MORAL AGENT

Developing Virtue as Habit

 Moral characters refers to the existence or lack of virtues such as

integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty and loyalty. To say that a
certain person has a good moral character means that he/she is
a good person and a good citizen with a sound moral compass.
Moral Character and Virtues

 The term “character” is derived from the greek word “charaktêr”.

 The word “character” was distinguished from others, and then
chiefly to mean the assemblage of qualities that distinguish one
person from another. This stress on distinctiveness or
individuality tends to merge “character” with “personality” in
modern usage.
 The use in ethics of the word “character,” however, has a
different linguistic history.
Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics

1. Excellences of thoughts
2. Excellences of character

His phrases for excellences of (mortal) character, ‘êthikai aretai,’ is

often translated as “moral virtues” and “moral excellences”. The
Greek ‘êthikos’ (ethical) is the adjective cognate with ‘êthos’
(character). So when we speak of ‘virtue’ or an excellence of moral
character, the highlighting is not on mere distinctiveness or
individuality , but on the blend of qualities that make a person the
sort of ethically admirable individual he/she is.
 “Moral character” therefore, in philosophical sense, refers to
having or lacking moral virtue
 The agent is morally responsible for having the moral character
trait itself or for the outcome of that trait
The Circular Relation of Acts and
Character
 In the process of moral development, there is the circular relation
between acts that build character and moral character itself.
 Virtuous traits of character ought to be stable and enduring and
are not mere products of fortune, but learning, constant practice,
and cultivation.
Moral Characters as Disposition

 Dispositions are particular kinds of properties or characteristics

that objects can possess.
 Moral character traits either virtues or vices are also considered
as dispositions. Moral character traits are those dispositions of
character for which be inch it is suitable to hold agents morally
responsible.
Six (6) Stages of Moral
Development
 The American Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) is
best known for his theory of stages of moral development.
 He agreed with the swiss clinical psychologist Jean Piaget’s
(1896-1980) theory of moral development but wanted to develop
his ideas further.
 Kohlberg pinpointed three distinct levels of moral reasoning each
with two sub stages composing his so-called sic stages of moral
development.
Six (6) Stages of Moral
Development
 Level 1- Pre-Conventional Morality
 Stage 1- Obedience and Punishment Orientation
 Stage 2- Individualism and Exchange
 Level 2- Conventional Morality
 Good boy/Good Girl orientation
 Law and order Orientation
 Level 3- Post-Conventional Morality
 Social Contract
 Universal ethical principle
Level 1- Pre-Conventional
 Seen in Preschool children, most elementary school students, some junior high school
students and a few high school students,
Stage 1- Obedience and Punishment orientation
People make decisions based on what is best for themselves,
without regard for other’s needs and feelings. They obey rules only
if established by more powerful individuals; they may disobey if
they aren’t likely to get caught. “wrong” behaviors are those that
will be punished
Stage 2- Individualism and Exchange
People recognize that others also have needs. They may try to
satisfy other’s needs if their own needs are also met (“you
scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours”). They continue to define
right and wrong primarily in terms of consequences to
themselves.
 Level 2- Conventional Morality
 Seen in a few older elementary school students, some junior high school students, and
many high school students (stage 4 typically does not appear until the high school years)
 Stage 3- Good boy/Good Girl orientation
People make decisions based on what actions will please others,
especially authority figures and other individuals with high status (eg.,
teachers, popular peers). They are concerned about maintaining
relationships through sharing trust, and loyalty, and they take other
people’s perspectives and intentions into account when making
decisions.
 Stage 4-Law and order Orientation
People look to society as a whole for guidelines about right or wrong.
They know rules are necessary for keeping society running smoothly
and believe it is their “duty” to obey them. However, they perceive
rules to be inflexible; they don’t necessarily recognize that as society’s
needs change, rules should change as well.
 Level 3- Post-Conventional
 Rarely seen before college (stage 6 is extremely rare even in adults)
 Stage 5- Social Contract and individual Rights
People recognize that rules represent agreements among many
individuals about appropriate behavior. Rules are seen as potentially
useful mechanisms that can maintain the general social order and protect
individual rights, rather than as absolute dictates that must be obeyed
simply because they are “the law”. People also recognize the flexibility of
rules; rules that no longer serve society’s best interests can and should
be changed.
 Stage 6- Universal principles
Stage 6 is a hypothetical, “ideal” stage that few people ever reach. People
in this stage adhere to a few abstract , universal principles (e.g., equality
of all people, respect for human dignity, commitment to justice) that
transcend specific norms and rules. They answer to a strong inner
conscience and willingly disobey laws that violate their own ethical
principles.
GETTING TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL, CONSCIENCE-
BASED MORAL DECISIONS
 Another way to view Kohlberg’s stages, especially when combine
with Piaget’s theory is as follow ( Kohlberg’s stages of Moral
Development)
 STAGE 1: RESPECT FOR POWER AND
PUNISHMENT

