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Active Modes and Sustainability

Chapter · January 2019

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-71059-4_7-1

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A

Active Modes and often related to collective and socializing activi-

Sustainability ties; and (iv) they are inclusive, since they are free
or cheaper transportation modes facilitating the
Filipe Moura and Sofia Kalakou access of people to participate in the normal activ-
CERIS, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade ities of the society, irrespective of their socioeco-
de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal nomic background.

Synonyms Comparing Active and Motorized

Transportation Modes
Active transport; Human-powered transports;
Non-motorized modes; Soft modes Transportation systems are composed of three
main components: infrastructures, transportation
modes that use the infrastructures, and people and
Definition goods that are transported by the several modes.
Transportation modes refer to the different ways
Active mobility modes are all modes of transpor- in which people and goods move from one place
tation that involve physical activity and do not to another. Modes can be grouped into means of
require the use of motorized vehicles. Although transportation that include land, water, and air
active modes of mobility include walking, jog- transportation. The various types of transportation
ging, running, bicycling, small-wheeled transport modes are rail, road, maritime (or fluvial), and air.
(skates, skateboards, push scooters, and hand Today, urban transportation means are mainly
carts, among others – also referred to as micro- road, rail, and fluvial. The urban road transporta-
mobility), and wheelchair travel, the designation tion modes divide into active (or non-motorized)
active modes refers commonly to walking and and motorized modes.
biking. Many city centers and streets have been
Active modes are a crucial component of sus- planned and designed with a car-oriented perspec-
tainable urban mobility development because (i) tive. Driving from anywhere to anywhere has
they are more energy and environmentally effi- been the planning paradigm over the last decades,
cient, as they are human-powered; (ii) they pro- and motorized accessibility has prevailed active or
mote health as they involve physical activity; (iii) public transportation accessibility, especially to
they are socially active, as walking and cycling are economically active centers like central business

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, Encyclopedia of the UN
Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71059-4_7-1
2 Active Modes and Sustainability

centers or downtown (Ghel 2011; Jacobs 1961). mile” trips, which correspond to walking to
However, the vicious cycle of automobiles, where (“access trip”) or from (“egress trip”) a bus stop
increasing car demand asks for more capacity or railway station (Fig. 1). Under 500-m trip
investments and increasing road capacity length, walking is the fastest mode, altogether.
increases motor traffic (Newman and Kenworthy Given proper infrastructure, cycling is faster than
1989), called for action toward a more sustainable any other mode, for distances of up to 5 km,
direction. private cars included, depending on traffic con-
Today, people-oriented urban planning and gestion and parking availability of cars.
design are replacing the car-centered city plan- The following picture (Fig. 2) illustrates the
ning. Planning for better accessibility relying on urban space used by 69 people in different
public transportation and active modes is the new modes: walking, cycling, bus, and private car
paradigm, instead of planning for motorized (1.15 person/car). This remarkable difference is
mobility (Handy and Niemeier 1997). Further- even more substantial if we consider the shy dis-
more, the effect of the built environment on the tance between vehicles, that is, the buffer zone
active travel of citizens is now recognized, and the between each vehicle and the vehicle down-
interaction and contact between people are pro- stream. According to the values presented in
moted (Handy 2005). These are fundamental ele- Table 1 previously, when traveling, cars take up
ments of more lively and better quality-of-life to 70 times more space than 1 pedestrian or 30
cities with positive health impacts and higher times more space than a bicycle.
energy and environmental efficiency (Cervero Furthermore, energy consumption for walking
and Kockelman 1997; Ewing and Cervero 2010; or cycling has two effects: firstly, it consumes
Ghel 2011; De Nazelle et al. 2011; Giles-Corti calories with positive consequences for health;
et al. 2013). secondly, it is much more efficient than motorized
The following table portrays characteristics of modes to overcome the same distance (although at
active modes (here, the focus is on walking and a much slower speed, naturally). According to
cycling) compared to motorized modes Table 1, a car will consume almost 10 or 20
concerning a selected set of indicators of urban times more energy to overcome 1 km than some-
mobility. one walking or cycling, respectively. If compared
Active modes can be very competitive for short with buses, the differences are three or five times
trips, including the so-called “first” and “last bigger, respectively. Moreover, if fossil fuels

Active Modes and

Sustainability,
Fig. 1 Urban density and
transport-related energy
consumption. (Adapted
from Dekoster and
Schollaert 1999)
Active Modes and Sustainability 3

Active Modes and Sustainability, Fig. 2 Road space average occupancy of 1.15 passenger/car) (Australian
comparison of 69 passengers in a single bus, 69 pedes- Cycling Promotion Foundation 2018)
trians, 69 bicycle rides, and 60 cars (corresponding to an

Active Modes and Sustainability, Table 1 Urban mobility key performance indicators for active and motorized
transport modes
Suburban
Indicator Walking Cycling Bus Metro rail Car
Speed – in km/ha 4.5 15.0 13.0i 15.0i 35.0i 30.0
Travel time for 2 km – in mina 27.5 10.0 22.5 20.0 27.0 12.0ii
Travel time for 5 km – in mina 69.0 22.5 35.0 20.0 30.0 22.0ii
Space needed per person in vehicle – in m2/personb 0.5 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 25
Travel space needed per person (speed in brackets) – 1.9 4.7 7.0 n/a n/a 140
in m2/person (km/hr)b (4.5) (15) (50) (50)
Fossil-fueled energy efficiency – in MJ/pass.kmc n/a n/a 0.7iii 1.9iv 1.4v 2.9vi
Calories consumed over 1 km – in kcal (MJ)d 60vii 33viii n/a n/a n/a n/a
(0.251) (0.138)
CO2 emissions (gCO2-e/pass.km)c n/a n/a 51iii 105iv 95v 240vi
a
Sources: adapted from Dekoster and Schollaert (1999)
b
Litman (2013)
c
Chester and Horvath (2009) (lifecycle energy consumption and emissions)
d
Ainsworth et al. (2011)
Notes: n/a, not applicable
i
includes alighting/boarding times at stops
ii
with congestion
iii
Urban Diesel Bus (peak)
iv
based on light rail (Munich)
v
based on commuter rail (San Francisco Bay Area)
vi
conventional gasoline sedan
vii
male/35y/170 cm/70 kg for 1 km walk at 4.8 km/h
viii
male/35y/170 cm/70 kg for 1 km trip at 15 km/h
4 Active Modes and Sustainability

power motorized vehicles, CO2 will be emitted, Figure 3 (below) presents the typical benefits
and private cars are far more polluting than buses, for an individual who shifts from car to bicycle,
trains, or light rail. expressed in annual avoided costs (€). The higher
In the end, these indicators highlight the rea- gains include health, where damage costs could be
sons why resourcing to active modes together reduced by a meaningful €1,310/yr, with a life-
with public transportation can be so compelling time benefit of €52,418. Shifting to bike can also
for a more sustainable urban mobility. add exposure risks to accidents and pollution
intake while riding. Still, the order of magnitude
is three times lower compared to health gains due
to physical activity. For the walking scenario, the
Social, Health, and Environmental
benefit of physical exercise was estimated at
Benefits from Active Modes
€1,192/yr, with a cost of change in air pollution
exposure to the individual of -$15/yr. Collec-
The growing awareness of the need to reduce the
tively, society would benefit from reduced noise
use of cars and to shift to active transport is mostly
production by private cars (€1,700/yr per person)
driven by the significant individual and collective
and productive lost time in congestion (€1,650/yr
benefits for a more inclusive society, health, and
per person).
the environment. There are many possible effects,
Researchers in Auckland, New Zealand, stud-
some of which are extremely difficult to evaluate,
ied the costs and benefits of transforming urban
for instance, impacts on the social fabric of a
roads over the next 40 years, using best practice
community, on the sense of well-being of the
such as physical separation on main roads and
population, and even on the crime rate. Other
bicycle-friendly speed reduction on local streets
impacts were reliably evaluated and quantified,
(Macmillan et al. 2014). The authors concluded
such as health impacts of the physical activity
that $NZ10 to $NZ25 would be saved for every
and air pollution (Rabl and Nazelle 2012).

Typical benefits per individual who switches from driving to bicycling, €/yr
–500 0 500 1000 1500 2000

Mortality

health gain from bicycling

public gain from reduced pollution

pollution exposure of individual

accident risk of individual

Other impacts

reduced CO2,@ 25/€/tonne CO2

nonfatal accidents of individual

reduced noise,@ 0.76 €/km

reduced congestion, @ 0.75 €/km

Active Modes and Sustainability, Fig. 3 Typical ben- shift from car to active transport”, 121–131, Copyright
efits for an individual who shifts from car to bicycle (2012), with permission from Elsevier)
(Reprinted from Rabl and Nazelle, vol.9(1), “Benefits of
Active Modes and Sustainability 5

dollar spent on bicycling infrastructure. Interest- the positive economic effects on retailing (The
ingly, these gains would include the savings in City of New York 2010).
reduced investment in road infrastructure as The indirect benefits that derive from active
fewer cars would circulate and wear them out. modes are challenging to measure. Those include
Living in neighborhoods more “walkable” and the reduction of road repairs and maintenance,
“cyclable” (with sidewalks, bike paths, parks, avoided costs due to greenhouse gas emissions,
higher density, and stores within walking dis- health care, and the increase in bicycle tourism
tance) has been associated to a better quality of and industry. Retail and real estate business also
life, mostly related with healthier weight status experience positive effects with the implementa-
and better mental health (Giles-Corti et al. 2013; tion of urban plans that promote walking and
De Nazelle et al. 2011; Pucher et al. 2010; Saelens bicycling in their zones. Campbell and Wittgens
et al. 2003; Sallis et al. 2009). While more phys- (2004) estimated that the annual economic benefit
ical activity leads primarily to weight losses (and of active transport is $3.6 billion per year with the
reduction of weight-related diseases like obesity), potential to reach $7 billion with a 15.2% modal
positive impacts of active modes on mental health share increase.
are less evident. Still, Evans (2003) mentions that
socially supportive networks influence mental
health indirectly and these are greater in areas Active Modes and Sustainable Urban
with higher pedestrian connectivity or more meet- Mobility
ing areas. Furthermore, there is evidence of more
joy experienced by Dutch cyclist commuters in As the world moves toward a global population of
the study by Keck et al. (2007). nearly 10 billion by 2050, most of which will be in
Social interaction is by itself an important ben- urban areas, today’s challenges for cities (for
efit of areas that favor active modes. Appleyard instance, health, air quality, noise, and social jus-
and Lintell (1972) were pioneers in this analysis tice), are likely to increase (UN Habitat 2016).
and studied how different traffic levels of streets Mobility is a crucial dynamic of urbanization, as
affected the livability and quality of the street travel demand (i.e., every trip made) derives from
environment, on three streets of San Francisco. every socioeconomic activity needed or wished to
Besides the positive impact on the reduction of be undertaken. As such, the required infrastruc-
noise, air pollution, stress, and traffic hazards, ture to provide mobility always shapes the urban
they concluded that residents of lower traffic form of cities, that is, the way the territory is
streets tend to have more friends and acquain- defined by roads, transport systems, spaces, and
tances than those living in streets with moderate buildings. Despite the increasing level of urban
or heavy traffic. Also, residents declared to have mobility worldwide, access to places, activities,
broader “home territories” (that included areas of and services has become increasingly difficult.
friends and acquaintances) than those living in The urban sprawl, by which there is a horizontal,
busy streets. The following figure illustrates the low-density growth of cities over vast areas,
results of different social interaction intensities for implicates longer distances between functional
different traffic levels (Fig. 4). destinations such as workplaces, schools, hospi-
Streets’ pedestrianization is today frequent in tals, administration offices, or shopping ameni-
many cities worldwide (i.e., conversion of the ties, leading to a growing dependency on
streets with motorized road traffic into walkways motorized transportation to overcome such dis-
or plazas without motorized traffic). However, the tances and, eventually, private car-centered
emblematic case of the Times Square in New York mobility.
is a clear example of the benefits of social inter- Consequently, widespread congestion and traf-
action of walkable environments where walking, fic gridlock have now become the norm in many
strolling, and staying generate interaction, besides cities, impacting urban life through negative
externalities such as pollution, noise stress, and
6 Active Modes and Sustainability

Active Modes and Sustainability, Fig. 4 The revealed social interaction of residents of three streets with differing
traffic levels (Appleyard and Lintell 1972)

accidents. Furthermore, in sprawled cities, the separation is overcome with more mobility at the
physical separation between functional destina- expense of a fossil-fuelled motorized transporta-
tions often leads to longer hours of commuting tion system. Newman and Kenworthy (1989) did
and as much as a third of income expenditure on an extensive collection of land use, transportation,
transportation (UN Habitat 2016). This physical and energy data on 32 major cities in North
Active Modes and Sustainability 7

America, Australia, Europe, and the more devel- costs and the lack of more modern and alternative
oped part of Asia, back in the years of 1960, 1970, transport infrastructures. Figure 6 charts the
and 1980. The figure below illustrates the rela- modal split of selected cities in the world where
tionship between urban density (i.e., number of an impressive 89% car share and 5% for active
inhabitants per hectare within cities’ boundaries) modes, in Dallas (USA), contrasts with shares of
and transport-related energy consumption active modes above 35% in Tokyo (Japan),
(expressed in annual gasoline use per capita). Shanghai and Beijing (China), Delhi (India),
More sprawled and car-dependent urban areas, Madrid and Barcelona (Spain), Hamburg and Ber-
such as American cities, will consume much lin (Germany), and Amsterdam (Netherlands).
more fuel to get people connected than denser Generally, half of all urban car trips are less
and transit-oriented cities, such as in Japan. This than 5 km (Dufour 2010). As referred previously,
relationship remains true today (Fig. 5). walking is a competitive alternative for short trips.
The percentage of active modes across cities For example, 80% of Amsterdammers have stated
varies substantially depending on the urban plan- that they were willing to walk up to 1 km, a
ning strategies but also on the level of develop- percentage that decreases significantly to 25%
ment of the country. Cycling and walking tend to when considering distances of 1 to 2.5 km and
be more common modes in less developed coun- 3% in the case of 2.5 to 3.7 km (Meijer 2012). As
tries because of the corresponding lower (or no)

Active Modes and

Sustainability,
Fig. 5 Urban density and
transport-related energy
consumption. (Adapted
from Newman and
Kenworthy 1989)
8 Active Modes and Sustainability

Toronto
Tokyo
Singapore
Shanghai
Rome
Paris
New York
Melbourne
Madrid
Los Angeles
London
Hamburg
Delhi
Dallas
Chicago
Budapest
Bogota
Brussels
Berlin
Beijing
Barcelona
Auckland
Amsterdam
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Walking Cycling Public Transit Private Vehicle

Active Modes and Sustainability, Fig. 6 Modal split, journey to work trips, selected cities (LTA et al. 2011)

such, walking and cycling can cover a very sig- efficient and sustainable mind-sets: all environ-
nificant part of daily trips in all cities. mental, social, and economic benefits of transport
Planning endeavors and policies are aiming at actions are in the center of interest.
distorting this modal split that focuses on motor- In this context, the objective behind the initia-
ized transport and has been established at this state tive for the development of Sustainable Urban
for the past decades in most parts of the world. Mobility Plans (SUMP) in the European Union
Worldwide, many different institutions have pre- is the efficient amelioration of transport-related
pared policy and design plans to promote walking problems following a participatory and integrated
and audits indicating the right strategies that can approach; a pledge for sustainability; a clear
guarantee the development of walkable urban vision, objective, and measurable target; and a
areas (Abley and Turner 2011; Ryus et al. 2014, review of transport costs and benefits, building
among others). The practice has shown that on existing practices and regulatory frameworks
investments in pedestrian networks can favor the (ELTIS 2014). Among many concepts, sustain-
share of walking as a mode (Lamíquiz and López- able urban mobility per se considers two crucial
Domínguez 2015); likewise building cycle net- planning concepts as alternatives. The first one
works and facilities triggers latent demand of reg- relies on reclaiming traditional neighborhoods
ular bike trips, following the motto “build it, they and making them more walkable with proximate
will follow” (Macmillan et al. 2014). daily activities; the second one is transit-oriented
Many European and Canadian cities are fol- development (TOD) that aims to boost the activ-
lowing the path to the efficient development of ities around main transport interfaces (which are
active modes and showcase how to plan and build main urban transport hubs, like railway, bus, or
cities for pedestrians and cyclists instead of metro stations), where the “last mile” trip relies on
catering for motorized transport. In an era where active modes. Importantly, TOD restricts private
the shared economy is rising, the integration of car use and promotes active modes.
actives modes in urban and transport planning is This urban mobility framework approach has
more evident than ever. The societies adopt more been applied in many case studies (CIVITAS and
Active Modes and Sustainability 9

EPOMM networks). Active modes are a cost- Overall strategies and practices have been
effective way to alleviate congestion problems in identified to integrate active modes in urban and
central areas with dense activities. Specific poli- transport planning as priorities. Proper infrastruc-
cies have ameliorated this bottleneck by banning tures need to be provided to achieve the maximum
the entrance of vehicles into the city center, leav- benefits of active modes. Next, planning and
ing the space available to pedestrians, and improv- design principles for active mode infrastructure
ing the quality of life and the execution of are presented.
activities of all inhabitants, employees, tourists,
and local agents. The reduction of parking areas in
public spaces assists as well as the promotion of Facilities for Active Modes
active modes by impeding motorized transport.
Traffic calming approaches have also been This entry presents the main features of active
effective in the attempt to favor active modes modes, how active modes relate with infrastruc-
and especially walking. For instance, many cities tures, and which are the implications for planning
encourage changes in traffic flows by restricting and design of facilities. The entry is divided into
the speed limit at the level of neighborhoods or the two sections for “pedestrians and walkways” and
city center. Hence, the so-called 30-speed areas “cyclists and bikeways.”
are developed to facilitate the sharing of streets by
both active and motorized modes, in harmony. Pedestrians and Walkways
Pedestrian and cycling signaling is also used to Ultimately walkways may be any space wherever
enhance safety, by reserving space and time for people can walk, to the extent that they are phys-
active modes while increasing the drivers’ aware- ically able to do so. Walkways divide into outdoor
ness of active modes in the area. Regarding the and indoor facilities, whether fixed or moving.
design of the infrastructure, the removal of bar- Outdoor facilities include sidewalks, crosswalks,
riers in walkways and the reductions of pedestrian intersections, bridges, accessible sections, trails,
crossing distance are means to enforce walking, and indoor facilities that may be tunnels or corri-
while many carriageway rearrangements are use- dors (fixed or moving) connecting to the surface
ful to spare space for cycling through bike lanes, or underground areas.
counter-flow lanes, or bike paths. There is not one single definition of how pedes-
People nowadays show a propensity to favor trian networks should be structured or classified.
active modes against motorized transport given The definition presented hereafter was proposed
the proper conditions. A study of the American within the Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan of
Planning Association (2014) indicated that “81% Valencia (Broseta 2015) and used here for its
of Millennials and 77% of Active Boomers say clarity and simplicity. An urban pedestrian net-
affordable and convenient transportation alterna- work (or pedestrian corridors) comprises walk-
tives to the car are at least somewhat important ways of different sizes and different purposes
when deciding where to live and work.” In Can- (Fig. 7). Main routes cross central areas and join
ada, 82% and 62% of people have stated that they them with adjacent areas. Side routes are smaller
are willing to walk and cycle more instead of and run through specific parts of the city. Radial
driving (Campbell and Wittgens 2004). A study routes refer to a smaller scale and link main
in the USA, assuming that 100 employees would attractions with the surroundings of the neighbor-
shift from driving to active modes at a typical hood. Finally, ringed routes link the pedestrian
urban worksite, estimated that each commuter inner space of neighborhoods.
would benefit 8.75 $/trip, considering the total Due to the low degree of dependencies in
cost of trip expenses and accounting also for the pedestrian movements, space requirements are
costs of environmental and health damages, time mainly related to the space surrounding the pedes-
losses, and safety casualties (Litman 2018). trian. Fruin (1971) introduced the concept of body
ellipse to illustrate the buffer zones a pedestrian
10 Active Modes and Sustainability

Active Modes and Sustainability, Fig. 7 Structural (Main routes (in red); side routes (in blue); radial routes
corridors proposed in Valencia. Plane PRO_PEA_03 of (purple); ringed routes (brown))
Valencia SUMP, 2013. (Adapted from Broseta 2015).

