4 TEACHING STRATEGIES IN HISTORY AND CIVICS

History may be defined as the study of the records of significant events, places, and people in the past that have
great Impact on the present. Vincent R. Rogers (Jarolimex, et. al. 1965: 145) in his paper entitled History for the
Elementary School Child suggests the following ideas in relation to the nature and goal of history:

History attempts to delineate, assess, interpret, and give a relative place to the efforts of people, important ideas,
and great national achievements.

History is not a body of precise memorizable facts; history is in a sense, constant controversy. Historians do not
always agree.

Historical interpretations change as man, examines events at different times and in different places.

History provides us with a series of case histories that may help us deal with contemporary affairs. History does
not, however, reveal to us unchanging laws or patterns of events.

- All historical events, were at one time, "open questions", just as today's decisions (which will become
tomorrow's history) are similarly open. We may not evaluate the choices made in the past and attempt to find
meaningful alternatives or possibilities for today's decision.

As a science, history may be of various types:

1. Social science-oriented versus humanities oriented. History may be presented through the use of the various
social science such as anthropology, economics, etc. with history as the integrating element. On the other hand
it may be presented with great emphasis on the series of man's achievements in the past.

2. Analytical versus narrative. Historians differ in their treatment of facts. Some present facts per se, because for
them, such is, objective history. History therefore, becomes essentially an inumeration of significant events.
Other historians are not satisfied with "objective" history. Thus, they seek to present an analysis-an
interpretative history. Through this historians, establish historical patterns, formulate relations between and
among events, define motives behind human and national movements. A "why" history becomes essentially a
presentation of cause and effect. A "how" history provides insight to the process by which events take place.

3. As a discipline, history may be classified as content-oriented, process-oriented, and value oriented. In a

content-oriented history, the subject matter is given the prime importance. Mastery of the significant events,
places, persons and things is the expected result. Process-oriented history gives emphasis to skill or competence
in arriving at the conclusion. It places great importance to the process which the child goes through to arrive at
the conclusion. Finally, the value- oriented history seek primarily to inculcate in the child values drawn from
the study of the subject matter. In this orientation, the content is seen as a means to develop the values of the
students rather than an end in itself.

In the elementary level, history indeed is a difficult subject in the curriculum. It is so, because of the
implications of its political, social and industrial aspects which are in general, belong to the adult world. It deals
with the actions and motives of grown-up men and women. It is actually a partial presentation of the whole
record of the past through which we partially see the struggles of human society. No matter how versatile a
historian is he will have to select only a part of the mass of information in the fields of history.

It is always difficult to select the subject matter to teach; more so in the elementary level, because it is the
beginning of the foundations of a historical habit of the mind. Therefore, there should be careful selection of
subject matter to ensure that the child's first encounter with it is an enjoyable one which he will always want to
have. A gradual ushering in of the child to the concepts of the adult world becomes imperative. The following
may be given consideration in selecting the subject matter of history.

1. The children's point of interest. Necessarily, this is the first guiding principle in the selection of subject
matter. (C.F. Strong 1960:27-37) Some subject matter may be very attractive and easy to understand for the
adults. For instance, adults can easily grasp the sequence of events as well as the significance of these events.
The young child, however is more attracted to stories of adventures and animals, lives of great men and women
(biographies), stories of travel and stories of child-life which are inherently a delight to the young minds. Care
must, however, be taken to avoid the degeneration of facts to mere anecdotes.

2. The child's entry behavior. The entry behavior of the child should be known so as to determine the amount
and kind of knowledge to which he will be exposed. This will determine to a certain extent the absorptive
capability of the child. Thus, the teacher will know the starting point of the lesson.

3. History is essentially a concept of time. While we mentioned earlier that the child is not much interested in
and may not fully grasp the sequence of events, one must be very careful so as not to effect the loss of the
concept of time without which, history will lose its flavor. Therefore, one can organize the subject matter
around central themes which are attractive to the young mind, yet are indicative of time and space.

4. Chronology of events. The chronology of events is another important flavor of history. The young mind can
easily assimilate the chronology of events in the stories. In this consideration, therefore the central themes
should be arranged in such a manner as to depict chronology in time.

5. Value of events. By virtue of the fact that events are recorded in history they must have their own
significance and worth. Behaviors of great men and women, the decisions they make, the thoughts they pro-
duce indicate the value of the socio-economic and political system they belong to, as well as their values as
person. From these, young children can draw their models. Therefore, in selecting which events are to be
emphasized, the development of positive models among the children should be greatly considered.

Structural Components of History

To appreciate the beauty of history, one has to understand its basic components which are necessary in building
conceptual frameworks in history learning. A careful treatment of each will bring about a total grasp of the
discipline.

1. Time. Time is essential to the study of history. It is the concept of time that gives meaning to the movements
and decisions of great men and women in history; it is the concept of time that help students of history
understand the occurrence of events. And again, it is the concept of time that helps one to see the development
of the struggle of man through the ages. To facilitate the student's understanding of time in history, historians
agreed to devise a means of periodization, i.ge. ancient times, modern times, etc., dividing history into periods
each of which has prevalent characteristics. Since periodization was made only by the historians, it is an
artificial delineation of time and should not be taken as absolutely perfect. Anybody can come up with a
periodization convenient for his purpose of study and, at the same time authentic.

The following are the periods which are often used in the study of history.

