Matter – anything that occupy space and has mass

State of Matter – solid, liquid, gas (plasma - state of matter that reached the three state/phase)

Fluid – any material (liquid and gas) that flows

Properties of Fluids

*gas is compressible, which means its volume can easily increase and decreased while liquid is incompressible meaning its
volume cannot easily be changed

a. Density – mass per unit volume

 = mass / volume SI units (international standard) – kg/m3

Cgs unit - g/cm3

English unit - lb/ft3

Specific Density (relative density)- is the ratio of density of the substance to the density of the water

Density of water (at 4C) – 1000kg/m3 or 1 g/cm3

Word Problems

1. What is the density of a piece of wood that has a mass of 25.0 grams and a volume of 29.4 cm3?
2. A piece of wood that measures 3.0 cm by 6.0 cm by 4.0 cm has a mass of 80.0 grams. What is the density of the
wood? Would the piece of wood float in water? (volume = L x W x H)
3. What is the volume of a tank that can hold 18 754 Kg of methanol whose density is
0.788g/cm3?
4. What is the density of a board whose dimensions are 5.54 cm x 10.6 cm X 199 cm and
whose mass is 28.6 Kg?
5. The volume of the aquarium in our classroom is 1890 L. The density of seawater is
1.03g/cm3. What is the mass of the water in our tank?
6. Rocks are sometimes used along coasts to prevent erosion. If a rock needs to weigh 2,000 kilograms (about 2
tons) in order not to be shifted by waves, how big (what volume) does it need to be? You are using basalt, which
has a typical density of 3200 kg/m3
7. You decide you want to carry a boulder home from the beach. It is 30 centimeters on each side, and so has a
volume of 27,000 cm3. It is made of granite, which has a typical density of 2.8 g/cm3. How much will this boulder
weigh?
8. If the density of a diamond is 3.5 g/cm3 , what would be the mass of a diamond whose volume is .5 cm3 ?
9. If a 96.5g piece of aluminum has a density of 2.7 g/cm 3 , what is its volume?
10. If the density of a diamond is 3.5 g/cm3 , what would be the mass of a diamond whose volume is .5 cm3 ?
Practice Problems

1. Convert 1g/cm3 to kg/m3

2. A helium-filled balloon has a total volume of 2L(1L = 1000cm3). What is the weight of this balloon? ( density of
helium = 0.179 kg/m3)
3. Which is smaller – 1kg aluminum sphere or 1 kg copper sphere (Al = 2700 kg/m3; Cu = 8920 kg/m3)?
4. Which has more mass – a silver medal or a gold medal of the same size? (Prove it)
5. A golden-colored cube is handed to you. The person wants you to buy it for $100, saying that is a gold nugget. You
pull out your old geology text and look up gold in the mineral table, and read that its density is 19.3 g/cm3. You
measure the cube and find that it is 2 cm on each side, and weighs 40 g. What is its density? Is it gold? Should you
buy it?

(Au = 19.3 g/cm3 Ag = 10.5 g/cm3)

Force – push and pull

Gravitational Force – mass x acceleration of gravity (9.8m/s2)
Normal Force – mass x acceleration
Newton (kgm/s2) – SI units of Force

Pressure – is defined as force exerted per unit area

P=F/A where: P is the pressure in Pascal

F is the force in Newton
A is the area in m2

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure obtained from barometric reading (101,325Pa)

Pascal (N/m2)– SI unit of Pressure
Non SI unit of pressure
psi (pound per square inch) 1psi = 6,894.575 Pa
atm(atmosphere) 1 atm = 101, 325 Pa
mmHg (millimeters of mercury 1 mm Hg = 133.322 Pa
torr 1 torr = 1 mm Hg
bar 1 bar = 100,000 Pa

Sample problems
1. What is the pressure exerted by the table on a 500g book lying on the top of it? The cover of the book measures
20cm x 30cm.
2. The bottom of an aquarium is rectangular with an area of 0.250m2. What is the pressure at the bottom of the
aquarium if there is 60 kg of water above it.

3. Calculate the pressure produced by a force of 800 N acting on an area of 2.0 m2.

4. The pressure of a gas contained in a cylinder with a movable piston is 300 Pa. The area of the piston is 0.5 m2.
Calculate the force that is exerted on the piston.