A young child (age 1-5)choose what to do what is right according to what

he/she wants to do and can do without getting into trouble, in this level, to be
right one ought to be obedient to the people in power and thus, avoid
punishment. The motto in this stage seems to be:
“Might makes right.”
 SATGE 2: LOOKING OUT FOR #1

Children (age 5-10) disposed to be egotistic or self-serving. They lack respect

for other’s right but may give to others on the assumption that they will get as
much or even more in return. Instead of loyalty, gratitude, or justice, the case is
more matter of “you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours.” the motto here
seems to be: “What’s in it for me?”
 STAGE 3: “BEING A GOOD BOY”
OR “NICE GIRL”
In this stage, people (age 8-16) have shifted from pleasing themselves to pleasing important
others, usually parents, teachers, or friends. They seek approval and thus conform to someone
else’s expectations. When charged of doing something wrong their behavior is likely to be
justified by stating “everyone else is doing it” or I didn’t intend to hurt anyone. The motto here:
“I want to be nice.”
 STAGE 4: LAW AND ORDER THINKING

Here the majority of people (16 years old and older) have internalized society’s rules about how to behave. They feel
indebted to conform, no longer just family and friends, but also to society’s law and customs. They realize that it is
important to do one’s duty to maintain social order. Social leaders are assumed to be right and social rules are adopted
without considering the core moral principles involved. Thus, social control in this stage is exercised through guilt
associated with breaking a rule; though the guilt in this case is an automatic emotional response, not a rational reaction
of conscience based on moral principles . In this stage , individuals believe that anyone breaking the rules deserves to
be punished and “pay his/her debt to society.”
the motto here is: “I’ll do my duty”
 Stage 5: JUSTICE THROUGH
DEMOCRACY
In this stage people understand the underlying most purpose that are supposed to be served by laws
and social customs. When a law in democracy ceases to serve a good purpose, they thus feel the
people ought to get active and change the law. Understand in this manner, democracy is seen as a
social contract whereby everybody tries constantly to construct a set of laws that best serves most
people, while protecting the basic rights of everybody.
Respect for the law and a sense of obligation to live by the rules are present as
long as rules were established in a fair manner and fulfill a moral purpose. It
is said that only about 20-25% of today’s adults ever reach this stage and
most of those that do supposedly only get there after their mid-twenties. The
motto here: I’ll live by the rules or
try to change them.”
 STAGE 6: DECIDING ON BASIC MORAL
PRINCIPLES BY WHICH YOU WILL LIVE YOUR
LIFE AND RELATE TO EVERYONE FAIRYL

In this stage rare people have evaluated many values and have rationally chosen
a philosophy of life that truly guides their life. Morally developed they do not
automatically conform to tradition or others beliefs, and even to their own
emotions, intuition, or impulsive about right and wrong .
In stage 6 individuals judiciously elect fundamental principles to follow such as caring for and
respecting every living thing feeling that people are equal opportunities or subscribing to the golden
rule. They are tough enough to act on their values even if others may think they old or if their beliefs are
against man’s law such as refusing to fight in a war . Social control in this stage is exercised through
guilt associated with the rational reaction of conscience based on moral principles. Reaching this stage
thus, seen at least in Kohlberg and Piaget’s theories, as getting to the highest level, conscience based
moral decisions.
Problems with Kohlberg’s Theory
 It must be noted, nonetheless, that not all ethicist accept
Kohlberg’s theory on moral development. Some argue that his
mentioned dilemmas area artificial, that is, they lack ecological
validity.
 Some say that Kohlberg’s sample is biased because Kohlberg’s
theory was based on an all-male sample, and thus the stages
reflect an androcentric or male definition of morality. It is argued
that men’s morality is basically based on abstract principles of
law and justice, whereas women’s based on principles of
compassion and care.
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