1. Prehistoric. It is a period for which no written record is available. For the sources of information in the study
of this period, history is heavily dependent on archeology and anthropology.
2. Historic. The period for which written record is available. For information about the period, historians are
dependent on primary and secondary sources. The historic period is further subdivided into:

2.1. Ancient Times. The period which is characterized by the emergence of great civilization in the East and in
the West In the East, the emergence of civilization in the rive valleys (Nile River Valley, Hindus River Valley,
Yellow River Valley, and the Tigris-Euphrates River Valley) are the most important considerations. In the
West; the rise of Greece and Rome is basically ancient.

2.2. Dark Ages in Europe and the Byzantine Empire. This is a brief interlude between the 5th and the 8th
century which is characterized by the barbarian invasion in Europe as well as the stagnation in its cultural
development. This phenomenon is coupled with the rise of the Byzantine Empire in the East, as well as the
emergence of the Muslim Empire.

2.3. The Medieval Ages. This period, known as the Age of Faith, is characterized by the emergence of the
church and its consequent influence over all aspects of life in Europe. During this age Feudalism was instituted,
towns and cities evolved, merchants guilds were organized, the crusade was launched and the seed of
nationhood was sown in Europe. In the East, the rise of the Ottoman Turks was assured.

2.4. The Age of the Renaissance. This period is characterized as the period of great scientific, political, and
cultural revolutions. The spirit of humanism was the greatest force of the Age and it affected all aspects of
human endeavor.

2.5. The Age of Discovery. Exploration and Expansion. This age is characterized by the meeting of the East and
the West, the adventures of seafaring men whose feats brought honor, wealth, and power to their native lands,
and led to the opening of the New World.

2.6. Contemporary Times. This period is characterized by the emergence of modern nationalism brought about
by great social, political, and economic revolutions. It witnessed the emergence of new nations, the gradual
elimination of monarchy and the rise of the republics. The influence of the "Great Thinkers" of Europe in the
Age of Enlightenment is an undeniably important characteristic of the time.

This period witnessed the great wars which shock the continents of the earth and which led leaders of nations to
agree, through the United Nations to maintain peace.

Since the periodization of history is arbitrary, changes can be done to suit the needs and interests of the pupils in
the elementary level. History is made by people; it is reconstructed by the historians. Vincent R. Rogers
forwards the following processes in the work of the historians.

The historian works basically with primary sources such as letters, diaries, traveller's log, newspapers and
magazines. These are the stuff of history.

The historian draws conclusions, formulates principles, and makes generalizations on the basis of his study and
interpretation of primary sources.

In evaluating sources, the historian is concerned with the authenticity of his material. He recognizes, for
example, that the time that lapses between the occurrence of an event and the reporting of an event often affects
the accuracy with which the event is reported; he is concerned with the author of the report, his interests and
qualifications, and basis.
The process of reconstructing History is painstaking. Often it is influenced by the historians outlook in life and
his own socio-cultural milieu. In presenting history, therefore, objectivity is an important consideration. It is
only through objectivity that the truth, which is an important characteristic of history, can be achieved. On the
other hand, subjectivity yields bias which the historian is liable to communicate to the students of history. Care
should be taken regarding this matter.

The Goal of History Teaching

History teaching is always meant to relate the present to the past, for it it through the understanding of the past
that one develops a grasp of the current events and, thus, make wise decisions for the future. History teaching is
also meant to provide models and inspiration for the pupils. Great men and women who can stand for bravery,
nationalism, courage, patriotism and other desirable values are so many in the books of history. Their lives can
serve as patterns worth emulating.
Finally, history teaching aims to develop among the children knowledge and skills, as well as values and
attitudes which will enable them to become worthy members of their community and good citizens of the
country.

CIVIC AND CULTURE

Social education in the past was considered a collection of separate subjects. Today it plays a vital role in the
development of the patterns of behavior of man. It consists of integrated components, two of which are civic
(political education) and culture (anthropology. As a political science, it concentrates on the processes,
behaviors and institutions; relations among political systems; public policies; and ideas and doctrines about
government and political system. The cultural branch of anthropology is most useful for it provides insights into
ways of behaving and models of various methods of solving human problems. Language has contributed
insights into improved reading materials. Artifacts provide actual models of cultures of the past. As a whole,
these two discipline of social education will lead to citizen training. (Donald Barnes 1969:11-19). Every
individual should be adequately informed about his social and physical environments and should have, his
individual capacities developed to the point where he can function successfully within the environments. As
stated in our National Development Goals and Educational Objectives, the individual should seek his own
identity as a Filipino and be a self-reliant and self-sufficient person. Acquisition of the correct facts, skills and
values through social education, specifically, active involvement in training related to civic responsibility, self-
realization and human relationships should enable one to become this kind of Filipino.

Citizenship education is not solely the responsibility of social studies, although it cannot be taken separately
from this subject, but is included in all subjects like languages, sciences, arts and others. It has this characteristic
of being flexible. There is also no single style or content of citizen education. Each country has its own idea of
what citizenship entails. It should be stressed that perhaps the most comprehensive of all social studies
education is helping young children become "good citizens". However, the development of a good citizen is a
much more complex task than that of transforming education into indoctrination. A social studies curriculum
should be addressed to multiple objectives-all of which would effectively contribute to the ultimate
development of a citizen committed to the ideals of democracy.