5. A swimming pool of width 9.0 m and length 24.0 m is filled with water to a depth of 3.0 m. Calculate pressure on
the bottom of the pool due to the water.
 6. What is the pressure on the side wall of the pool at the junction with the bottom of the pool in the previous
problem?

7. What is the total force on the bottom of the pool due to the water in the problem 3?

8. A block of wood of mass 3.5 kg floats in water. Calculate the buoyant force on the block.

9. A floating object displaces 0.6 m3 of water. Calculate the buoyant force on the object and the weight of the object.

10. A pipe of cross sectional area 80 cm2 has a constriction where the area is reduced to 20 cm2. If the velocity of the
fluid in the larger area is 0.3 m / s what is the velocity of the fluid in the constricted region?

11. The pipe in the previous problem is horizontal. If the pressure in the larger area region is measured as 20 kPa
what is the pressure in the constricted region?

12. Determine the mass of the Earth's atmosphere. (radius of earth = 6.37 x 106 m ; atm Pressure = 101,325Pa)
13. Determine the maximum height that a lift pump can raise water from a well.

Pascal principle “ if pressure is increased at one portion of an enclosed fluid, the pressure increases by the
same amount at all points of the enclosed fluid”
“An external pressure exerted on a fluid is transmitted uniformly throughout the volume of the fluid”

1. The large piston in a hydraulic lift has a radius of 250 cm2. What force must be applied to the small
piston with a radius of 25 cm 2 in order to raise a car of mass 1500 kg?
2. A trash compactor pushes down with a force of 500 N on a 3 cm2 input piston, causing a force of
30,000 N to crush the trash. What is the area of the output piston that crushes the trash?
3. Johnny the auto mechanic is raising a 1200 kg car on his hydraulic lift so that he can work underneath.
If the area of the input piston is 12 cm 2 , while the output piston has an area of 700 cm 2 , what force
must be exerted on the input piston to lift the car?
4. Marc’ favorite ride at Busch Gardens is the Flying Umbrella, which is lifted by a hydraulic jack. The
operator activates the ride by applying a force of 72N to a 30 cm 2 cylindrical piston, which holds the
20,000N ride off the ground. What is the area of the piston that holds the ride?
Buoyancy – (upthrust) – is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. Pressure
increases with depth as a result of the weight of the over lying fluid

Archimedes’ principle (law of physics fundamental

to fluid mechanics) “the amount of upward force exerted by the surrounding in the fluid is equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid.
Practice Problems:

1. A bargain hunter purchases a “gold” crown at a flea market. After she gets home she hangs it from a
scale and finds its weight to be 7.84 N. She then weighs the crown while it is immersed in water and
now reads 6.86N.
2. 5,525m3 per second of water flows over the 670m wide cliff of the portion of Niagara Falls. The water is
approximately 2m deep as it reaches the cliff. Estimate its speed at that instant.
3. A water hose 2.5cm in diameter is used by a gardener to fill a 30L bucket. The gardener notices that it
takes 1min to fill a bucket. A nozzle with an opening of cross-sectional area 0.5cm2 is then attached to
the hole. What is velocity of water leaving in the hose? If the nozzle is held so that water is projected
horizontally from a point 1m above the ground. What horizontal distance can the water be projected?
4. A nearsighted sheriff fires at a castle rustler with his trusty six-shooter. Fortunately for the rustler, the
bullet misses him and penetrates the town water tank, causing a leak. If the top of the tank is open to
the atmosphere, determine the speed at which the water leaves the hole when the water level is 0.5m
above the hole.
5. A large pipe with a cross-sectional area of 1m2 descends 5m and narrows to 0.5m2, where it terminates
in a valve at point. If the pressure at point is atmospheric pressure and the valve is opened wide and
water allowed to flow freely. Find the speed of the water leaving the pipe.
 STRESS
Stress ()is the force applied per unit area

 = F/A where:  is the stress is Pascal(Pa)

F is axial force in Newton(N)
A is the cross section area (m2)
Strain (deformation) - is the change in physical size it might be lengthwise for longitudinal strain or sidewise for
lateral strain

