Statistics Examples:

 is the science of collecting, organizing, summarizing, and 1) The average score of a volleyball player for the past 10 games
analyzing information to draw conclusions or answer questions. 2) Birth rate in rural areas in the Philippines
 provides procedure in data collection, presentation, 3) Enrollment record of all colleges in BSU – TNEU Lipa Campus
organization, and interpretation to have a meaningful idea.
Inferential Statistics
Importance of Statistics
 It is the logical process that involves generalizing from a
Statistics plays a major role in many aspects of our lives. sample to the population
 It is also called as statistical inference or inductive
 It is used in sports statistics.
 it is used in politics
Examples:
Importance of Statistics
1) A car manufacturer wishes to estimate the average lifetime of
 It is used in medicine batteries by testing a sample of 50 batteries.
 Statistical research in business enables managers to analyze 2) The political views of the youth in the urban areas with respect
past performance, predict future business practices and lead to inflation rate in Asia
organizations effectively. 3) A campaign manager analyzes the effect of TV ads on the
 Can be described markets, inform advertising, set prices and promotion of a presidential candidate
respond to changes in consumer demand.
 Statistics, being quantitative tools widely used in the areas of Basic Terminologies in Statistics
economics and finance
Population consists of all the members of the group about which
Computer Software you want to draw a conclusion

 If the data seems too massive to handle, then you use Sample is a portion or part of the population of interest selected for
analysis.
computer software to deal with the data and make sure the
results are useful and informative.
Parameter is a numerical index describing a characteristic of a
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) population

Statistic is a numerical index describing a characteristic of a

 perhaps the most widely used statistics software package
sample.
 offers the ability to easily compile descriptive statistics,
Sources of Data
R
 a free statistical software package that is widely used across
Primary data
both human behavior research and in other fields.
 it also has a steep learning curve
 are data that come from an original source, and are intended to
Matlab answer a specific research question.
 This can be taken by interview, mail-in questionnaire, survey or
experimentation.
 an analytical platform and programming language that is
widely used by engineers and scientists.
Secondary data
 The learning path is steep

