The Need for Cosmopolitan Literacy in a Global Age: Implications for Teaching Literature

Author(s): Suzanne S. Choo

Source: Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, Vol. 62, No. 1 (July/August 2018), pp. 7-
12
Published by: International Literacy Association and Wiley
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26632932
Accessed: 14-10-2023 12:56 +00:00

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Wiley, International Literacy Association are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve
and extend access to Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy

This content downloaded from 103.59.198.110 on Sat, 14 Oct 2023 12:56:56 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 COMMENTARY INTERNATIONAL

LITERACY
ASSOCIATION

The Need for Cosmopolitan Literacy

in a Global Age: Implications for
Teaching Literature
Suzanne S. Choo

Cosmopolitan literacy, entailing critical ethical engagements with diverse cult

values, is best developed through literature that provides opportunities for stu
evaluate ethical values, explore ethical dilemmas, and engage with issues of jus

with diverse values in our globalized world. In this

scholars have employed a range of adjectives, such essay, I discuss the principles informing cosmopolitan
In their attempts to characterize the 21st century,
as flat (Friedman, 2007), networked (Castells, 2010), literacy and how it can be developed through literature.
liquid (Bauman, 2000), and neoliberal (Chomsky, 1999).
These are now commonly used to describe the effects
of global interconnectedness occurring via the mobility
Five Principles of
of capital, information, and people. On a bleaker note, Cosmopolitan Literacy
this century has also witnessed numerous instances of Cosmopolitanism, translated from Greek, refers to citi
global violence, such as terrorism. zens of the world. Although there are overlaps between
Given the realities of an increasingly connected, com the terms global citizen and cosmopolitanism, some
plex, and conflicting age, governments and policymak subtle distinctions should be made. Global citizenship
ers around the world are recognizing the importance of is an "umbrella term for social, political, environmen
global education. The field of literacy has not been im tal, and economic actions of globally minded individu
mune to the pressure to globalize. Efforts to expand the als and communities on a worldwide scale" (United
scope of literacy studies may be traced to a social turn Nations, n.d., para. 1). This umbrella term encompasses
from the late 1970s that problematized traditional psy at least five different discourses: neoliberal, national
chological approaches studying literacy as a cognitive ist, Marxist, world justice, and cosmopolitan (Gaudelli,
phenomenon (Gee, 2015). During this period, the emer 2009). Neoliberal, nationalist, Marxist, and world jus
gence of New Literacy Studies lent attention to the ways tice versions essentially promote global citizenship for
that reading, writing, and other meaning-making prac desired ends, which could be directed at strengthening
tices are embedded in social and material contexts. free market practices, patriotism, egalitarianism, and
Today, the notion of literacy must account not merely the institutionalization of universal laws such as hu
for social processes but also for global processes. The man rights. Conversely, cosmopolitan ends are directed
global turn in literacy studies affirms the cultural andtoward questions of ethics, particularly how we can ap
linguistic diversity of students and acknowledges the proach others more humanely and hospitably.
need to empower them with a plurality of literacies—
critical, digital, information, and multilingual literacies,
among others—to prepare them for future workplaces SUZANNE S. CHOO is an assistant professor in the
Department of English Language and Literature at
that are more globally connected than before. Among
the National Institute of Education, Nanyang
the range of new literacies, the most fundamental is cos Technological University, Singapore; email suzanne.
mopolitan literacy because it entails critical, aesthetic, choo@nie.edu.sg.
and empathetic skills and dispositions needed to engage

Journal of Adolescent b Adult Literacy Vol. 62 No. 1 pp. 7-12 7 doi: 10.1002/jaai.755 © 2018 international Literacy Asso

This content downloaded from 103.59.198.110 on Sat, 14 Oct 2023 12:56:56 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 COMMENTARY

The ethical ground of cosmopolitanism has aother-centric

long in nature because it is focused on un
lineage rooted in the ideals of Cynic and Stoic philoso
derstanding and engaging others, particularly those
phers in ancient Greece who conceived of moral whoobare marginalized or oppressed. The other-centric
ligation beyond the confines of family or nation and of cosmopolitan ethics has been discussed by
nature
advocated a universal commitment to all human beings
prominent philosophers such as Levinas (1998), who
argued that the self is innately relational and con
(Brown, 2006). In our present-day climate of extremism
and xenophobia, cosmopolitanism has come intotinually
popu pushed to move beyond its own subjectivity
lar use once again in recognition of the need totoward
build a sense of responsibility for the other. This
more tolerant societies. If globalization was theintersubjective
buzz force is also present in language that
word of the mid-20th century, cosmopolitanism functions
is now not merely as a tool for communication but
the fashionable term of the 21st century (Mignolo,also
2010).
as a means through which we can understand the
The following five principles are central to cosmopoli
other and develop shared goals for collective action
tan ethics: (Habermas, 1984).

