IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO.
7, JULY 2019
Tacholess Speed Estimation in Order Tracking:
A Review With Application to Rotating
Machine Fault Diagnosis
Siliang Lu , Member, IEEE, Ruqiang Yan , Senior Member, IEEE, Yongbin Liu ,
and Qunjing Wang, Member, IEEE
Abstract— Order tracking (OT), which is realized by signal
sampling in equal-angle increment according to the measured
rotating speed, is a powerful technique for rotating machine
fault diagnosis under variable-speed condition. However, if the
tachometer cannot be installed on the rotating machine or the
speed signal is not available for some reasons, OT is difficult
to be realized. This review summarizes recent advances in the
development of tacholess speed estimation methods for OT with
its applications to fault diagnosis. First, the basis of rotating
speed estimation and OT is revisited. Then, the methods are
categorized into three groups including vibration or sound signal,
electrical motor current signal, and video stream according
to the signal source from which the speed is estimated. The
principle, implementation procedures, key techniques, along with
the merits, and shortcuts of these methods are summarized and
discussed in detail. Afterward, a contrastive case study using
three kinds of methods is provided to intuitively illustrate the
performances of OT along with the applications in motor bearing
fault diagnosis. A bibliography of the recent publications related
to this topic is also provided to facilitate the selection and
improvement of the tacholess OT methods in fault diagnosis
applications. Finally, the research prospects are discussed.
Index Terms— Angular-domain sampling, fault diagnosis,
order tracking (OT), rotating machine, tacholess speed estima-
tion, variable speed.
I. I NTRODUCTION
R OTATING machines, such as turbines, pumps, engines,
and electric machines (EMs), are widely used in house-
hold appliances, vehicles, and industrial applications. For
instance, the EMs including the motors and the generators are
used to transfer the energies between the mechanical energy
and the electrical one. The literature indicates that nearly
Manuscript received November 12, 2018; revised January 19, 2019;
accepted February 21, 2019. Date of publication March 28, 2019; date
of current version June 7, 2019. This work was supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant 51605002,
Grant 51575102, Grant 51637001, and Grant 51675001. The Associate Editor
coordinating the review process was Amitava Chatterjee. (Corresponding
author: Ruqiang Yan.)
S. Lu, Y. Liu, and Q. Wang are with the College of Electrical Engineering
and Automation, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China, and also with
the National Engineering Laboratory of Energy-Saving Motor and Con-
trol Technology, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China (e-mail: lusliang@
mail.ustc.edu.cn; lyb@ustc.edu.cn; wangqunjing@ahu.edu.cn).
R. Yan is with the School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong
University, Xi’an 710049, China (e-mail: yanruqiang@xjtu.edu.cn).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIM.2019.2902806
0018-9456 © 2019 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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2315
2/3 of the industrial power is consumed by the motors [1].
Hence, the rotating machines are important in daily life and
industry.
Generally, accurate speed control is crucial to guarantee
the performances of the rotating machines, which is realized
by a closed-loop control strategy with the rotating speed as
a feedback variable. The rotating speed can be measured
by different kinds of tachometers such as optical encoder,
magnetic encoder, tachogenerator, and Hall sensor. Especially,
the optical encoders are the most commonly used sensors in
the servo motors as they can generate reliable pulse outputs
and provide scalable resolutions.
However, it should be noticed that the installation of speed
sensors will occupy extra space and cost, and increase the
system complexity. The optical sensors are vulnerable in harsh
working conditions such as intense vibration and shock, which
will further decrease the reliability of the whole system. Given
this, motor sensorless control strategies attract the attentions
of the researchers from both academic and industrial fields
in recent years. Beneficial from the technical advances of
instrument and measurement, power electronics, and control
algorithms, the rotating speed can be estimated from the EM
current and/or back electromotive force and then sensorless
control can be achieved [2].
From another aspect, condition monitoring and fault diag-
nosis of rotating machines are crucial to guarantee safe
operation, reduce maintenance cost, and avoid industrial acci-
dents [3]–[14]. In stable speed conditions, many spectral
analysis techniques have been investigated to realize fault
diagnosis by transforming the time-domain waveform to the
frequency-domain spectrum. The vibration, sound, and EM
current signals are generally sampled at equal-time interval
or fixed sampling frequency, and then, the signal processing
algorithms are used to analyze the signals to reveal the fault
indicators in the spectrum.
When a machine rotates in variable-speed condition, the
traditional spectral analysis methods may not work well as
the spectral lines will smear with each other in the spectrum
because the signal is time-varying, and as a result the fault
indicators are hardly identified. To address this issue, the order
tracking (OT) methods in which the signals are sampled at