Citizen Education for Global Understanding

One concern of citizenship education shared by social studies education everywhere is the preparation of the
youth to live in an increasingly interconnected global world. From outer space, Earth may appear as a fragile
spaceship whose passengers live in a delicately balanced environment. An assault upon that ecological balance
by one segment would affect the entire human community. The interrelatedness of human kind may be a
platitude to some, but it is an overpowering fact of life to all.

Global interrelatedness has begun to influence the social studies curriculum. In many countries, the traditional
way of organizing social studies was done according to the "expanding environment". Children were first
introduced to their immediate environment (the home, school, and neighborhood); they then learned about ever-
expanding geographic areas until, finally, by grade six or seven they were permitted to study regions far
removed from their own homes and neighborhoods. Unfortunately, such a neat progression does not correspond
with the real experiences of the children. Given almost instantaneous global communications, more and more
young children receive messages from all parts of the world. The orderly progression implied by the "expanding
environment" is now irrevocatiy altered.

Citizenship education for global understanding seeks to develop in the learner not only a planetary perspective
but also the survival skills needed to ensure continued existence of human species. High on the priority list of
such skills are competencies in decision-making that people require when confronted with such global problem
as:

- How can we achieve a world population growth that would provide the optimum quality of life?
- To what extent can we permit individuals or groups of indivi- duals to pollute the environment so as not to
cause harm to others?
- What kind of world order should we strive to achieve?

While no one assumes that students in social studies classes are prepared

to comprehend fully, let alone, solve these problems, they illustrate problems that must be resolved by someone,
some time, in some manner. The decision-makers are fallable human beings who are now, or will be, students in
the world's school. Incremental but significant steps are now being taken in some social studies classrooms to
develop the basic skills to cope with such issues. The citizenship education purpose of social studies requires
attention to the persistent problems of the society. (Mehlinger 1981:26-27)

STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING HISTORY AND CIVICS

Introduction

The development of a well defined strategy to achieve the desired educational change is the task of curriculum
planners. Strategy is defined as a series of well-organized and closely-knit steps designed to achieve a set of
objectives. Strategy is a decision-making process, every part of which is dependent on one another. Any part of
it cannot be altered without affecting the other parts. For example, one decides to use the conceptual approach
in the development of his unit. Such decision will necessarily lead to other decisions such as what will be the
theme developed, what concepts and sub-concepts are to be used as organizing ideas, what activities should be
undertaken, in what sequence should they be undertaken to maximize the desired effect, what materials should
be used, and how these should be evaluated. The process of decision-making sometimes becomes even more
complicated as one tries to evaluate the Tectivity of a strategy.

The development of a strategy volves the following steps:

1. Planning This step involves the formulation of aims and objectives. It may be done by a group of teachers in
the school or only by one who handles the subject. During this state, the following factors are taken seriously:

1.1. The nature of the subject matter

1.2. The nature of the learner

1.3. The availability of materials

2. Execution This stage involves the implementation chosen. The skill, as well as the teacher's personality, are
important factors which influence the results of the strategy. During this phase the alert and observant teacher
can quickly detect the strength of weakness of the strategy. A quick assessment of the strategy may be done and
modification should be permitted without disrupting the smooth flow of the teaching- learning process.

2. Evaluation The final assessment of the effectivity of the strategy can be achieved by evaluating the extent of
achievement of the objectives. This aspect will be discussed later in this text.

As population continues to grow, more and more people participate in the making of history. The faster the
world population grows, the faster events happen, and the faster the discipline of history accumulates
knowledge. Volumes of information are printed each day so that even the most voracious reader in the world
cannot read them all. Thus, a teacher of history at any point in time will always find himself amidst a greater
volume of information to teach his pupil each year. What makes it even more hard for him is the realization that
the school year within which he has to deliver his wares to his pupils never expands. Such a phenomenon takes
it imperative for the curriculum planners and teachers of history to design teaching strategies which will equip
the students with the what and the how of the discipline. The what is the content which serves as the minimum
essentials of the discipline. The how is the means by which the pupils obtain the minimum essentials. It
involves the skills which the pupils should acquire to be able to use all the available materials around them.

✓GENERAL APPROACHES TO THE TEACHING OF HISTORY AND CIVICS

As in other disciplines, history may be taught through the use of either the inductive, deductive, or deductive-
inductive approach.
The inductive approach is the process of arriving at a certain body of knowledge by proceeding from the
specifics to the general principles. The figure below suggests how inductive approach may be utilized.

The deductive approach is the process of proceeding from the general to the specific. For example, using the
example "Revolution is change", the teacher proceeds through the study of specific cases in chronological
order: the social, political, economic and cultural revolutions during the Spanish and American occupations in
the Philippines.

Notice that this strategy is used to apply a given principle to various situations.

The third approach to the teaching of history is the inductive-deductive approach, which is a combination of
both operations. These approaches may utilize directed or discovery models. This nomenclature suggests the
role of the teacher. Using the directed model, the teacher participates strongly in the teaching learning process
by deliberately leading the class in achieving the desired behavior. She asks questions, dis cusses, and interacts
with the pupils about a given subject matter. The use of the discovery requires the teacher to act as a guide or as
a facilitator of learning. Thus, the teacher provides occasion for the learning process and stays in the
background, making pupil participation greater.

The succeeding discussions deal with the teaching strategies using inductive and deductive approaches and
utilizing directed and discovery models.

Directed

Inductive

Topic: Third World

1. Identify and discuss the attributes of Third World countries.

Ex. Third World countries are poor, mostly agricultural, have underdeveloped resources or little resources, have
been colonized, and are de- pendent on other countries.

2. Identify and discuss examples of Third World countries. Examples of these countries are the Philip- pines,
Angola, Argentina, etc.
Name countries that are not identified with the Third World. Example: The following do not belong to the
Third World countries: US, Britain, France, etc.

3. Make the pupils cite examples and non-examples of the concept. Example: What would you consider as
Third World countries? What would you consider as countries not belonging to the Third World?

4. Establish the general meaning of the concept. Example: Third World refers to the poor and under-developed
countries.

5. Make the pupils apply the concept in the classroom discussion.

Deductive

1. Present the concepts to be studied.

Ex. Today, we will focus our attention on Third World countries.
2. State the general meaning of Third World
Example: Third World refers to the poor and developing countries.

3. Identify and discuss example of the concept.

Example. Now we will study some Third World countries Philip- pines, Angola, Argentina.

4. Make the students identify and discuss other examples and non- examples

5. Make the pupils define the meaning of the concept

DISCOVERY

1. Provide an occasion for the pupils to observe some data for the development of the concept.
Example: What do you observe in these set of pictures? (The pictures are grouped into two sets, one set
showing poverty and desolation; another set showing afluence)

2. Make the pupils identify similarities and differences among the pictures presented.
Example: How are these pictures similar? How are these pictures different from one another?

3. Make the pupils classify.

Example: How shall we group these pictures?

4. Make the pupils group similar pictures under one big name.
Example: What title can we give to this group of pictures?

5. Make the pupils define the terms used and cite examples of each.
Example: Give some examples of Third World countries.

INQUIRY APPROACH IN TEACHING HISTORY AND CIVICS

The inquiry-oriented teaching strategy is meant to develop among the pupils knowledge, skills and attitudes
which will enable them to become independent problem-solvers in the future. The use of such strategy allows
the pupils to develop healthy questioning minds. It gives importance to divergent thinking versus convergent
thinking. From these, creative minds easily develops. A creative mind, therefore, is a pro- duct of an inquiring
mind a mind that does not accept as absolute all things that it perceives, rather, it probes into the depth and
breadth of the things perceived and finds new meanings in them.

Gross and his associates (De la Cruz 1974:182-183), evolved the following assumptions for the use of inquiry
approach (1) The writing of history is a continuous process. Knowledge of the past is incomplete. Only part of
all the things that happened can be known. Therefore, the narrative of history is tentative and absolute. History,
therefore changes as perception. (2) History is a study of interpretations and controversies, Understanding of the
what and the whys of events will help the pupils develop a better perspective of the present. Understanding the
motives of men in their interaction with each other will help the children appreciate more the meaning of
significant events. (3) Historical methods prepare children to face contemporary issues. The focus on the how
more than the what will equip the children with the skill for further study. (4) Historical method motives study.
The various inquiry strategies designed by John Michaels, on the other hand, are labelled under three headings:
problem-solving, decision- making, and development of the concept approach. Examples of these are presented
here. Teaching through the use of
problem-solving may also be used in history, contrary to mere receiving of information, problem-solving begins
with a question which serves to challenge the minds of the students. Such will also arouse in the student the
interest to learn. This approach, however, is sometimes ineffectively used by the teacher who raises problems
which are not relevant to their pupils. The wise teacher should remember that problems only when they are
relevant to the student's experiences and when they serve as challenge so that the children will desire to learn.
Raising a problem is not an automatic task. One's skill in questioning is needed to raise "good problems. An
example may be

Teacher's activity

Have you seen people fighting with each other?

Yes, ma'm.
How do they fight?
They shout to each other.
They hit each other.
They say bad things about each other.
They scream at each other.
They look at each other hard on the face.
What could be the cause of the fight?
They fight because they don't understand each other.
They were provoked by others.
They are rivals.
They side with one of two groups. Because their clans fight with each other.
Have you seen soldiers fight?
Yes, ma'm.
In your opinion, why do they fight?
They fight because they belong to nations fighting with each other.
Why do nations fight?
Do nations fight for the same reasons as individuals do?
Why did nations fight in 1914?
Problems raised may also put the pupils in a dilemma an uncomfortable condition which the pupils will desire
to resolve with the guidance of the teacher. An example follows:

What can the nuclear power plant contribute to the growth of the country?

How can it affect the environment?

Should the government pursue the construction of nuclear power plants?

Solutions to the problems are not automatically achieved. Dewey in his book How We Think, suggests steps
towards the solution of a problem which are discussed in the preceding chapter.

Now, let us look into the problem-solving model by Michaelis (Michaelis 1975: 333-334) which presents the
following steps:

1 . Clarifying and defining questions and problems. Example: How did our forefathers survive?

2. Recalling information and hypothesizing.

Example: What do you know about how our forefathers survived? What kinds of tools did they use?
How did they get their food?

3. Group discussion/buzz session/planning for the next step.

Example: In your opinion, what is the best way to find the information we need?
What questions do you like to answer?

4. Interpreting and classifying information.

Example: Do these pictures describe well our forefather's survival? Who, among our forefathers, used these
tools?