1. Anti-fundamentalist: Despite cosmopolitanism's many5. Dialogic: Cosmopolitanism is not a passive concept

adjectival variations, such as everyday (Beck, 2006), aes but an active one. It is relational in nature, seeking
thetic (Papastergiadis, 2012), multimodal (Vasudevan, affinity with others without the erasure of differ
2014), and strategic (Choo, 2016), the one commonality ence (Baildon & Damico, 2011). In practice, cosmo
is that cosmopolitanism is essentially characterized politan ethics is best acquired through critical
by what it opposes, namely, fundamentalism demon dialogue rather than top-down imposition of truths.
strated by an intolerance toward differences. The term Through intercultural encounters and interactions,
is often invoked to stress the need to empathize with an individual is able to transcend his or her own sub
others who hold different beliefs. In this sense, cosmo jectivity and perceive issues from multiple lenses,
politanism has been described as "the human face of as well as reexamine his or her own values (Delanty,
globalization" (Cheah, 2006, p. 19). 2011).

2. Dispositional: Cosmopolitanism has tended to be dis

In summary, I define cosmopolitan literacy broadly
cussed in terms of "an orientation toward self, others,
as reading, writing, and other meaning-making prac
and world" (Hansen, Burdick-Shepherd, Cammarano,
tices grounded on these five principles, which facilitate
& Obelleiro, 2009, p. 587); an "outlook" that allows
one "to break out of the self-centred narcissism of
critical ethical engagements with diverse cultures and
values in our world.
the national outlook" (Beck, 2006, p. 2); and a "state of
mind or a mode of being in the world" (Marotta, 2010,
p. 112). The terms orientation, outlook, and mode of be
ing presuppose cosmopolitanism as a character dis
Facilitating Cosmopolitan Literacy
position. Unlike skills that can be visibly taught Through the Literature
and
measured, dispositions are acquired through one's In the classroom, teachers can employ literature to facil
itate cosmopolitan literacy in three main ways: evalua
learning, experiences, and practices that contribute
to long-term character formation (Webber, 2015). tions of ethical values, explorations of ethical dilemmas,
and engagement with issues of justice.
3. Openness to difference: Contemporary scholars have
conceptualized new cosmopolitanism to counter an
older, enlightenment view that perpetuates a uni
Evaluations of Ethical Values
versalism masking the values of Western modernity.
Literature provides one of the most powerful avenu
Conversely, the idealized new cosmopolitan accom
for students to explore questions about ethics. Eth
modates forms of belonging that are multiple rather
stems from the Greek term ethos, which denotes ch
than monolithic and embraces the hybrid identity of
acter. Ethics entails the study of human character a
cosmopolitan patriotism (Appiah, 1997), in which one
character relationships. In this sense, the literary te
may remain connected to the values of one's commu
functions as a prime site for ethical contemplation b
nity while being open to values from other cultures.
cause it allows students to observe how characters gro
and change in various contexts. In the process, studen
4. Other-centered: The goals of cosmopolitan ethics are
not targeted at benefiting the market, a nation, orare
a able to reflect on the process of character formati
specific community or institution. Rather, the goalincluding
is their own.

Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy Vol. 62 No. 1 8 July/August 2018 literacyworldwide.org

This content downloaded from 103.59.198.110 on Sat, 14 Oct 2023 12:56:56 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
COMMENTARY

