Four factors that can affect the process of extraction, specifically solvent extraction

or liquid-liquid extraction, and how they can affect the results are as follows:

1. Solvent Selection: The choice of solvent used in liquid-liquid extraction is crucial as

it determines the solubility and selectivity of the target compound. Different solvents
have varying affinities for specific compounds, so selecting the appropriate solvent is
important to achieve efficient extraction. For example, in the case of caffeine
extraction from coffee, solvents like ethyl acetate or dichloromethane are commonly
used because they have high affinity for caffeine.

2. Extraction pH: The pH of the extraction system can influence the ionization and
solubility of the target compound. Some compounds may exist in different forms
(such as acidic or basic) depending on the pH of the solution. Adjusting the pH can
help enhance the extraction efficiency by optimizing the ionization and solubility
properties of the target compound. In the case of caffeine extraction from coffee,
adjusting the pH to be slightly acidic (around pH 3) can improve the solubility and
extraction of caffeine.

3. Temperature and Extraction Time: The temperature and duration of the extraction
process can impact the extraction efficiency and kinetics. Higher temperatures
generally increase the rate of extraction by enhancing the solubility and diffusion of
the target compound. However, excessively high temperatures can also lead to
thermal degradation of the compound. Similarly, longer extraction times allow for
more thorough extraction but may also result in the extraction of undesirable
components. Finding the optimal temperature and extraction time is essential to
achieve maximum yield and purity.

4. Sample-to-Solvent Ratio: The ratio of the coffee sample mass to the volume of the
solvent used can affect the concentration of the target compound in the extract. A
higher sample-to-solvent ratio generally leads to higher extraction efficiency as it
provides a larger amount of the target compound for the solvent to interact with.
However, using an excessively high sample-to-solvent ratio may result in saturation
of the solvent and decreased extraction efficiency.

References:
Anagnostopoulos, A., Christodouleas, D., & Koupparis, M. (2007). Extraction of
caffeine from coffee. Journal of Chemical Education, 84(12).

Manohar, R. S., & Luthria, D. L. (2019). Solvent extraction in food analysis. In Food
analysis (pp. 439-456). Academic Press.

Varzakas, T., Tzia, C., & Saguy, I. S. (2014). Extraction techniques in food analysis.
CRC Press.

Souza, T. S., Oliveira, W. P., Galaverna, R., & Santos, L. S. (2018). Evaluation of the
green solvent systems ethyl lactate and γ-valerolactone for extraction of caffeine
from guaraná seeds. Industrial Crops and Products, 117, 153-159.