equal-angle increment are more favorable in fault diagnosis at
variable-speed conditions [15], [16]. The orders, which are the
 2316 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 7, JULY 2019
multiples of the rotating frequency, are presented in the order
spectrum which will not be influenced by speed variation.
To realize angular-domain sampling, the rotating speed
should be measured from the sensors. When the tachome-
ter signals are available, both the hardware OT (HOT) and
computed OT (COT) techniques can be used. However,
as described before, the tachometer signals are not always
accessible in some conditions such as a motor working under
sensorless-control strategy. From another aspect, even if the
tachometers have been installed on the rotating machines, the
signals may not be accessed by using the external or handheld
instruments for in situ fault diagnosis. Sometimes, the clients
may prefer not to provide the sensor signal interface to a
company who is employed to diagnose and monitor the key
equipment. To address these issues, the tacholess OT (TOT)
methods, in which the rotating speeds are estimated from other
signals instead of the tachometer signal, have been investigated
in recent years.
As rotating speed estimation and OT are important in
many industrial regions including machine fault diagnosis,
many investigations have been conducted in the past several
decades. A special issue focusing on instantaneous angular
speed processing and angular applications was published in
the Journal of Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing in
2014 [17]. In the same year, the signal processing-based fault
diagnosis methods for speed-varying machinery were reviewed
by Lin and Zhao [18], [19]. From then on, a plenty of new
methods related to this topic have been continually investigated
and proposed. In particular, the new TOT methods are devel-
oped based on the collaborative advances of hardware and
software in instrument system, and they provide new solutions
for rotating speed measurement. In addition, some efficient
tacholess speed estimation techniques might be contribute to
the real-time speed control of the EMs. As the TOT methods
are of great value in industry, this paper dedicates to review the
tacholess rotating speed estimation methods along with their
applications in machine fault diagnosis. We hope this review
can help the researchers to conveniently select or improve the
speed estimation techniques for their application scenarios.
The remainder of this paper is introduced as follows.
Section II revisits the OT-based rotating machine fault diagno-
sis methods. Section III reviews the tacholess rotating speed
estimation methods. Section IV reviews the applications of
the TOT methods in machine fault diagnosis and provides
a contrastive case study. Section V discusses the research
prospects related to this topic, and Section VI draws the
conclusion.
II. ROTATING M ACHINE FAULT
D IAGNOSIS BASED ON OT
First, the history and development of the OT-based fault
diagnosis methods are revisited in this section. Here, a typ-
ical rotating machine system is used for illustrating the OT
procedures as shown in Fig. 1(b). The system includes a
motor with a tachometer preinstalled on the rotor shaft and
an accelerometer used for acquiring the vibration signal.
Generally, the vibration signal is prefiltered and amplified by
using a signal regulator.
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Fig. 1. Illustration of (a) HOT method, (b) rotating machine system, and
(c) COT method.
A. HOT
The HOT procedure is illustrated in Fig. 1(a), the hardware
components include an adjustable analog filter and an analog-
to-digital converter (ADC), and these two devices are con-
trolled by a microcontroller unit (MCU). When a motor rotates
at variable speed, the generated pulses from the tachometer
have different intervals, i.e., the durations of the logic high/low
states are different. The MCU serves as a ratio synthesizer
which captures the tachometer pulses and generates the proper
trigger pulses. The ADC sampling is triggered by the pulses
from the MCU, and hence, the sampling frequency f s varies
with the motor rotating speed. In addition, the vibration
signal should go through an adjustable analog filter with
variable cutoff frequencies to avoid signal aliasing before it is
sampled by the ADC. The cutoff frequencies are configured
dynamically by the MCU according to the frequency of the
tachometer pulses. Afterward, the vibration signal is sampled
with constant angle increment, and then, the order spectrum
can be calculated based on the fast Fourier transform (FFT).
As all the procedures are implemented in the hardware circuit,
the HOT is fast and can be implemented online. However,
the ADC sampling frequency and the filter cutoff frequen-
cies are adjusted dynamically during sampling, and hence,
the HOT is prone to sampling latency and error, especially
when the rotating speed changes rapidly [20], [21]. In addition,
the HOT method requires specific hardware components such
as the adjustable analog filter, thereby increasing the system
complexity and cost.
B. COT
To overcome the limitations of the HOT, the COT method
has been investigated as displayed in Fig. 1(c). For the COT
method, the vibration signal and the tachometer pulses are
sampled synchronously at fixed f s which is determined by the
Nyquist theorem. As the vibration signal is sampled at constant
time increment, the spectral lines are subjected to frequency
smearing phenomenon when the rotating speed is varying.
 LU et al.: TACHOLESS SPEED ESTIMATION IN OT 2317

The original vibrations signal is then resampled according to

the rotating phase calculated from the tachometer pulses. The
time-domain vibration signal is transformed to the angular-
domain one by using the numerical interpolation-based signal
resampling. Hence, the equal-angle sampling in the COT is
realized by software, and this is the main distinction between
the COT and HOT. The COT method reduces the complexity
of hardware configurations and improves the convenience and
reliability of the OT.

C. TOT
The COT method in Fig. 1(c) still requires a tachome-
ter to measure the motor rotating speed. As demonstrated
in Section I, the motor can be controlled without using a
tachometer, and the tachometer signal is unavailable for COT
in such condition. To address this issue, the rotating speed can
be alternatively estimated from other signals and then the COT
can be conducted, and this technique is called TOT. A TOT
method can be regarded as a special COT method independent
of using a tachometer. The detailed TOT methods will be
introduced in Section III.

III. TACHOLESS ROTATING S PEED E STIMATION

The key step of the TOT method is that the rotating speed
is estimated from other sensors instead of a tachometer. In the
follows, the TOT methods are classified into three groups
based on the sensor types as: 1) the vibration signal acquired
from an accelerometer and the sound signal acquired from a
microphone; 2) the EM current signal acquired from a current
sensor; and 3) the video stream acquired from a camera. As the
vibration and sound signals have similar characteristics in
the field of OT and fault diagnosis, they are classified into
the same group for convenience.
A. Speed Estimation From Vibration or Sound Signal
Vibration and sound signals analyses are the conventional
and effective techniques in rotating machine fault diagnosis.
Many time-domain, frequency-domain, and time–frequency-
domain methods have been investigated to extract the infor-
mation from the vibration signals for fault diagnosis [22], [23].
When a machine rotates at varying speed condition, the fault
indicators such as rotating frequency and fault characteristic
frequency (FCF) also vary synchronously. Hence, the rotating
information can be extracted from the time-varying vibration
signal.
1) Extracting the Instantaneous Frequency or Instantaneous
Phase From the Time–Frequency Representation: FFT-based
spectral analysis techniques are useful when the signal is
stationary, namely, the statistical characteristics of the signal
will not change over time. When the signal is nonstation-
ary, the time–frequency representation (TFR) technique is
more effective as it can reveal both the time and frequency
information on a 2D time–frequency plane. Given this, many
TFR methods have been investigated and applied to estimate
the rotating speed. An illustration of the TFR-based speed
estimation is shown in Fig. 2. The order waveform of a chirp
vibration signal with three orders (1×, 2×, and 4×) is shown
Fig. 2. Illustration of TFR-based IF estimation. (a) Raw vibration signal.
(b) TFR of the vibration signal. (c) Extracted IF from the TFR.
in Fig. 2(a). The corresponding TFR obtained from the short-
time Fourier transform (STFT) is shown in Fig. 2(b), and
three instantaneous frequency (IF) lines are clearly displayed
in the TFR. By using the ridge detection technique, the 1× IF
is extracted as shown in Fig. 2(c). It can be found that the
estimated IF is very close to the real IF because the chirp
signal is pure and without noise interference.
Fig. 2 provides a principle of speed estimation from a TFR
of the vibration signal. In practical applications, the detailed
procedures may be variable according to the specific scenarios.
For instance, a method was introduced to extract the IF from
the STFT spectrogram of the vibration signal of a wind
turbine gearbox [24]. A method was proposed to estimate
the instantaneous speed relative fluctuation in a vibration
signal without speed measurement available [25]. In contrast
to the conventional methods that estimate IF from one spectral
component, the method in [25] does not depend on the
choice of one specific component. In addition, a multiorder
probabilistic approach was investigated to further improve
the accuracy of angular speed estimation from the vibration
signal [26]. Before extracting the instantaneous angle from the
spectrogram, whitening approach was performed to remove the
fixed frequency components. In addition, a two-step procedure
for estimation the instantaneous rotating speed with large
fluctuations was proposed in [27]. This method combines
the advantages of phase demodulation and TFR, and over-
comes the obstacles of harmonics overlapping phenomenon.
A rotating speed isolation method was proposed to extract