Often in their discussions of literature, students plot structure

are are emphasized. However, as Hillocks
called on to make judgments about various characters. (2016) argued, "high school curricula do not make it
Students may claim that one character is admirable clear that,
and at the core, literature is concerned not only
another dishonorable and find examples to substanti with character, plot, and setting but with moral...and
ate their points. However, students are seldomphilosophical pushed issues" (p. no).
to critically evaluate the philosophical underpinnings Essentially, the operating mechanism that drives
tied to their judgment of various characters' virtues a narrative
and toward its denouement is tied to the ethi
vices. cal dilemma faced by characters. These are not merely
For example, Malvolio in William Shakespeare's play conflicts between individuals and their society but also
Twelfth Night is commonly categorized as an antagonist problems requiring characters to make moral decisions
and criticized for his puritan behavior. Yet, students or that reveal a community's moral value system.
should also examine why puritanism was regarded as In Margaret Atwood's short story "Dancing Girls,"
a negative virtue in 17th-century Elizabethan society. a foreigner from a Middle Eastern country arrives in
They can also investigate the rise of the Puritans during Canada and rents a room from a local who becomes
that period, their philosophical ideas, and the political suspicious of his behavior. Through the perspectives
reasons for why the word puritan became a pejorative of its characters, the story presents two ways of dem
term. The point is to highlight how the values that we onstrating hospitality to the foreigner: the assimila
employ in our judgment of others are tied to specific cul tion approach in which the foreigner is accepted only if
tures and histories and are undergirded by particular he abides by the customs of the country and the prag
philosophical ideas. matic approach in which the foreigner is free to do as
If students are not given sufficient opportunities to he pleases as long as he does not cause trouble for oth
critically evaluate the historical and philosophical un ers and contributes to society. In class, students can use
derpinnings of values, they may uncritically follow thethe text as a launchpad to discussing the strengths and
author's value judgment of others. Damrosch (2009) limitations of these approaches to the treatment of for
advocated the importance of learning to "read around eigners (e.g., laborers, refugees, asylum seekers), as well
within a tradition to gain a sense of its coordinates—its as considering other viable strategies. To what extent
writers' characteristic forms, metaphors, and methods" can laws ensure that the essential dignity and rights of
(p. 23). It is also important to read around the text to un these individuals are not compromised? How can our
derstand the writer's ethos or ethics. That is, what are treatment of foreigners prompt us to rethink and re
the philosophical underpinnings of the text, and how flect on our own cultural values and norms?
are they articulated through characters and their val As Nussbaum (1997) argued, compared with philo
ues? How do these values then motivate characters to sophical and expository texts, moral dilemmas are
more vividly brought to life in literature. Here, we
act, and how are readers influenced by the text to judge
them positively or negatively? witness characters immersed in rich contexts, expe
To incorporate ethics in the teaching of literature,
riencing human vulnerability, and struggling to make
Booth (1998) suggested that one should include a workdifficult choices. The classroom can offer a safe space
that one finds ethically flawed, whose values students
for students to ask questions about complex real-world
may find repugnant, and then include a rival text that
ethical problems related to justice, suffering, and hu
problematizes the values of the first. Such strategies
man dignity.
can catalyze students' cosmopolitan mindedness notPositioning literature as a vehicle for ethical in
only through exposure to diverse world literature but
quiry addresses one common misconception about the
also through empowering students with metacognitiveconnection between literature and ethics. Such a view
sensitivity to examine how values permeate texts and
was popularized by aestheticists who believed that art
how there can be a multiplicity of values informingshould
an be appreciated for its own sake and that the
issue across different cultural texts. value of a work should be disconnected from its moral
content (Posner, 1997). More significantly, they argued
that reading literature does not make one a more moral
Explorations of Ethical Dilemmas person and that attempts to use literature for moral ed
Like the analysis of character, discussions about plot in ucation can dangerously result in indoctrination.
literature often disregard any engagement with its ethi These arguments, however, misleadingly conflate
cal framing. Typically, key skills such as comprehendingthe distinction between ethics and morality. Whereas,
the story, synthesizing elements of story, and analyzingas mentioned previously, ethics refers to character, the

Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy Vol 62 No. 1 9 July/August 2018 literacyworldwide.org

This content downloaded from 103.59.198.110 on Sat, 14 Oct 2023 12:56:56 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 COMMENTARY