5. Further processing of information as needed.

Example: How can we group our data? Can we tabulate our data? What conclusion can you give?

6. Evaluating procedures and outcomes

Example: Are our information adequate? Do we need to know more? In which area of study do we need to
research more?

DECISION-MAKING MODEL

1. Define the issue or problem

Example: Why is it expensive to maintain world peace? Why is the SALT ineffective? How should world peace
be maintained.

2. Clarify goals and values and prioritize them.

Example: Should production of nuclear weapons be continued as
Means to maintain world peace? Are the various religious and spiritual movements enough to achieve world
peace?

3. Consider alternative ways to achieving objectives

Example: Which strategy would best solve the problem?

4. Examine the consequences of alternatives, choosing the best ones in terms of values and objectives.
MODEL FOR DEVELOPMENT OF MAIN IDEAS

The emphasis of this model is the development of concepts or general izations. It moves from the initiation of
the lesson through a series of activities to develop the concept or generalization and finally to the culminating
activity in which the students will formulate generalizations. An example of this is the model that follows:

1. Initiation of the lesson to arouse the interest of the students.

Example: What world problems are illustrated in this college?

2. Organizing a series of activities to develop the main idea.

Example: Presentation of pictures or slides showing the activities Of the United Nations in maintaining peace,
in helping the hungry nations, in providing assistance to the devel oping nations.

3. Formulation of generalization.
Example: The teacher guides the students in formulating generaIizations. Aotivities like making a scrapbook or
comic strips, sketching caricatures.

The use of the inquiry approach in History and Civics involves a variety of tools and techniques, which requires
the skillful use of both the teacher and the pupils. These techniques are sequentially arranged and serve as step’s
to arrive at the desired results. The following are some suggested techniques:

Field trips – This may be a trip within the neighborhood or other communities. A trip to museums historical
landmarks public buildings and centers of learning will provide the pupils with first. Hand information of how
things were in the past Such experiences will not only provide information but will also develop a greater
interest among the children. The use of field trips involves the following steps:

1.1. Setting and clarifying goals and objectives.

1.2. Preparing for the trip.
1.2.1. Seeking the approval of the school head.
1.2.2. Seeking the permission of the parents.
1.2.3. Making arrangements for the transportation
1.2.4. Preparing the students for the field trip; plan for group assignments, orient the children on the standards
of behavior expected, safety measures, appropriate dress, the place and time of assembly, and departure
time.
1.3. During the trip itself; guide the children on the important points to be observed. Help the students raise
questions and record data gathered.
1.4. Reporting of data gathered: Guide the children on how they are going to organize their data for
reporting. Help the students formulate observations and conclusions.
1.5 Evaluation of the trip: Gather feedback from the children.
Evaluate whether the formulated objectives were achieved.
Finally, get some suggestions from the children.

2. Simulation games. Simulation games are models of real life situa-tions. Guidelines are set so that the
participants will perform according to the expected outcome. The following steps may be taken:

2.1. Introduction: Describe the players’ role, provide the guidelines to be followed:
2.2. The game itself. Observe the players and the non-players. The alert teacher should be quick to note the
students’ behavior during the game.

2.3. Evaluation: The teacher evaluates how effective the game was in achieving the objectives, i.e. Can it
still be improved? Can the roles be more clarified? Can the rules be improved?

3. Interview, Interviews are helpful in providing the students with the experience of acquiring first hand
information from expert indivi-duals. The children’s parents, persons in the neighborhood and the
community are good prospects of interviewees. Persons who can offer a lot of information are the senior
citizens of the community who have witnessed many significant events taking place. The following steps
may be taken:

3.1. Introduction. Prepare the pupils for an interviewing expe-rience. Guide them in formulating questions
which are relevant to the objective. Orient the pupils on the materials which may be useful during the
interview such as a tape recorder, paper, pen, etc. A mock interview may be conducted in class to help the
more timid members of the class. Orient the pupils on the following steps.

3.1.1. Make an appointment with the interviewee.

3.1.2. Come on time during the scheduled interview, equipped with necessary tools.

3.1.3. Ask only relevant questions.

3.1.4 Thank the interviewee for the help extended.

3.2. Feedback. Help thePupils organize their data. Help the Pupils report the data in class, summarize the
data and formulate, conclusions.
3.3. Evaluation. Provide the pupils with the opportunity to assess the experience and their tools for the
interview. Ask suggestions if there are any.

INOUIRY APPROACH AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

The inquiry approach is basically a cognitive process. It provides the development of the various levels of
thinking by exposing the students to the various strategies for cognitive development. For this purpose the
teachers* art of questioning exposes the children to the gradual development of the levels of thinking.
Therefore, questions should be developmental. That is, each question provides for the development of the next
one. Hilda Taba designed strategies for this purpose, and is presented here in the order by which they are
recommended for use. (Mehlinger 1981: 141-142)

Concept Development
(Classifying)

1. What do you see (notice, find etc.) here?

2. Do any of these items seem to belong together?
3. Why would you group them this way?
4. What would you call these groups?
5. Could some of these belong to only one group?
 Applying Generalizations

1. Suppose that a particular event occurred given certain conditions. What would happen? (What would
happen if . . .?)
2. What makes you think that would happen?
3. Can someone give a different idea about what would happen?
4. If that happened, what do you think would happen after that?

John Michaelis (1972) developed strategies for the development of various levels of thinking. He grouped his
strategies into low-level processes and high-level processes.
The low level processes are recalling, observing, comparing/contrasting, classifying, defining, interpreting,
generalizing.

Recalling

Is the question (problem) clear?

What clues will help us to recall needed item?
Do examples given thus far make you think of others?

Observing

What do we need to find out?

What sources should we use?
How can we find out? By looking? Listening? Asking? Reading? Other ways?
How might our feelings affect what we observe?
How can we check our findings?

Comparing/Contrasting

What did you see? Hear? Read?

What features did you notice?
How are they alike?
How are they different?

Classifying

What did you see? Hear? Find?

Which ones may be grouped together?
Why can they be grouped this way?
What is a good name for the group?
Can they be grouped in other ways? On what basis?

Defining
What do you mean by _
How can we find the meaning?
What is a good way to define it? (By example, demonstration, analogy, Synonym, stating behavior? Stating
operations?)
Which definition is best in this situation?

Interpreting

What does this show? Contain? Tell?

What does it mean to you?
Can you explain the meaning in your own words?
How can you summarize the most important points?

Generalizing

What did you find?

What common elements are there?
What can we say in general?
Does our generalization hold up as we check other formation?

Higher level processes. Michaelis designed other strategies which use processed date. These strategies are used
to develop the higher level of thinking.

Namely, inferring, hypothesizing, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluation. Inferring involves readias b endeen
the lines. It is the process of predicting.

Iypothestzing is proposing and formulating a theory which can be legreg, if patheting data. Analyting them
together. Ivanat the whole into parts,

b. ie synthesizing is putting. Michaels stresS valuating is passing judgment over the worth of something.
Michaelis suggests the following strategy:

Inferring

What you find? Read? See? Hear?

What might have caused it?
Or, how, do you think they might have felt?
Or, why, do you think that happened?
What is your reason of saying or believing that?

Hypothesizing
What usually happens if –.? Or, what is the usual effect of._?Or, how is Related to-? Why do you think so?
What is a fair way to test our hypothesis?
What materials are needed? What conditions should be provided?
Do findings support it? Do we need more data? How should we collect it?

Predicting

What changes (trends, development) are shown here?

What do you think will happen in the future? Why?
What conditions are necessary for that to happen?
What basis should we use to make a prediction?
What information should we collect?
Should other facts be considered?

Analyzing

How do we break it into parts?

What main parts (types, reasons, causes) should be studied?
What is the meaning of each part? What does each include?
What information do we have on each part?
How are the parts related?

Synthesizing

How can we put the parts together in a new way?

What are the most important items to include?
How should they be organized?
In what form should they be presented?

Evaluating

What is to be appraised? What standard shall we use?

What information related to the standard do we have (or should get?
How fully is each standard met? If alternatives are to be evaluated ask;
What are the alternatives? What will be the consequences of each?
Which alternative best meets the standard?

Notice than in all of the strategies, the art of questioning serves as an important factor which shapes the success
or failure of the strategy. When carefully handled, questions will guide the students effectively to the
achievement of the desired behavior. They are able to organize and develop a conceptual framework in their
minds which provide for further fruitful learning.
 In civics as in history, the same strategy for the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor development of
the children may be used. Let us take Michaelis inquiry model as a working pattern. The example below puts
emphasis on the development of the main idea.

Step 1. Initiation of the concept

a. Present the following pictures:

- A crowd
- A group of people in a conference
- A crowd discussing certain ideas
- Activities of the community

b. Ask the pupils the following questions:

-What do you observe in the picture?

-Can the people perform their activities any way they want to?
-What do people need so that they can do their activities most effectively?
-What is a government?

Step 2. Organizing activities

a. Assign the pupils to read about the forms of government.

Step 3. Guide the pupils in the formulation of generalization.

Skill Teaching in History and Civics

The use of inquiry approach in teaching necessarily develops, among the pupils, inquiry skills which endure
longer than the knowledge acquired. In the previous discussions, it has been pointed out that the great emphasis
is the “how” rather than the “what”. The development of this skill will prepare the child to become a competent
inquirer and problem solver in the future. The inquisitive mind of the child is a very fertile ground in which the
seeds of the various inquiry skills can be sowed. Simple skills may be develop in the lower grades while
providing for the development of increased complexity of skills in the higher grades. Skill development in the
elementary grades may be developed along the lines, suggested by H. Carpenter (McCracken1965:1971-176).

1. Gathering information

1.1. Observing accurately-One of the first avenues to learning is accurate observation. It should be
emphasized that observing is more than just seeing, It means getting an impression of characteristics
beyond the surface of the observed. Opportunities to observe pictorials, models, graphic materials, and
the immediate environment should be provided for as often as possible.

1.2. Listening accurately-like observation, listening is a basic tool of learning. It is widely used in
understanding concepts. Listening je more than simply hearing. The child should be able to distinguish
similarities and differences in the things he hears.
 1.3. Reading accurately-There is abundance of information in printed materials. Skill is needed in the
treatment of these materials in history. The child should be given the opportunity to be able to identify
useful materials, sad through the lines, and interpret the information presented in the paragraph,
graphics, or tabular forms. Closely related to the ability of the child to read accurately is the possession
of a wide vocabulary. In the lower grades, simple words may be used which will become increasingly
complex in the higher levels.

1.4. Interpreting Maps and Globes correctly-Since history is basically dealing with events, people and
places, ability to interpret maps and globes is essential in the understanding of history. By the end of the
child’s elementary grades, he must have been able to acquire skill in locating Places, interpreting
legends, differentiating the various kinds of maps, and relating geographical characteristics with the
history of a country.

2. Interpreting information

2.1 Organizing logically-The skill to put together data gathered into a meaningfu whole may be developed at the
elementary level. The child should acquire the ability to put under one table all the data which should rightfully
belong to it. Such process surely requires logical thinking. He should acquire the skill to take down important
notes, make an outline, construct a simple table of contents, and detect the main idea and supporting idea. A
child cannot master all these skills at the same time. But they are closely related to one another such that the
development of one leads to the development of the others.

2.2. Evaluating accurately-The highest possible skill which one can develop is the skill to evaluate, Evaluation
based on critical thinking. This is manifested by the ability of the child to judge information as worthy or not,
relevant or irrelevant. When presented with various conclusions or courses of actions, he can weigh the
implications and judge the condition as right or wrong, acceptable or not.

2.3 Handling concepts involving time and chronology – This involves the skill to deal with time and space; with
Experience will help the chronological relationship of events in history. The child may be developed along this
line by providing time and events, perhaps by beginning to record his own personal experiences in chronology.
From his, personal experiences, he can shift his record to more serious events in history. Through this, the child
can see the relation between events as they happen one after another.

3. Communicating information
3.1. Speaking effectively - In history and civics, oral communication skills may be developed using the
following methods: discussion reporting, interviewing, simulation, and dramatization. These experiences train
the child to communicate his thoughts through the use of the proper vocabulary words in front of a small or
large audience. This child develop self-confidence, and become articulate and precise in oral expression.

3.2. Writing clearly - In history and civics, there are various opportunities opportunities for developing the skill
to write. This is provided for opportunities to express oneself in reports, graphics of favorite historical
characters.

Working well with others

Opportunities to develop social skills in the study of history and civics are plenty. The child can develop along
this line by providing him the opportunity to join work groups, lead group discussions or projects, and initiate
programs. These experiences will enable the child to relate well and establish rapport with those in his social
environment.
Below is a model for developing a child's skill in dealing with space and direction. This model was
suggested by Sabaroff (Sabaroff 1965: 243-249))
 Objective: At the end of the lesson, the pupils should be able to use correct terms in indicating direction
and location.
Grade level: Grade I
Procedure:
Step 1: Ask the children to bring down some small toys like cars, houses, soldiers, small plastic plants,
sand, etc.
Step 2: Group the children and instruct each group to make its own "Wonderland." They should show
the following: street, rivers, hills, houses, people.
Step 3: Ask the children to label or give a name orally to the dif- ferent places they have in the
"Wonderland".
Step 4: a. Ask the children to give the direction and location of each place using the terms: East, West,
North, and South. b.
Ask the children to describe the landform

This experience not only develops among the children skill in giving direction and locations but has also
provides an opportunity for the development of social skin develop the then the children can work with each
other and find chance to develop the right attitudes during their interaction where their classmates.

Forming Values Through History and Civics

The teaching of history and civics does not end with the development of concepts and skills. It should end with
the formation of a value system by the person. What is a value system? To understand a value system, one must
understand what values are. According to Fraenkel (Fraenkel, 1973) values are concepts. They, therefore, exist
in the mind and are not material things. The study of values may be divided into two aspects: aesthetics, which
refers to the consideration of what is beau- d, ethics, which refers to the consideration of the rightness or
wrongness of a conduct or behavior.
Values constitute certain standards of what is beautiful, right, desirable, and preferable. The organization of
these things which the person considers of value to him constitute his value system. It is greatly affected by the
macro system within which the person lives. Thus, the value system of a person is a product of his interaction
with the immediate social, cultural, political, and economic system which constitute the macro system.
Conscious of the great effect which the macro system has on the value system of a person, the school
endeavors to guide the child towards the formation of desirable values. In this connection, the teacher of history
and civics, seeks to help the child to identify values as well as to clarify them. Identification of values is the
process through which the child precisely pinpoints things, objects, conducts, etc. which he considers are
worthy. He knows why they are worth. On the other hand, to clarify values is to consider and analyze values as
they apply to particular situations. Through value clarification, the child is able to identify the value clearly and
give reasons for its acceptance.
The teacher of history and civics should consider that a true value really exists if the following requisites have
been satisfied:
First: There must be a free choice between and among alternatives.
Second: There must be preference of the thing over others.
Third: There must be commitment to the value in terms of action.