SAS  are data taken from previously recorded data, such as

information in previously conducted research, financial
statements, business periodicals, and government reports.
 a statistical analysis platform that offers options to use
 It can also be taken electronically, for instance via internet
either the GUI
websites, etc.
 a premium solution that is widely used in business,
healthcare, and human behaviour research alike.
Basic Terminologies in Statistics
GraphPad Prism premium software primarily used within statistics
Constant is a characteristic of objects, people, or events that does
related to biology
not vary.
Minitab offers a range of both basic and fairly advanced statistical
tools for data analysis.  For example, the temperature at which water boils (100 degree
Celsius) is a constant.
Excel
Variable
 offers a wide variety of tools for data visualization and
simple statistics.  is a characteristic of objects, people, or events that can take
different values.
 It is simple to generate summary
 It can vary in quantity like weight of people, or in quality like
hair color of people.
Data
Two Types of Variables
 The information referred to the definition is the data.
 According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, data are
Qualitative variables or categorical variables
“factual information used as a basis for reasoning,
discussion, or calculation”
 Are variables that yield categorical responses.
Types of Statistics  These are words or codes that represent class or
category.
 Some examples of qualitative variables are eye color,
1. Descriptive Statistics
sex, occupation, student number, etc.
 It basically consists of organizing and summarizing
data.
 Descriptive statistics describe data through numerical
summaries, tables, and graphs
Quantitative variables or numerical variables
 Variables that take on numerical values representing an
amount or quantity.
 These numerical values should answer the question how
much or how many.
 Some examples of qualitative variables are height,
weight, distance, salary, etc.
Variables can also be classified into two according to purpose
whether experimental or mathematical.
Experimental Classification
A. Independent variables or explanatory variables are
variables controlled by the experimenter or researcher
B. Dependent variables or outcome variables measure
the behavior of subjects and expected to be influenced by
the independent variable.
Experimental Classification Example:
For instance, to predict the value of fertilizer on the growth of plants,
the dependent variable is the growth of plants while the
independent variable is the amount of fertilizer used.
Mathematical Classification
Discrete variables
 are quantitative variables that are either a finite number
 These are variables that are countable.
 examples: number of cars, number of siblings, etc.
Continuous variables
 are quantitative variables that have an infinite number of
possible values
 These are variables that are no longer countable but are
measurable.
 Examples: height, weight, volume, etc.
Level of Measurement of Variables
Nominal Level
 is the first level of measurement and it is characterized by
data that consist of names, labels or categories only.
 Data cannot be arranged in ordering scheme.
 Nominal scales have no numerical value.
 examples Sex, Type of School, Eye Color
Ordinal Level
 involves data that may be arranged in some order, but
differences between data values either cannot be
determined or meaningless.
 An ordinal scale not only classifies subjects but also
ranks
 examples Highest Educational Attainment, Rank of
military officer,
Interval Level
 is a measurement level that specifies the distances
between each interval on the scale.
 have no absolute zero. This means that a value of zero
does not mean the absence of the quantity.
 examples Temperature, IQ,
Ratio Level
 represents the highest, most precise, level of
measurement.
 Variables of this level have absolute zero which means
that a value of zero means the absence of the quantity.
 Example Height and weight, Time, Distance and speed
Process of Statistics
1) Identify the research objective A researcher must determine
the question(s)
2) Collect the information needed to answer the questions.
This step is vital to the statistical process Do not overlook the
importance of appropriate data collection.
3) Organize and summarize the information. Descriptive
statistics allow the researcher to obtain an overview of the data
4) Draw conclusion from the information. In this step the
information collected from the sample is generalized to the
population.
Important Note If the entire population is studied, then inferential
statistics is not necessary, because descriptive statistics will
provide all the information that we need regarding the population.
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring
information on variables of interes
Consequences of Improperly Collected Data
• Inability to answer research questions accurately.
• Inability to repeat and validate the study.
• Distorted findings resulting in wasted resources.
• Misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of
investigation.
• Compromising decisions for public policy.
• Causing harm to human participants and animal subjects.
Steps in Data Gathering
1. Set the objectives for collecting data
2. Determine the data needed based on the set objectives.
3. Determine the method to be used in data gathering and define
the comprehensive data collection points.
4. Design data gathering forms to be used.
5. Collect data.
Data can be classified as primary data or secondary data. These are
the methods you can use to collect such data.
Methods of Data Collection
Primary data can be collected by:
1. Direct personal interviews – The researcher has direct contact
with the interviewee.
2. Indirect/Questionnaire Method This methods of data collection
involve sourcing and accessing existing data
Questions can either be:
• An open-ended question does not include response
categories. This type of question is usually appropriate for
collecting subjective data.
• A closed-ended question includes a list of response
categories from which the respondent will select his answer.
This type of question is usually appropriate for collecting
objective data.
3. Focus Group – It is a group interview of approximately six to
twelve people.
4. Experiment – It is a method of collecting data where there is
direct human
5. Observation – It is a method of collecting data on the
phenomenon
Secondary data can be collected by:
1. Published report on newspaper and periodicals.
2. Financial Data reported in annual reports.
3. Records maintained by the institution.
4. Internal reports of the government departments.
5. Information from official publications.
Take Note: Always investigate the validity and reliability of the
databy examining the collection method employed by your source.
- Do not use inappropriate data for your research.
Sample Size
 typically denoted by n and it is always a positive integer.
 No exact sample size can be mentioned
 However, all else being equal, large sized sample leads to
increased precision
Take Note:
 Representativeness, not size, is the more important
consideration.
 Use no less than 30 subjects if possible.
 If you use complex statistics, you may need a minimum of 100
or more in your sample (varies with method).
Non-statistical considerations – It may include availability of
resources, man power, budget, ethics and sampling frame.
Statistical considerations – It will include the desired precision of
the estimate.
Three criteria need to be specified to determine the appropriate
sample size:
1. Level of Precision Also called sampling error is the range in
which the true value of the population is estimated to be.
2. Confidence Interval It is statistical measure of the number of
times out of 100
3. Degree of Variability
 Depending upon the target population and attributes under
consideration
 The degree of variability varies considerably.
 The more heterogeneous a population is, the larger the sample
size is
Raosoft Calculator This can be used to determine the sample size.
Basic Sampling Design The goal in sampling is to obtain
individuals for a study
Reason for Sampling
 Important that the individuals included in a sample represent
 If sample is not representative it is biased.
 You cannot generalize to the population from your statistical
data.
Observation unit
 An object on which a measurement is taken.
 This is the basic unit of observation, sometimes called
 an element.
 In studying human populations, observation units are often
individuals.
Target population - The complete collection of observations we
want to study.
Sampled population
 The collection of all possible observation
 the population from which the sample was taken.
Sample - A subset of a population.
Sampling unit - A unit that can be selected for a sample.
Sampling frame - A list, map, or other specification of sampling
units
Sampling technique/Sampling Strategies - It is a plan you set
forth
Sampling Bias - This involves problems in your sampling, which
reveals that your sample is not representative of your population.
Advantages of Sampling
Here are the advantages of sampling over complete
enumeration:
a. Less Labor - Greater Efficiency and Accuracy
b. Reduced Cost – Convenience
c. Greater Speed - Ethical Considerations
d. Greater Scope
Population is a group to which the results of the study are intended
to apply.
Sample is a group in a research study on which information is
obtained.
One of the most important steps in the research process is to
select the sample of individuals who will participate as a part of the
study.
Sampling refers to the process of selecting these individuals.
Two of Sampling Types
Random Sampling or Probability Sampling
 It is a process whose members had an equal chance of being
selected from the population.
 They require the use of a complete listing of the elements of the
universe called the sampling frame.
 The probabilities of selection are known.
 They are generally referred to as random samples.
 They allow drawing of valid generalizations
 It is the most basic method of drawing a probability sample
 It is also a process of selecting n sample size in the population
via random numbers or through lottery.
a. Simple Random Sampling The directors of each sampled health
center were interviewed to obtain the necessary information.
b. Systematic Sampling It is obtained by selecting every kth
individual
c. Stratified Random Sampling It is obtained by separating the
population into non- overlapping groups called strata and then
obtaining a simple random sample from each stratum.
d. Cluster Sampling a process of selecting clusters from a
population which is very large or widely spread out over a
widegeographical area
Non-random Sampling or Non-probability Sampling It is a
sampling procedure where samples selected in a deliberate manner
a. Convenience Sampling conveniently available for a study.
b. Purposive Sampling selecting based from judgement t,
c. Quota Sampling It is applied when an investigator survey collects
information from an assigned number, or quota
d. Snowball Sampling It is a technique in which one or more
members of a population are located
e. Voluntary Sampling It is a technique when a sample is
composed of respondents who are self-select (volunteered) into the
study/survey.