term morality, which comes from the Latin moralis,virtuedein relation to another, not only in what concer
notes customs or manners (Thiroux, 2001). Moral edu
himself" (p. 119). Similarly, Kohlberg (1981) argued th
cation deals with right and wrong according to"virtue
specificis not many, but one, and its name is justice" (
social conventions. It is akin to normative ethics, which
39). Well known for theorizing the stages through whi
concerns how one ought to act in given situations.children progress in moral reasoning, Kohlberg argue
In this sense, aestheticists are right to caution
thatthat
at the highest levels, moral reasoning extends b
literature should not be used for moral education,yond beself-interest, community or familial affiliation
cause this can reinforce hegemonic values of andthose
deference to social authority toward universal pri
in power. One is reminded of how German folktales ciples of justice.
One of the central tasks of educators is to push st
were taught in schools to inspire a nationalistic spirit
and instill pride in the supremacy of the Aryan dentsrace
toward higher stages of reasoning in which th
(Kamenetsky, 1984). increasingly have to adopt a more cosmopolitan, no
At the same time, when ethical critics such asparochial
Booth, perspective, considering questions about
Gregory, and Nussbaum argued for literature as fairness
a vehi and rights of minorities and other individua
cle for ethical inquiry, their arguments were premised
whose values and circumstances may be different from
not on a normative approach to ethics. Rather, theirtheir
own.
In the classroom, teachers can encourage students
point was that literature is a site for analytical ethics
concerned with the analysis of normative claims to engage
(Choo, with justice at two levels: positive justice and
deliberative
2017; Willmott, 1998). Such an inquiry raises such ques justice. On one level, engagements with
tions as, What are the grounds for claims that positive
a char justice deals with that "aspect of justice that
acter is good or evil, and who determines this? What with who in society should get what pro
is concerned
portion of the available resources, praise, and other
binary tensions are implicit in the ethical dilemma,
rewards" (Damon, 1979/1994, P-191)- In short, positive
which side does the implied author take, and why?
Literature invites analytical ethical inquiry given
justice is concerned with fairness and equality for a par
that moral questions permeate narratives and are community.
ticular of
ten the primary impetus compelling authors to write.The concern about positive justice is perhaps one of
A fundamental aspect of cosmopolitan literacy the most common topics explored in literature. For ex
involves
attuning students to the ways that ethical dilemmas
ample, through George Orwell's Animal Farm, students
are embedded in complex systems of power that candiffer
discuss how profits can be equally shared among
across time and space, thus requiring analysisvarious contributing groups in society. In Haruki
that is
multidimensional and layered. Murakami's short story "The Elephant Vanishes," stu
dents can explore how, in capitalist economies, re
sources should also be channeled to those who can
Engagement With Issues of Justice no longer contribute to society's progress, such as the
elderly. What principles of fairness should be applied
Reading, writing, and other meaning-making practices
are dynamically interrelated to the world. As then?
FreireWhat local and universal laws can ensure the jus
(1985) reiterated, "reading the word is not only distribution
pre of wealth and resources, as well as the fair
ceded by reading the world, but also by a certainprovision
form of opportunities?
of writing it or rewriting it" (p. 18). CosmopolitanClosely
lit related to positive justice is deliberative jus
tice. Grounded on a vision of deliberative democracies,
eracy essentially positions reading, writing, listening,
speaking, and viewing not as disembodied skillsitsbutmost
as important characteristic is its reason-giving
requirement.
intertwined with the realities of our world, including its That is, decisions about just and fair
treatment of others must be justified in ways that ar
ethical values and dilemmas. Additionally, the substan
tive content of cosmopolitan literacy practices accessible
is cen to others, publicly open to discussion and
tered on issues of global injustice. continuing dialogue (Gutmann & Thompson, 2004). I
Although various scholars have examined a schools,
range even student-centric pedagogical approache
such as group work and discussion can counter th
of cosmopolitan values, such as empathy (Beck, 2006;
spirit of deliberation when they emphasize competition
Nussbaum, 1997) and hospitality (Choo, 2013; Delanty,
or inher
2006), one central value is justice because of its empower those who are more assertive or rhetor
cally skilled (Lefrançois & Ethier, 2010).
ent other-oriented impulse. Of all the virtues described,
Deliberative justice, conversely, resists the ego's pro
Aristotle (1985) identified justice as the most superior
pensity to dominate by emphasizing perspective-taking
"because the person who has justice is able to exercise

Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy Vol. 62 No. 1 10 July/August 2018 literacyworldwide.org

This content downloaded from 103.59.198.110 on Sat, 14 Oct 2023 12:56:56 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
COMMENTARY

Here, students need to account for the point of social view ofpractices. Going forward, students should also be
multiple groups and weigh the individual's and society's equipped to critically evaluate diverse values, explor
obligations to them (Krogh, 1985). These groups ethical include dilemmas, and engage with issues of global in
foreign and transnational citizens residing within justice.
and Literature provides a powerful gateway to suc
beyond the nation. Deliberations should ideally ethical lead to encounters with lived experiences of individual
transformative actions that improve the lives ofatothers various times and places around the world and offer
in the world. insights into cultures that students may not necessari
Pedagogical approaches such as literature circles have access to. Although there are legitimate fears tha
and simulated forums can potentially model the envi an emphasis on ethics may dilute aesthetic appreciation
ronment and discourses of deliberative democracy and of texts, overattention to style and form in the last ce
attune students to various kinds of cosmopolitan dispo tury has led to the neglect of literature's ethical poten
sitions such as a capacity to listen to others and to sus tial. In today's volatile climate, it is no longer sufficien
pend judgment. Literary texts can also help students for students to be passive appreciators of languag
envision what deliberative democracy, along with its Instead, they should be empowered to be active globa
opposite, autocracy, may look like and so enable them to citizens who are attuned to injustices and inequalities
reflect on the strengths and limitations of various sys arising from global capitalism and who can demo
tems of power. strate empathy for diverse others in the world.
For example, in the short story "The Free Radio"
by Salman Rushdie, readers are given a glimpse of REFERENCES