Teaching Values in the Classroom

Teaching values in the classroom entails the consideration of two kinds of values the pedagogical values and the
non-pedagogical values. Pedagogical values are values which can be drawn from the stories or lessons in the
classroom. What values should the teacher teach the pupils? Values which are justifiable? Which are
defensible? The teacher must clearly know why be chooses a particular value. She must clearly convey this to
the pupils. In history for example, the teacher can teach about nationalism as drawn from the various stories of
revolutions. Other values such as bravery, courage, cooperation, civic consciousness, patriotism, industry,
sincerity, and respect for human lives are but a few of the many pedagogical values which can be taught in a
history class. These values are defensible and can be proven empirically. It does not mean, however, that
because the teacher teaches values, the child passively accepts what is taught. The child should analyze the
value endorsed by the teacher. In the elementary level, it is hard to presume that the child will analyze the
values presented to him. Nevertheless, it is safe to assume that the child becomes increasingly discriminating
regarding the values discussed in class as he grows in age. When the kindergarten teacher says eating junk food
is bad, the child might accept it as absolute. But sooner or later, the child will ask the question "why". Then the
teacher must be ready to justify what he has taught. As the child grows older, he might even be analyzing the
justification itself as acceptable or not. In analyzing what kind of values are to be taught in the classroom,
Faenkel cited the following value-claims:
1. Personal value-claims- This refers to the preference of the person as a matter of taste. Thus, when a person
says I like yellow more than any other color, he only means to say he likes it as a matter of taste. It does not
imply that other colors are bad. Similarly, the teacher may say, "I like the story of the French Revolution most."
It does not mean that other stories of revolutions are less important.
2. Market value-claims - This is not based on the individual's matter of opinion. It is a statement one makes to
convey the fact that something is of worth in the general market; that some people, by analyzing and comparing
it with other items in the general market are willing to pay for it. The market value is not absolute. It fluctuates
according to certain factors.
3. Real value-claims- This refers to the worth of something over other things after taking a set of criteria into
consideration. Thus, something has worth not because of a personal opinion or the number of persons willing to
pay for it, but because, all things considered, it is objective- ly better than the other choices. Examples of this
are respect for the rights of others, nationalism, etc.
4. Moral value-claims This is a special particular claim which takes into consideration the area of morality.
This, of course, is greatly affected by one's religious and theological beliefs. Thus, a behavior or conduct may
be acceptable or not according to the belief of a person. In a Catholic school, for instance, moral values are
taught according to the words of God. By considering these value-claims, the child can determine to which
things he will give importance. The role of the classroom teacher is to help the child develop the necessary skill
to analyze and evaluate values. The other type of values is the non-pedagogical values. These are values
basically drawn from the child's interaction with the immediate environment. His interaction with the teacher
makes him pick up values which are endorsed by the teacher's own behavior and conduct (modeling). Examples
are the manner by which the teacher considers quest for knowledge, the teacher's reaction to the issues of the
day, his involvement in the social functions in the campus, his reaction towards various kinds of people, the
manner by which he conducts himself, and the virtues and ideals for which he stands. These are non-
pedagogical values which are communicated by the teacher to the pupil consciously or unconsciously, in the
process of relating with him in formal and informal settings. For most pupils, their values are not clear to them.
They behave according to some set standard. In the process, they acquire the habit of acting or conducting
themselves in a manner expected to them without really understanding the reason for it. For example, a child is
told in his young age to drink milk everyday because it is good. As he grows older, it becomes so much a part of
his daily meal, that he would prefer it more than any other beverage. It is possible that in most cases it is true,
that the child is not really clear on why he should drink milk, or why others should drink it. To help the child
clarify his values, the teacher of history may use value clarification. Note this example given.

Step 1.
Discuss the Battle of Mactan.
Step 2.
Ask the pupils to characterize Magellan and his companions; Lapu-lapu his companions. Let them identify their
characters as persons.
Step 3. Ask the pupils the following questions:
Why did Lapu-lapu fight the Spaniards? If you were living in those times, would you have made the same
decision? Why?
Through this strategy, the teacher can (hopefully) identify the value in the story and identify the child's value as
well. The child can also clarify the reason for his preference. Thus, the child's choice is made clear to him. This
is exactly what we want to develop among our pupils: to develop values which are well founded. Equipped with
such well- founded values, the child can face great challenges, and make decisions which he can stand for.
SUMMARY

The teaching of history and civics in elementary education should start with the understanding of the nature of
the subject matter. History may be seen as science, and as such, it may be social science-oriented or humanities
oriented, subject matter- oriented, and value-oriented.
In the selection of subject matter contents for history in the clementary grades care should be taken to take into
account the following factors: the children's point of interests, the child's entry behavior, the concept of time,
chronology of events, and value of events. To appreciate of the beauty of history lies in the understanding of its
conceptual framework which is in reference to time.
Social education is provided for by the discipline called subjects and culture. As the name suggests, it is
anchored on political education and anthropology. It stressed on the study of the child's physical and social
environment and how the child can perform a role in such an environment. Thus, in the end, the child is
expected to develop knowledge and skills, values and attitudes which will prepare him for an active citizenship
role in the country.
The study of these disciplines should provide the child with a chance to develop critical thinking. Thus,
more emphasis is given the development of skills in acquring knowledge rather than the knowldge itself. The
turn of the century witnessed the occurence of rapid growth and development in all areas of human
considerations. Such phenomenon resulted to knowledge explosion. Today, the child can only learn a little of
what there is to learn in the environment. To maximize the child's opportunity to learn as much as his mind can
absorb, the child should develop an inquiring mind- a mind capable of searching, analyzes what it sought: sifts
what it analyzes; and creates a meaningful whole from what it sifts.
The child too, is confronted with complexity in life. Amidst this complexity, he has to make choices and
decisions. To prepare the child for this, the teacher should provide for classroom experiences allowing the child
to identify and clarify this values. This will develop in the child a héalthy attitude towards himself and others.
All of these approaches aim to develop an increasingly independent and self-reliant child who can assume
mature roles in the society.