and its relative symptoms are observed.
Digestive fire is important in controlling the normal microflora,
proper digestive functions and provision of energy to the entire
body. Any disturbances in its balance, creates discomfort to the
gastro-intestinal tract and results in pathological complications like
ulcers, diarrhea and constipation.18
Considering the bodily constitution, pathological history, the
Dosha characteristics, life style and environmental conditions in an
individual's routine life style, Ayurveda has many treatment stra-
tegies for promoting well-being to individuals.19,20
Ayurveda employs the “Pancha karma” method in its therapies.
Pancha karma therapy applies various processes for the rejuvena-
tion of the body, cleansing and enhancing longevity. The Pancha
karma is composed of five karmas (actions) that are used for
removal of toxins from the body tissues. They are the Virechan
(purgation though use powders, pastes or decoction), Vaman
(forced therapeutic emesis by use of some medicines), Basti (use of
enemas prepared from medicated oils), Rakta moksha (detoxifica-
tion of blood) and Nasya (administration of medicines like de-
coctions, oils and fumes through nasal route).
Primarily, Pancha karma consists of 3 steps viz. Poorva karma
(preparatory process of the body for the therapy), Pradhan karma
(the main process of therapy) and the Paschat karma (consisting of
regimens to be followed to restore digestive and other absorptive
 Y.S. Jaiswal, L.L. Williams / Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine xxx (2016) 1e4
procedures of the body, back to the normal state). Clarified butter
and medicated oils are used in the oleation process. Swedan
(sweating) is brought about by exposure to steam for particular
areas of treatment of the body. Forced emesis or vamana is brought
about by administration of decoction of liquorice, honey with a few
hours of prior administration of curd and rice. These substances are
believed to cause elevation in the emesis effect. The Virechana, or
laxative therapy is carried out by administration of herbs and liq-
uids like senna, cow milk, psyllium seed, and castor oil. The enemas
used in Pancha karma can be prepared from medicated oils or
decoction of herbs like sesame or anise.
€
In practice, Ayurveda has eight disciplines called as “Ashtanga
Ayurveda”. They are Kayachikitsa (internal medicine treatment),
Bhootavidya (treatment of psychological disorders), Kaumar Bhritya
(pediatric treatment), Rasayana (study of geriatrics), Vajikarana
(treatment through aphrodisiacs and eugenics), Shalya (surgical
treatment), Shalakya (otorhinolaryngological and ophthalmological
treatment), Agada Tantra (toxicological studies).
With a rich knowledge of plants, minerals and animal based
products, and the above based principles of doctrine, Ayurveda has
achieved its widespread acceptance globally.21,22
4. Allied systems of medicine in Ayurveda e a brief overview
India has a rich history of traditional system of medicine based
upon six systems, out of which Ayurveda stands to be the most
ancient, most widely accepted, practiced and flourished indigenous
system of medicine. The other allied systems of medicine in India
are Unani, Siddha, Homeopathy, Yoga and Naturopathy.23 Ayurveda
is the most dominant system amongst the other Indian systems of
medicine and finds its prevalence globally since centuries. In this
paper, we have restricted the detailed discussion of various aspects
of Indian systems of Medicine (ISM) to Ayurveda alone, and only a
comprehensive overview of the other systems is provided in the
text. After Ayurveda, the Siddha, Homeopathy and Unani system of
medicine are widely used. Naturopathy is still developing and in
future it may emerge as a flourished system of medicine. Yoga, is a
system of allied medicine that deals with physical, mental and
spiritual state of an individual.
The Siddha system of medicine is based upon the principle
similar to Ayurveda considering that the human body is constituted
from the five elements of the Universe like the pancha mahab-
hootas. Along with these elements Siddha system considers that
the physical, moral and physiological well-being of an individual is
governed by 96 factors. These 96 factors include perception, speech,
diagnosis of pulse etc. Perception is commonly used determinant
for treatment of psychosomatic system with the help of minerals,
metals and to a lesser extent some plant products. Siddha system
uses many preparations of plant and mineral origin in powder
form, prepared through various procedures including
calcinations.23
Unani system of medicine originated in Greece and was intro-
duced by Hippocrates; a famous philosopher and physician during
the 460e366 BC period. Hippocrates laid down the “humoral the-
ory” for treatment of diseases and describes the wet and dry
characteristic of each humor that constitutes the human body. This
system of medicine was introduced in India by the Arabs and it
grew stronger when some scholars and physicians of Unani system
fled to India after invasion of Persia by the Mongols. Since then, this
system of medicine has made a firm footing in India and is recog-
nized by the Indian government for clinical practice and research
funding. The plants based formulations like oils, tinctures, powders
and ointments are used in treatment.23
Homeopathy was brought into practice by Dr. Samuel Hahne-
mann, who was a German physician in the mid-17th and 18th
Please cite this article in press as: Jaiswal YS, Williams LL, A glimpse of Ayurveda e The forgotten history and principles of Indian traditional
medicine, Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.02.002
3
century.9 Homeopathy is based upon the laws of “immunological
memory” and “memory of water” and the similarities in the phar-
macological aspects of the drug and the disease. It utilizes medi-
cines which produce symptoms similar to that of the disease for
treatment of the pathological condition initially by producing or
aggravating the pathological conditions and then treating it. For
more than a century this system is been practiced in India and has
formed an integral part of the Indian traditional system of medi-
cine. It is recognized by the government of India and there are
various institutions, research centers and regulatory bodies that
help propagation of this system.24 In homeopathy the mother
tinctures or aqueous extracts of the drugs (plants, animal origin
substances, venoms and minerals) are diluted and succussed
(specific method of mixing or shaking) as per Pharmacopeial
methods to prepare the formulations of very low potencies.
Yoga originated in India in ancient times. Through its therapies
and diagnosis based on pulse and analysis of Tridosha state of an
individual, it suggests meditative exercises and life style manage-
ment to obtain tranquility and improve health.25e27 The Asanas
(postures) of Yoga are applied in various clinical and nonclinical
conditions for curing various physical and emotional conditions.
Naturopathy, also termed as naturopathic medicine originated
in Germany in the 19th century and today it is practiced in several
countries. It is not an ancient system of medicine but some prac-
titioners who practice traditional medicine sometimes use Natu-
ropathy in combination to the major system. The Naturopathic
system is based upon using the curative power of nature in com-
bination with the traditional and modern techniques to help
restore good health. Homeopathy, herbal formulations, hydro-
therapy are some of the treatment methods used by this system.28
5. Current status of Ayurveda and perspectives for its future
applications
In the recent decades, Ayurveda has experienced a considerable
shift in its paradigm and a significant change in the outlook of re-
searchers, towards its applications has occurred. The therapeutic
principles of Ayurveda focus on prakriti and tridoshas, and these
principles explain that every individual has his unique constitution
called as prakriti. Prakriti determines the characteristic response of
each individual to medications, environmental conditions and di-
etary factors. ‘Ayurgenomics’ a recently introduced research field,
bridges this gap between genomics and Ayurveda and serves as an
aid in understanding of inter-individual differences in responses to
therapies in various diseases.29 It especially emphasizes on study-
ing inter-individual variances in patients from identical ethnic
backgrounds. TSMs are now been looked upon for recourse to some
limitations faced by western medicine, such as the need for indi-
vidualized therapies, potential side effects and lack of desired
therapeutic efficacy.30
Rotti et al, have published several studies correlating the
concept of prakriti in Ayurveda to present-day science. A report
indicating the correlation of dominant prakriti with the Body Mass
Index (BMI) and place of birth in individuals was published.31
Studies involving subjects of various prakriti types viz. Vata, Pitta
and Kapha, were carried out to identify molecular differences that
affect susceptibility and responses of individuals to various envi-
ronmental or disease conditions. A classification method for human
population, with respect to DNA methylation signatures is reported
based upon traditional Ayurveda concept of prakriti.32 In a study
involving genome-wide SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) in
262 male individuals from three different prakritis, it was found
that PGM1 gene is associated with energy production. PGM1 was
found to be more homogeneous in Pitta prakriti, than the Kapha
and Vata prakriti.33
4 Y.S. Jaiswal, L.L. Williams / Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine xxx (2016) 1e4
An integration of the knowledge of modern analytical tech-
niques with a broader perspective for applications of Ayurveda
principles can help in its wider acceptance globally. There is an
increasing need of proving and fostering the scientific basis of the
principles of Ayurveda, to keep this age old valuable system of
medicine, as a living tradition in future.
6. Summary
Ayurveda has a rich history; however there were certain
drawbacks in approaches towards it, which inhibited its growth
like the western system of medicine. The active components of the
herbal drugs prescribed were not known, and even today many
drugs still need further exploration for their active constituent
characterization and elucidation of the mechanism of action. Even
after decades of applying advanced analytical techniques for drug
analysis, herbal drugs still face some drawbacks. The administra-
tion of combinations of several drugs adds to the complexity of
study of the activity of these medications. A merit of traditional
medicine systems as discussed earlier is that, they consider every
individual as the prime focus of treatment rather than the disease.
But this factor also possesses a hurdle to the applicability of med-
ications on a general population basis. Several issues like, the
variation in the potency due to difference in species, absence of an
integrated coding for every species used commonly in TSMs,
varying geographical location of growth, and incorrect identifica-
tion and adulteration of drugs, non-uniform quality control stan-
dards, differences in processing methods, direct an alarming need
towards comparative study of drugs used in both these system of
medicine.
Conflicts of interest
None.
References
1. Mukherjee P, Venkatesh P, Ponnusankar S. Ethnopharmacology and integrative
medicine e let the history tell the future. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2010;1:
100e109.
2. Rao R. Encyclopedia of Indian Medicine. 2nd ed. Bangalore, India: Dr. P.V. Par-
ameshvara Charitable Trust; 1987.
3. Chopra A, Doiphode V. Ayurvedic medicine e core concept, therapeutic prin-
ciples, and current relevance. Med Clin North Am. 2002;86:75e89.
4. Heyn B. Ayurveda: The Ancient Indian Art of Natural Medicine & Life Extension,
Inner Traditions. Vermont: Bear and Co; 1990.
5. Mukherjee P, Houghton P. The worldwide phenomenon of increased use of
herbal products: opportunity and threats. In: Houghton PJ, Mukherjee PK, eds.
Evaluation of Herbal Medicinal Products-perspectives on Quality, Safety and Effi-
cacy. Pharmaceutical Press, Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain;
2009.
Please cite this article in press as: Jaiswal YS, Williams LL, A glimpse of Ayurveda e The forgotten history and principles of Indian traditional
medicine, Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.02.002
6. Atreya. Perfect Balance: Ayurvedic Nutrition for Mind, Body, and Soul. New York:
Penguin Penguin Putnam Inc; 2002.
7. Ninivaggi F. Ayurveda: A Comprehensive Guide to Traditional Indian Medicine for
the West. Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield Publisher, Inc.; 2008.
8. Manufacturing and quality control of Ayurvedic and Herbal preparations. In:
Singh J, Bagchi G, Khanuja SPK, eds. Verpoorte, R., Mukherjee, GMP for Botanicals.
New Delhi: Business Horizons Ltd; 2003.
9. Mukherjee P, Wahile A. Integrated approaches towards drug development
from Ayurveda and other Indian system of medicines. J Ethnopharmacol.
2006;103:25e35.
10. Sharma S, ed. Realms of Ayurveda. New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann; 1979.
11. Anonymous. Susruta Samhita-Sharira Sthanam. Varanasi, India: Chaukhambha
Visvabharati; 2001.
12. Ray P, Gupta HN, National Institute of Sciences of India. Charak Samhita (A
Scientific Synopsis). Calcutta, India: Sree Saraswati Press; 1965.
13. Indian system of medicine and homoeopathy. In: Prasad L, ed. Traditional
Medicine in Asia. New Delhi, India: WHO e Regional Office for South East Asia;
2002.
14. Oliver L. Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. Routledge; 1999.
15. Heinrich M, Barnes J, Gibbons S, Williamson E. Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy
and Phytopharmacy. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2004.
16. Ravishankar B, Shukla V. Indian systems of medicine: a brief profile. Afr J Tradit
Complement Altern Med. 2007;3:319e337.
17. Lad V. Ayurveda: The Science of Self-healing: A Practical Guide. New Delhi, India:
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited; 2002.
18. Gerson S. Independent Study Correspondence Course in Ayurvedic Medicine. New
York: National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine; 2009.
19. Hankey A. Ayurvedic physiology and etiology: Ayurvedo amritanaam. The
Doshas and their functioning in terms of contemporary biology and physical
chemistry. J Altern Complement Med. 2001;7:567e574.
20. AYUSH. AYUSH, India; 2015 [last accessed in 5 December, 2015] http://www.
indianmedicine.nic.in.
21. Premila M. Ayurvedic Botanicals e A Clinical Guide to the Healing Plants of
Traditional Indian Medicine. Binghamton, New York: The Haworth Press, Inc.;
2006.
22. Fradwley D, Ranade S. Ayurveda, Nature's Medicine. USA: Lotus Press; 2001.
23. Mukherjee P. Evaluation of Indian traditional medicine. Drug Inf J. 2001;2:623.
24. Campbell A. The origins of classical homoeopathy? Complement Ther Med.
1999;7:76e82.
25. Gina K, Kim E, Terry K, Cynthia J. More than I expected: perceived benefits of
yoga practice among older adults at risk for cardiovascular disease. Comple-
ment Ther Med. 2013;21:14e28.
26. Posadzki P, Edzard E, Rohini T, Myeong S. Is yoga effective for pain? A sys-
tematic review of randomized clinical trials. Complement Ther Med. 2011;19:
281e287.
27. Hoyez A. The ‘world of yoga’: the production and reproduction of therapeutic
landscapes. Soc Sci Med. 2007;65:112e124.
28. NIH US. Naturopathy: An Introduction, National Institutes of Health. USA:
Department of Health and Human Services; 2012. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/
naturopathy/naturopathyintro.htm.
29. Gupta P. Pharmacogenetics, pharmacogenomics and ayurgenomics for
personalized medicine: a paradigm shift. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2015;77:135e141.
30. Rao G. Integrative approach to health: challenges and opportunities. J Ayurveda
Integr Med. 2015;6:215e219.
31. Rotti H, Raval R, Anchan S, et al. Determinants of prakriti, the human consti-
tution types of Indian traditional medicine and its correlation with contem-
porary science. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2014;5:167e175.
32. Rotti H, Mallya S, Kabekkodu S. DNA methylation analysis of phenotype specific
stratified Indian population. J Transl Med. 2015;13:151.
33. Govindaraj P, Nizamuddin S, Sharath A, et al. Genome-wide analysis correlates
ayurveda prakriti. Sci Rep. 2015;5:15786.