what happens when government policies such as ster
ilization are implemented in authoritarian ways with
their objectives masked and local citizens not able to
make informed choices. Some literary texts are aes
thetically structured to facilitate perspective-taking,
such as R.J. Palacio's young adult novel Wonder, which
centers on a boy with facial defects and is told from
the perspective of the boy, his sister, his friends and
his sister's boyfriend. An extended version of the
book also includes the perspective of a boy who bul
lied him. Throughout the book, these perspectives
intersect and interrupt the narrative, allowing stu
dents the opportunity to construct a more holistic
understanding of issues such as adolescent identity
and belonging.
Going further, cosmopolitan literacy practices
should also translate into informed activism. Kohlberg
(1985), in advocating the formation of a just commu
nity within the school, envisioned students deliberat
ing with teachers and peers about the kinds of moral
norms that would characterize school culture. Beyond
school culture, instructional strategies could include
opportunities for students to connect with youths from
Appiah, K.A. (1997)- Cosmopolitan patriots. Critical Inquir
23(3), 617-639. https://doi.org/10.1086/448846
Aristotle. (1985). Nicomachean ethics (T. Irwin, Trans.). Indi
polis, IN: Hackett.
Baildon, M., & Damico, J.S. (2011). Social studies as new liter
cies in a global society: Relational cosmopolitanism in t
classroom. New York, NY: Routledge.
Bauman, Z. (2000). Liquid modernity. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
Beck, U. (2006). The cosmopolitan vision (C. Cronin, Trans
Cambridge, UK: Polity.
Booth, W.C. (1998). The ethics of teaching literature. Colleg
English, 61(1), 41-55- https://doi.org/10.2307/379057
Brown, E. (2006). Hellenistic cosmopolitanism. In M.L. Gill
P. Pellegrin (Eds.), A companion to ancient philosophy (p
549-558). Maiden, MA: Blackwell.
Castells, M. (2010). The rise of the network society (2nd ed
Maiden, MA: Blackwell.
Cheah, P. (2006). Inhuman conditions: On cosmopolitanism a
human rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Chomsky, N. (1999). Profit over people: Neoliberalism and glo
order. New York, NY: Seven Stories.
Choo, S.S. (2013). Reading the world, the globe, and the cosm
Approaches to teaching literature for the twenty-first c
tury. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
Choo, S.S. (2016). Fostering the hospitable imagination throu
cosmopolitan pedagogies: Reenvisioning literature educa
tion in Singapore. Research in the Teaching of English, 50(4
400-421.

other cultures, even conflicting ones, to find common Choo, S.S. (2017). Globalizing literature pedagogy: Apply
allegiances toward peace-building and other just causes cosmopolitan ethical criticism to the teaching of litera
Harvard Educational Review, 87(3), 335-356. https://d
(see Maoz, 2000).
org/10.17763/1943-5045-87.3.335
Damon, W. (1994). Fair distribution and sharing: The dev
ment of positive justice. In B. Puka (Ed.), Fundament
Conclusion search in moral development (pp. 189-254). New York,
Routledge. (Reprinted from The social world of the ch
I have argued that in our global age, literacy practices
pp. 71-136, by W. Damon, Ed., 1979, San Francisco, C
in schools must more intentionally engage with cos
Jossey-Bass)
mopolitan ethics. Across history, literacy research has
Damrosch, D. (2009). How to read world literature. West Sussex,
been concerned with skills, genres, text types, UK:and
Wiley-Blackwell.