=/L where:  is the longitudinal strain (unitless)

 is the elongation in millimeter(mm)
L is the original Length in meter

Thermal Expansion – as a temperature of substances increases its volume increases

Thermal Stress – is the stress developed when the materials attempt to expand or contract due to change in
temperature

Thermal = E /L where: thermal is the Thermal stress in Pascal

 is the elongation in millimeter(mm)
E is the modulus of elasticity in GPa/MPa
L is the original Length in meter

 = L(T2 – T1) where:  is the coefficient of thermal expansion in per C ( /C)

T2 – final temperature in C
T1 – initial temperature C
Problem Pratice

1. A steel railroad 10m long is laid with clearance of 3mm at a temperature of 15C. At what temperature
will the rails just touch? If there were no initial clearance Assume:  =11.7 x10-6/C
2. A certain steel tape is known to b 100ft long at a temperature of 70F. When the tape is at temperature
of 10F, what tape reading corresponds to a distance of 90ft? Assume a coefficient of thermal
expansion() equal to 65 x 10-7 / F.
3. A steel railroad track has a length of 30m when the temperature is 0C. What is its length on a hot day
when the temperature is 40C? What stress results in the track due to the temperature change? ( =
11 x 10-6/C and E = 200 GPa)

Specific Heat
The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise thetemperature by one
degree Celsius. The relationship between heat and temperature change is usually expressed
in the form shown below where c is the specific heat. The relationship does not apply if
a phase change is encountered, because the heat added or removed during a phase change
does not change the temperature.

The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/gram °C = 4.186 joule/gram °C which is higher than
any other common substance. As a result, water plays a very important role in temperature
regulation. The specific heat per gram for water is much higher than that for a metal, as
described in the water-metal example. For most purposes, it is more meaningful to compare
the molar specific heats of substances.

Calorimetry
Calorimetry is the measurement of the quantity of heat exchanged. For example, if the
energy from an exothermic chemical reaction is absorbed in a container of water, the
change in temperature of the water provides a measure of the amount of heat added.
Calorimeters are used to determine the energy content of foods by burning the foods in an
oxygen atmosphere and measuring the energy yield in terms of the increase in temperature
of the calorimeter. Calorimeters can also be used to measure the specific heat of a
substance.

Changes of Phase

Water vapor turning to frost is an example of deposition

There are four states of matter in the universe: plasma, gas, liquid and solid. But
matter on Earth exists mostly in three distinct phases: gas, liquid and solid. A phase is
a distinctive form of a substance, and matter can change among the phases. It may
take extreme temperature, pressure or energy, but all matter can be changed.

There are six distinct changes of phase which happens to different substances at
different temperatures. The six changes are:

 Freezing: the substance changes from a liquid to a solid.

 Melting: the substance changes back from the solid to the liquid.
 Condensation: the substance changes from a gas to a liquid.
 Vaporization: the substance changes from a liquid to a gas.
 Sublimation: the substance changes directly from a solid to a gas without going
through the liquid phase.
 Deposition: the substance changes directly from a gas to a solid without going
through the liquid phase.

Problem Practice
1. How much heat must be absorbed by 375 grams of water to raise its temperature by 25° C?
2. What mass of water can be heated from 25.0° C to 50.0° C by the addition of 2825 J?
3. What is the final temperature when 625 grams of water at 75.0° C loses 7.96 x 104 J?
4. A copper cylinder has a mass of 76.8 g and a specific heat of 0.092 cal/g·C. It is heated to 86.5° C and
then put in 68.7 g of turpentine whose temperature is 19.5° C. The final temperature of the mixture is
31.9° C. What is the specific heat of the turpentine?
5. A 65.0 g piece of iron at 525° C is put into 635 grams of water at 15.0° C. What is the final temperature
of the water and the iron?
 WAVE

Wave is propagating disturbance that forms a moving pattern in the process

Wave motion is some sort of periodic displacement of an elastic medium from its
normal position

Types of wave in matter

1. Transverse Wave – a wave in which the vibration direction is perpendicular to the direction of
the wave propagation.

Ex: water waves, waves in strings under tension, electromagnetic waves – light and radio waves
2. Longitudinal wave( Compressional) – wave in which vibration direction is parallel to the
direction of propagation
Ex: sound wave, waves in rod

Properties of waves
1. Waves transport energy, not matter
2. Waves bounce off when they hit boundary
3. Waves may deviate from their original direction when their speed change
4. Wave can bend opening and obstacles
5. Waves can overlap and proceed as if nothing happened

Wavelength( ) is equal to the distance between two successive points in a wave

Period(T) – is the time(second) it takes to finish one cycle.
Frequency(f) – number of cycles in one second
Hertz(Hz) – SI unit of frequency
Crest – the top points of the wave
Trough –the bottom points on the wave
Amplitude – the maximum displacement from their normal position of the particles that oscillate back and
forth

Velocity of the wave (v)

v = f where: v = speed of wave
 = wavelength
f = frequency of wave

speed of sound = 331 m/s at 0C increases by 0.6m/s for every 1 C

speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s

velocity of longitudinal waves (solid and liquids)

v = E / where: E = modus of elasticity
 = density

Velocity of transverse waves

V = T / LINEAR where: T is the tension

LINEAR is the linear density (mass per length)

Law of vibrating string under tension

L = n(/2) fn = n(V/2L)
Where: L = length of the string
n = number of segment
fn = frequency of n segment
v = velocity

Fundamental frequency – the lowest natural frequency

Sound – is a disturbance or vibration whose energy must be communicated into medium.

Three important things of sound
1. There must be a vibration body
2. There must be a medium to transmit to transmit the vibration
3. There must be a receiver to detect the sound.
Classification of Sound
1. Musical – a sound of one regular vibration or more definite frequencies
2. Noise – a sound of irregular vibration or no definite range of frequencies

Three physiological characteristics of sound

1. Pitch – is the highness of lowness of a note or tone
2. Intensity – (loudness) it is the rate at which sound energy flows through a unit area. The intensity of
sound depends on the distance of the source to the observer. It is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance
3. Quality – (timbre) depends on the waveform or vibration form of the source

Sound Terminology

Decibel (dB) – unit of sound intensity

Echo – a reflected sound
Revibration – the successive echoes that can be heard
Audible range – the hearing range of human being 10Hz to 20kHz
Ultrasonic sound – that as a frequency too high to heard by human ear above 20kHz
Infrasonic sound – that as a frequency too low to heard by normal human ear below 20Hz

Shockwave – the cone – shape wave made by an object moving at supersonic speed through fluid
Sonic Boom – the loud sound resulting from the incidence of a shock wave

Beats – the alternations of maximum and minimum sound intensity produced by superposition of two sounds
waves of slightly different frequencies
Pitch – the effect of the frequency of sound waves on the ears
Resonance – the response of a body when a forcing frequency matches its natural frequency
Interference – the superimposing of one wave on another
Natural frequency – a frequency at which an elastic object naturally tends to vibrate if it is disturbed and the
disturbing frequency
Carrier wave – a wave usually of radio frequency, whose characteristics are modified in the process of
modulation.
Modulation – the process of impressing one wave system upon another of higher frequency
Amplitude Modulation (AM) – type of modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied above an
below its normal value (picture carrier)
Frequency modulation (FM) – type of frequency modulation where the frequency is modulated. (sound carrier)
88 – 108 MHz

Practice Problems

1. The wavelength of a sound wave in a certain material as measure is 18cm. the frequency of the wave is
1.9kHz. Compute the speed of sound wave?
2. A horizontal cord 5m long has a mass of 2.5 grams. What must be the tension in the cord if the
wavelength of 120Hz wave on its to be 50cm?
3. A 3m string is driven by a 240Hz vibrator at its end. Determine the speed of transverse waves on the
string if it resonates four segment
4. A guitar 30cm long resonates in its fundamental to a frequency of 250Hz. What is the tension in the
string if 80cm of the string “weighs” 0.80 grams?
5. A piano string with a length of 1.17m and a mass of 21g in under tension of 6.4x10 3N, what is the
fundamental frequency?
6. What is the wavelength of yellow light whose frequency is 5 x 1014Hz?