18” BODY DEPTH (equivalent to 108% the ellipse). This simple

space occupation is determinant for the collective
behavior of pedestrian flows in walkways.
As for road traffic, the pedestrian traffic flow
diagram portrays the collective behavior of pedes-
trians within walkways also reflecting the interac-
tions between one another. Importantly, speed
24” decreases as space per pedestrian decreases, and
SHOULDER there is a maximum flow for the infrastructure
BREADTH
analyzed which peaks at an estimated mean of
Active Modes and Sustainability, Fig. 8 Body ellipse 1.34 m/s, although variation occurs in a range of
graph (where 1800 = 55 cm and 2400 = 73 cm) (Fruin 1971) 1.08 m/s (Saudi Arabia) to 1.6 m/s (UK and USA)
(Daamen et al. 2005).
requires to move freely in space (Fig. 8) that An indicator of the quality of the space pro-
corresponds to 50 cm by 60 cm for standing vided to pedestrians is the perceived level of ser-
areas, with a total occupation of 0.3 m2 vice (LOS) for pedestrian movements that express
Active Modes and Sustainability 11

the average space available per pedestrian along a seamlessly around spaces with adequate guid-
sidewalk (HCM 2010). The different LOS for ance. In this context, the concept of walkability
pedestrians is described in the HCM (2010) as a (Bradshaw 1993) has been introduced to express
function of space availability (Table 2). the extent to which an urban environment is more
Pedestrian walking behavior and decision- accessible and attractive to pedestrians (Abley and
making encompass more variables than the simple Turner 2011) and many tools have been proposed
provision of space before they decide to walk to to assess it – for example, Walk Score (Front seat
their destination and how they are going to do it. 2011), Pie model (Singleton et al. 2014), or
Also, pedestrians with different personalities have IAAPE (Moura et al. 2017), among other tools.
different walking behavior, according to their Certain qualities describe walkable environments
preferences (e.g., walking speed) and their habits such as legibility, imageability, enclosure, human
and attitudes (e.g., the continuous use of the same scale, transparency, linkage, coherence, and com-
route to reach the same destination without even plexity (Handy 2005) allowing the use of respec-
considering other options because they are used to tive indicators for the assessment of its walkability
that one). Walking behavior changes according to which are connected, convivial, conspicuous,
the following main aspects (Handy 2005): comfortable, convenient, coexistent, and commit-
ted (Moura et al. 2017).
• Related to the pedestrian, including socio- Furthermore, pedestrians collect information
demographic profile (e.g., gender, age), physi- continuously from different sources (i.e., signal-
cal conditions (e.g., any disabilities or health ing, information signs, other agents in walkways,
state), and personal psychology, culture, and among other stimuli), but they also need well-
lifestyle (which relate to preferences, habits, designed architecture to assist them (Rüetschi
and attitudes) 2007). Among other techniques, Space Syntax is
• Related to the trip, including its purpose, the emerging as a useful and intuitive tool (Hillier
time of the day, the number of people walked 2005) to support urban and transport planners in
with, how well the place is known in naviga- the design of the city. In this way, with a proper
tion, and available alternative modes built environment configuration, orientation can
• Related to the built environment and its facili- be facilitated, and walking is encouraged. Also,
ties, including its walkability, the effectiveness wayfinding, the process of finding one’s way in
of the wayfinding guidance, and the land uses the geographical or built environment and know-
that attract people to the area ing how to get to the required destination
(Fewings 2001), comprises a requisite for efficient
Urban planning and design have a decisive role pedestrian space.
to play and must ensure that pedestrians can move

Active Modes and Sustainability, Table 2 LOS levels of pedestrian movements

Space Flow rate Average speed V/C ratio
LOS (m2/ped) (ft2/ped) (ped/min/m) (ped/min/ft) (m/s) (ft/min) –
A 12 12 7 2 1.32 260 0.08
B 3.7–12 40–130 23–7 7–2 1.27–1.32 250–260 0.08–0.28
C 2.2–3.7 24–40 23–33 10–7 1.22–1.27 240–250 0.28–0.4
D 1.4–2.2 15–24 33–49 15–10 1.14–1.22 225–240 0.4–0.6
E 0.6–1.4 15–6 49–82 25–15 0.76–1.14 150–225 0.6–1
F 0.6 6 Var. Var. 0.76 150 Var.
Note: “V/C ratio” is the ratio between the volume of pedestrians (per minute for a width of 1 m) and the capacity of the
walkway (which corresponds to the maximum number of pedestrians using a facility per time unit)
12 Active Modes and Sustainability

Cyclists and Bikeways 3. Non-cyclists, who did not cycle in the near
Cycling is clean, quiet, economical, and accessi- past (e.g., 12 months) and are unsure if they
ble. Technological developments are making it are willing, or are unwilling, to shift to cycling
increasingly efficient and more comfortable. On in the near future
short-distance urban routes (up to 5 km), it is
faster than cars, especially under congestion. After characterizing the types of cyclists, it is
When combined with other modes (e.g., public essential to know the “cycling maturity levels of
transportation or shared solutions), bicycles can cities,” which varies according to the number of
cover broader areas, effectively. The potential of cyclists in the city, the development level of the
cycling, as a means of transport for daily com- cycling network and infrastructures, the urban
mutes to the workplace, school, or other regular planning approach, and the dominant mobility
activities, such as leisure activities, should be culture (Dufour 2010). Different stages of cycling
promoted in the new urban sustainable develop- maturity have different investment priorities to
ment paradigm (UN Habitat 2016). promote cycling on regular trips. The European
Bicycles are well-suited for trips up to 7 km, Union’s Intelligent Energy PRESTO Cycling Pol-
pedelecs (which are bicycles assisted with a small icy Guide (Dufour 2010) defines the following
electric engine) even for trips up to 15 km. Like cycling maturity levels of cities:
for walking behavior, cycling depends not only on
the bike users’ characteristics but also (and per- 1. Starter cities have few cyclists, little infra-
haps more importantly) on the cycling facilities structure, no cycling culture (i.e., cycling is
and network provided. For that, it is critical to considered unsafe and not respected by motor-
know the population of potential cyclists and tar- ized vehicle drivers), and car-oriented urban
get measures more accurately to meet their needs planning and design. Current cyclists in starter
and requirements. cities may quit if conditions do not improve or
Dill and McNeil (2013) examined a seminal deteriorate.
typology of cyclist developed by the City of 2. Climber cities, cyclists are present but the
Portland, Oregon, which categorized cyclists in potential bicycle modal share (i.e., the percent-
four groups: “the strong and the fearless,” “the age of regular trips made by bicycle) has not
enthused and confident,” “the interested but yet stabilized, and considerable progress has to
concerned,” and “no way, no how.” The study be made to encourage more modal shifting to
classified 900 survey respondents by their stated regular cycling.
comfort level with cycling on a variety of facility 3. Champion cities or “bike-friendly” cities,
types, their interest in cycling as transportation, cycling is a regular practice and embedded in
and their physical ability to cycle. While many the local mobility culture. Here, cyclists expect
types of cyclist and definitions can be found in the a high level of quality of infrastructure, and the
literature, Felix et al. (2017) proposed three types challenge is to maintain the cycling modal
of cyclists: share by improving the quality, comfort, and
security of cycle networks and facilities.
1. Current cyclists, who cycled in the past month
for commuting and would cycle again during Fig. 9 illustrates the expected impact of cycling
the next month and are typically more profi- conditions on the modal share of regular bike
cient and physically able to cycle trips, where non-cyclists are expected to become
2. Potential cyclists, who cycled at least once in potential cyclists and potential cyclists are
the near past (e.g., 12 months) for leisure or expected to become cyclists (Felix et al. 2017).
commuting and would cycle again if some Many guidelines are available to plan, design,
conditions were fulfilled or someone who did and promote cycling in cities (NACTO 2014;
not cycle in the near past but is willing to do it Austroads 2014; Transport for London 2014;
although not convinced yet Australian Cycling Promotion Foundation
Active Modes and Sustainability 13

Active Modes and Sustainability, Fig. 9 Starter, climber, champion cycling cities, and modal shares (Dufour 2010)

2018, to mention a few). These manuals are Active Modes and Sustainability, Table 3 Bicycle
entirely consistent across the board in regard to network features (Austroads 2014)
the recommendations for planning and design of Route feature Description
the cycle network and facilities. Here, we present Safety Minimal risk of traffic-related injury,
some basic guidelines on the expectations of low perceived danger, space to ride,
minimum conflict with vehicles
an effective cycle network (i.e., providing acces-
Coherence Infrastructure should form a coherent
sibility within the urban area) and cycle facilities entity, link major trip origins and
(i.e., ensuring comfort and safety, overall). destinations, have connectivity, be
According to manuals referred to above, an continuous, signed, consistent in
appropriate cycle network should qualify posi- quality, easy to follow, and have route
options
tively for the following features: safety, coher-
Directness The route should be direct, based on
ence, directness, attractiveness, and comfort. desired lines, have a low delay through
Table 3 presents the definitions proposed by the routes for commuting, avoid detours,
Australian guide for cycle network planning and and have efficient operating speeds
design (Austroads 2014). Importantly, these fea- Attractiveness Lighting, personal safety, aesthetics,
integration with surrounding area,
tures should have indicators and be verifiable in access to different activities
the planning and design stages of the cycle net- Comfort Smooth skid-resistant riding surface,
work (Moura et al. 2017). gentle gradients, avoid complicated
The basic feature that determines the design maneuvers, reduced need to stop,
requirements of cycle paths is the “dynamic enve- minimum obstruction from vehicles
lope” of the cyclist, which determines the mini-
mum effective width that cyclists require to move
in safely and comfortably. The table below pre- vary according to the degree of separation
sents the different dynamic envelope widths for required between cyclists and motorized vehicles.
different cycling situations (Table 4). The following figure defines what degree of sep-
Accordingly, cycle paths must satisfy the aration is advised for different types of streets or
dynamic envelope of the cyclist for the different roads, according to the guidelines of Transport for
cycling situations. As such, although there are London (2014) (Fig. 10).
numerous design solutions across the world, Logically, the higher is the place function of
there are four main types of cycle facilities that streets and avenues, the more the cyclist has to be
14 Active Modes and Sustainability

protected since speed and flow of motorized traf- Final Remarks

fic tend to increase.
As such, the recommended on-carriage cycle This entry began with a short definition of actives
facility provision depends on the speed of motor- modes. The following four entries aimed at
ized vehicles such as the corresponding traffic complementing this definition by providing basic
flow. The figure below charts this relationship and crucial information on the most widely used
and advises for the more adequate types of cycle actives modes, i.e., walking and cycling. In the
facilities (Fig. 11). context of the UN Sustainable Development
Goals, this entry is instrumental, since it explains
Active Modes and Sustainability, Table 4 The in depth the term “active modes” within the con-
dynamic envelope of cyclists for different cycling situa- text of sustainable urban mobility. The term
tions (Transport for London 2014)
relates to the Goal 9 “build resilient infrastructure,
Dynamic promote inclusive and sustainable industrializa-
envelope width
tion, and foster innovation” and, more particu-
Cycling situation (m)
Dynamic envelope of a standard 1.0
larly, to the sustainable development of urban
cyclist, taking into account areas that are increasingly concentrating popula-
“wobble room” when moving tion and economic wealth while facing heavy
The indicative maximum dynamic 1.3 challenges of sustainability.
envelope of the widest cycle types, This provides an in-depth understanding of the
assuming less “wobble room” for
types with three or more wheels
term while giving access to a complete list of up-
The recommended minimum 1.0 to-date references that gathers together the main
clearance between the furthest contributors to the topic, both from academia
extremity of a moving motor (where most cited papers were preferred) and the
vehicle and the outside of the industry (resorting mainly to reference interna-
dynamic envelope of a cyclist at
30 km/h or less tional institutions).
Recommended minimum safe 1.5 As a final note, pursuing people to move from
clearance at 50 km/h motorized transport to active modes, namely,
The recommended clearance 0.5 leave the car and walk or bike, is not an easy
between dynamic envelopes of task. Mobility habits are part of culture and chang-
cyclists moving in the same
direction
ing culture may prove to be an arduous task.
However, the practice has shown that building

Active Modes and Sustainability, Fig. 10 Degrees of separation and types of cycle facilities (Transport for London
2014; Austroads 2014)
Active Modes and Sustainability 15

Active Modes and Sustainability, Fig. 11 Degrees of separation and types of cycle facilities (SUSTRAN 2014)

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