Journal of Adolescent & Adult literacy Vol.62 No, 1 11 July/August 2018 literacyworldwide.org

This content downloaded from 103.59.198.110 on Sat, 14 Oct 2023 12:56:56 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 COMMENTARY

Delanty, G. (2006). The cosmopolitan imagination: Critical cosmo Journal of Moral Education, 14(2), 102-110. https://doi.or
politanism and social theory. The British Journal of Sociology, 10.1080/0305724850140203
57( 1), 25-47. https://doi.0rg/10.1n1/j.1468-4446.2006.00092.x Lefrançois, D., & Ethier, M.-A. (2010). Translating the ideal
Delanty, G. (2011). Cultural diversity, democracy and the deliberative pros democracy into democratic education: Pu
pects of cosmopolitanism: A theory of cultural encounters. Utopia? Educational Philosophy and Theory, 42(3), 271-29
The British Journal of Sociology, 62(4), 633-656. https://doi. https://doi.0rg/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2007.00385.x
org/io.im/j. 1468-4446.2011.01384.x Levinas, E. (1998). Otherwise than being or beyond essenc
Freire, P. (1985). Reading the world and reading the word: An (A.inLingis, Trans.). Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Pre
terview with Paulo Freire. Language Arts, 62(1), 15-21. Maoz, I. (2000). An experiment in peace: Reconciliation
Friedman, T.L. (2007). The world is flat: A brief history ofaimed the workshops of Jewish Israeli and Palestinian yout
twenty-first century (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Picador. Journal of Peace Research, 37(6), 721-736. https://doi.or
Gaudelli, W. (2009). Heuristics of global citizenship discourses 10.1177/0022343300037006004
towards curriculum enhancement. Journal of Curriculum Marotta, V.P. (2010). The cosmopolitan stranger. In S. van Ho
Theorizing, 25(1), 69-85. & W. Vandekerckhove (Eds.), Questioning cosmopolitanism
Gee, J.P. (2015). The New Literacy Studies. In J. Rowsell &(pp. K. 105-120). London, UK: Springer.
Pähl (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of literacy studies Mignolo,
(pp. W. (2010). Cosmopolitanism and the de-colonial o
35-48). New York, NY: Routledge. tion. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 29(2), 111-12
Gutmann, A., & Thompson, D. (2004). Why deliberative democ https://doi.0rg/10.1007/s11217-009-9163-1
racy? Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Nussbaum, M.C. (1997). Cultivating humanity: A classical d
Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative action:fense Vol. of reform in liberal education. Cambridge, MA: Harva
1. Reason and the rationalization of society (T. McCarthy, University Press.
Trans.). Boston, MA: Beacon. Papastergiadis, N. (2012). Cosmopolitanism and culture.
Hansen, D.T., Burdick-Shepherd, S., Cammarano, C., & Cambridge, UK: Polity.
Obelleiro, G. (2009). Education, values, and valuing in cosPosner, R.A. (1997). Against ethical criticism. Philosophy and
mopolitan perspective. Curriculum Inquiry, 39(5), 587-612. Literature, 21(1), 1-27. https://doi.0rg/10.1353/phl.1997.0010
https://doi.0rg/10.1111/j.1467-873X.2009.00461.x Thiroux, J.P. (2001). Ethics: Theory and practice (7th ed.). Upper
Hillocks, G., Jr. (2016). The territory of literature (P. Smagorinsky, Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Ed.). English Education, 48(2), 109-126. United Nations, (n.d.). Global citizenship. Retrieved from
Kamenetsky, C. (1984). Children's literature in Hitler's Germany. https://academicimpact.un.org/content/global-citizenship
Athens: Ohio University Press. Vasudevan, L.M. (2014). Multimodal cosmopolitanism: Cultivating
Kohlberg, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development: Moral belonging in everyday moments with youth. Curriculum
stages and the idea of justice. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Inquiry, 44(1), 45-67- https://d0i.0rg/10.1111/curi.12040
Kohlberg, L. (1985). Resolving moral conflicts within the Webber, J. (2015). Character, attitude and disposition. European
just community. In C.G. Harding (Ed.), Moral dilemmas Journal of Philosophy, 23(4), 1082-1096. https://doi.org/10.1111/
and ethical reasoning (pp. 71-97). New Brunswick, NJ:ejop.12028
Transaction. Willmott, H. (1998). Towards a new ethics? The contributions
Krogh, L. (1985). Encouraging positive justice reasoning and
of poststructuralism and posthumanism. In M. Parker (Ed.),
perspective-taking skills: Two educational interventions.
Ethics and organizations (pp. 76-121). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy Vol. 62 No. 1 12 July/August 2018 literacyworldwide.org

This content downloaded from 103.59.198.110 on Sat, 14 Oct 2023 12:56:56 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms