3)Address Mask Request and Reply:

Scenario: Imagine you have a computer, and it knows its own IP address, like
159.31.17.24, but it's unsure about the corresponding network mask (like /24).
Action: Computer asks nearby router for the mask through an "Address Mask
Request."
Response: Router replies with the correct mask in an "Address Mask Reply."

4)Router Solicitation and Advertisement:

Situation: When a computer on a network wants to send data to another
network, it needs to know the addresses of the routers on its own network.
Additionally, it wants to confirm if these routers are active and working.
Ask: Computer broadcasts a "Router Solicitation" to find routers on the
network.
Answer: Routers reply with "Router Advertisement," sharing their presence
and info.
Extras: Routers can also regularly announce themselves without waiting for a
request.
1. Dual Stack:
Imagine you have a computer, and it's like having two sets of tools, one for
IPv4 and one for IPv6. This is called a "Dual Stack." It means your computer is
ready to communicate using both the old (IPv4) and the new (IPv6) systems at
the same time.
So, if your computer wants to talk to another computer, it checks with the DNS
(Domain Name System), which is like an internet phonebook. If the DNS says
the other computer speaks IPv4, your computer sends a message in the old
way (IPv4). If it says the other computer speaks IPv6, your computer sends a
message in the new way (IPv6).

2. Tunneling:
Imagine you and your friend both have new gadgets (IPv6), but there's a place
in between that only understands the old language (IPv4). To go through that
place, you put your cool new gadget inside an old box (IPv6 inside IPv4).
When your friend gets the box at the other end, they take out the cool new
gadget (IPv6) from the old box (IPv4). It's like your new gadget went through a
tunnel, and when it came out, everything was back to normal.
To make sure everyone knows what's happening, the box has a special label
(protocol value 41). This label says, "Hey, inside this old box, there's a fancy
new gadget."

3. Header Translation:
Now, let's say most people in your neighborhood are using the new language
(IPv6), but there's still that one friend who only understands the old language
(IPv4).
You want to send them a message in the new language (IPv6), but they won't
get it. So, you change the way you write the message to match the old style
(Header Translation - turning IPv6 header into IPv4 header).
Now, your friend can understand the message because it looks like the old
language, even though you're using the new language behind the scenes.
Qsn)write a short note on Mobile Ip
Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol,
IP) that allows the users to move from one network to another with the same
IP address. It ensures that the communication will continue without the user’s
sessions or connections being dropped.

Key Components:
1)Home Agent (HA): This is a router on the home network responsible for
tracking the mobile device's location. It maintains the current care-of address
(CoA), which is the temporary address assigned to the device in its current
location.
2)Foreign Agent (FA): When a mobile device moves to a new network, a
foreign agent on that network assists in the handover process. It registers the
device's care-of address with the home agent.
3)Mobile Node (MN): This is the mobile device itself, which may change its
point of attachment from one network to another.
4)Correspondent Node (CN): The endpoint with which the mobile node wants
to communicate.

working principle
#Registration: When the mobile device enters a new network, it registers its
care-of address with the foreign agent. The foreign agent then notifies the
home agent about the change.
#Tunneling: The home agent tunnels packets destined for the mobile device to
its care-of address through the foreign agent.
#Communication: The mobile device can now communicate with the
correspondent node using its care-of address. All data is tunneled back
through the home agent to maintain connectivity.

Advantages:
Continuous Connectivity: Mobile IP ensures that a device remains reachable
even when moving across different networks.
Transparent Handovers: Users can switch between networks without
interrupting ongoing communications.
Scalability: Mobile IP allows for the dynamic movement of devices without
requiring significant changes to the existing IP infrastructure.
DISTANCE VECTOR
Distance Vector Routing is a type of routing algorithm used in computer
networks to determine the best path for data packets to reach their
destination

1. Least-Cost Route:
In distance vector routing, the primary goal is to find the least-cost route
between any two nodes (network devices) within a network.
The "cost" typically refers to factors such as the number of hops, bandwidth, or
latency along a particular path.

2. Node's Vector Table:

Each network node maintains a vector table that contains information about
the minimum distance or cost to reach every other node in the network.
The table also includes information about the next hop (next router) that
should be used to reach a specific destination.
The vector table serves as a guide, similar to a tourist map, showing the
minimum distances between different "cities."
4. Initialization:
Initially, each node only knows the distances to its immediate neighbors. The
rest of the distances are considered infinite (unreachable).
Nodes can exchange information with their neighbors to build a more
comprehensive understanding of the network.

5. Sharing Information:
The key idea in distance vector routing is the sharing of routing information
between neighboring nodes.
Nodes periodically share their vector tables with immediate neighbors to keep
everyone updated on the network topology.

6. Updating Process:
When a node receives a vector table from a neighbor, it updates its own table
based on the received information.
The update involves adding the cost between the receiving node and the
sender for each entry and modifying the next hop accordingly.

7. Periodic and Triggered Updates:

Nodes send their vector tables periodically to ensure ongoing synchronization.
Triggered updates occur when there is a change in the network, such as a link
failure or a received update from a neighbor.

8. Instability Issues:
Distance vector routing protocols can suffer from instability, leading to routing
loops.
Strategies like "split horizon" and "poison reverse" are employed to mitigate
instability issues and avoid loops.
9. Handling Infinity:
To prevent infinite loops, a predefined value (often 16) is considered as
"infinity" in the distance vector algorithm.

Distance vector routing algorithms, such as the Routing Information Protocol

(RIP), are widely used in simple network configurations, but they may have
limitations in larger and more complex networks.

PATH VECTOR

Path Vector Routing:

Path Vector Routing is a type of routing protocol used in computer networks,
particularly for interdomain routing. It is an extension of the distance vector
routing concept and is often employed in the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
for routing on the Internet

1. Conceptual Basis:
In Path Vector Routing, each autonomous system (AS) in a network has a
designated "speaker node" that represents the entire AS.
The speaker node maintains a routing table that contains information about
the paths to reach various destinations, both within its own AS and in other
ASs.

2. Initialization:
Initially, each speaker node only knows the reachability of nodes within its own
AS. It has limited information about the paths to other destinations.
3. Sharing Information:
Just like in distance vector routing, speaker nodes in an AS share their routing
tables with their immediate neighbors (other speaker nodes in neighboring
ASs).
Sharing occurs periodically or when there is a change in the routing table.

4. Updating Process:
hen a speaker node receives a routing table from a neighbor, it updates its own
table by incorporating the information received.
The update includes adding new destinations and updating the path
information.

5. Loop Prevention:
Path Vector Routing includes mechanisms to prevent routing loops. When a
router receives a message, it checks if its AS is in the path list to the
destination. If so, it avoids looping and ignores the message.

6. Policy Routing:
Policy routing is easily implementable in Path Vector Routing. A router can
examine the path information and make decisions based on its routing policies.
For example, a router may choose not to use a path that traverses certain ASs.

7. Optimum Path:
The concept of the optimum path in Path Vector Routing is subjective and
depends on the organization's criteria.
Different ASs may have multiple paths to a destination, and the choice of the
optimum path can be based on various criteria such as security, reliability, or
other organizational priorities.

EX:BGP (Border Gateway Protocol):

Types of Autonomous Systems in BGP:
Stub AS: Only has one connection to another AS.
Multihomed AS: Has more than one connection to other ASs but doesn't allow
transient traffic.
Transit AS: A multihomed AS that allows transient traffic. Typically, national
and international ISPs fall into this category.

External and Internal BGP:

External BGP (E-BGP) sessions are used for exchanging information between
speaker nodes belonging to different autonomous systems.
Internal BGP (I-BGP) sessions are used to exchange routing information
between routers within the same autonomous system.

LINK STATE
Link State Routing is a routing protocol used in computer networks, particularly
for intra-domain routing. It operates on the principle that each node within a
network possesses complete knowledge of the network's topology. This
understanding includes information about nodes, links, their connections,
type, cost, and condition. The protocol utilizes algorithms like Dijkstra's to
construct routing tables for efficient data transmission within the network.

1. Conceptual Basis :
Link State Routing relies on the idea that every node in the network has a
comprehensive understanding of the complete network topology.
This includes details about nodes, links, their types, costs, and conditions,
enabling the use of algorithms like Dijkstra's for routing.

2. Dynamic Topology :
The topology must be dynamic, representing the latest state of each node and
each link. This ensures that the network adapts to changes, such as a link going
down.
Each node contributes partial knowledge, knowing the state of its links. The
entire topology is compiled from the partial knowledge of each node.
3. Link State Packet (LSP) :
Nodes create Link State Packets (LSPs) to convey information about their links
and the state of the network.
LSPs include essential information such as node identity, the list of links, a
sequence number, and age.

4. Flooding :
After creating an LSP, nodes use flooding to efficiently distribute this
information to all other nodes in the network.
Flooding involves sending a copy of the LSP out of each interface. Nodes that
receive an LSP compare it with their existing copy, updating their information if
the new one is newer.

5. Shortest Path Tree :

After receiving all LSPs, each node has a comprehensive view of the entire
network.
The Dijkstra algorithm is then used to construct a Shortest Path Tree from the
network graph, determining the most efficient paths from one node to
another.

6. Dijkstra Algorithm :
The Dijkstra algorithm is employed to find the shortest path tree.
It involves dividing nodes into tentative and permanent sets, finding neighbors,
making them tentative, and eventually making some of them permanent based
on the cumulative cost criteria.

7. Routing Table Construction :

The routing table is constructed from the Shortest Path Tree using the shortest
path tree protocol.
It specifies the cost of reaching each node from the root, along with the next
router for each destination.

8. Comparison with Distance Vector Routing :

Despite their different approaches, Link State Routing and Distance Vector
Routing can lead to the same routing tables for nodes in the network.
OSPF ALGORITHIM
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Unicast Routing Algorithm:

Area Division :
OSPF divides an autonomous system into areas for efficient routing.

Area Border Routers (ABRs):

Routers within an area exchange routing information, and ABRs summarize
and share information between areas.

Backbone and Virtual Links :

All areas must connect to the backbone (Area 0).
Virtual links can be created by administrators to maintain connectivity in case
of a broken backbone link.
Metric Assignment and Types of Links :
Administrators assign a cost (metric) to each route based on factors like delay
or throughput.
OSPF defines four link types: point-to-point, transient, stub, and virtual.

Graphical Representation:
OSPF represents routers as square nodes and networks (designated routers) as
oval nodes in a graphical representation.

Routing Table Calculation (Dijkstra's Algorithm) :

OSPF routers use Dijkstra's algorithm to calculate the shortest path tree.
Dijkstra's algorithm involves dividing nodes into tentative and permanent sets
and finding the shortest paths efficiently.

Hierarchical Design :
OSPF uses a hierarchical design with multiple areas, contributing to scalability.

Convergence :
OSPF achieves fast convergence by updating only the affected parts of the
network when there are changes.
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) Overview:
1. Distance Vector Routing:
RIP utilizes the distance vector routing algorithm for intradomain routing
within an autonomous system.
Routers exchange information about reachable networks, maintaining routing
tables with destination networks, hop counts, and next-hop routers.
2. Network Structure:
Operates within an autonomous system, consisting of routers and networks.
Networks are identified by addresses, and routers facilitate packet forwarding
between these networks.
3. Hop Count Metric:
Measures the distance between routers using hop count, indicating the
number of networks a packet traverses.
Maximum hop count is 16, beyond which a route is considered unreachable.
4. Routing Table Example:
Routing tables record entries for each network, specifying hop counts and
next-hop routers.

5. Network Connectivity:
Directly connected networks have a hop count of 0.
Routers forward packets to the next-hop router to reach more distant
networks.
6. Limitations:
RIP has limitations, including slow convergence and potential routing loops.
Mitigated using mechanisms like split horizon and hold-down timers.
7. Updates and Stability:
Periodic updates: Routers broadcast routing tables to neighbors at regular
intervals.
Triggered updates: Immediate responses to network changes for real-time
adaptation.