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 2318 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 7, JULY 2019

the instantaneous rotating frequency (IRF) and instantaneous

FCF from the STFT spectrogram, and then, the fault charac-
teristic order (FCO) was calculated for fault diagnosis [28].
To improve the accuracy, generalized stepwise demodulation
transform and synchrosqueezing were introduced to further
process the spectrogram in [29], and the results indicated
that the IF estimation error of their proposed method is less
than that of the original STFT. Discrete spectrum correction
technique was introduced to further reduce the IF estimation
error from the TFR in [30].
From another aspect, in some machine fault signals such
as a bearing fault signal, the fault-induced impulses are
modulated by the machine resonance. In the TFR of the raw
vibration signal, the time-varying resonance frequency and its
sidebands are located at the high-frequency region, but these
frequency components are easily subjected to background
noise interference. Alternatively, the rotating information can
be estimated from the TFR of the envelope vibration signal.
After signal prefiltering and demodulation, the energy will
concentrate on the time-varying FCF and its harmonics, which
thereby facilitate IF estimation. According to this principle,
Wang et al. [31] proposed an FCO analysis method, in which
the instantaneous FCF was extracted from the TFR using an
amplitude-sum-based spectral peak search algorithm. A similar
study in which the IF was estimated from the TFR of the
envelope sound signal was proposed in [32].
Nevertheless, it should be noticed that the estimation accu- Fig. 3. Illustration of signal decomposition-based IF estimation. (a) Raw
racy is affected by the TFR resolution. The STFT resolution vibration signal. (b) Decomposed signal components. (c) Extracted IF from
is fixed when the window length and sampling frequency one decomposed component.
are fixed. Hence, the accuracy of the estimated IF from the
STFT might be low, especially when the vibration signal TFR techniques, such as STFT, Wigner–Ville distribution,
is corrupted by low-frequency noises and only contains the and wavelet transform along with their variations, have been
lower harmonics. To address this issue, the TFR techniques applied to vibration signals to realize tacholess rotating speed
with higher resolutions have been investigated and applied to estimation. It is expected that the accuracy of tacholess speed
tacholess rotating speed estimation. For instance, Wang et al. estimation will be further improved with the development of
[33]–[35] developed a series of methods including match- advanced TFR techniques.
ing demodulation transform and matching synchrosqueezing 2) Extracting Rotating Speed Based on Signal Decomposi-
transform, and these methods are suitable to characterize tion: The vibration or sound signal acquired from a rotating
the vibration signal with fast varying IF. In addition, zoom machine is a typical multicomponent signal, especially when
synchrosqueezing transform and TOT were further investigated a machine is subjected to faults. For instance, the rotating
to correct the amplitude and phase of the vibration signal frequency, meshing frequency, characteristic frequency, their
subjected to angular speed fluctuation [36]. A concentration of harmonics, and the sum and difference items of them might
frequency and time method based on synchrosqueezing trans- coexist in a fault gearbox signal. Hence, the vibration signal
form was proposed to process the vibration signal to reveal can be decomposed into a series of signal components, and
the time-varying FCF [37]. A generalized synchrosqueezing then, the rotating speed can be estimated from a component
transform guided by enhanced time–frequency ridge extraction related to the machine rotation as shown in Fig. 3. The raw
was suggested to process the bearing vibration signal under vibration signal in Fig. 3(a) is the same with that in Fig. 2(a).
time-varying speed condition [38]. Three kinds of TFR meth- The signal is decomposed into a series of intrinsic mode func-
ods including STFT, wavelet analysis, and pseudo-Wigner– tions (IMFs) using the empirical mode decomposition (EMD)
Ville distribution were studied and compared in variable-speed method [41]. The IMFs ranging from high frequency to low
vibration signal analysis [39]. Generalized demodulation algo- frequency are shown in Fig. 3(b). The first three IMFs are the
rithm was proposed to transform the interested IF trajectory 4×, 2×, and 1× components, respectively. The 1× IF can then
of the compound faults bearing signal into a line paralleling be estimated from the IMF3 component as shown in Fig. 3(c).
with the time axis, and then, FFT can be used to process the Similar to the principle in Fig. 3, a harmonic signal
transformed signal [40]. decomposition method that belongs to the eigenvalue-based
Remarks: The rotating speed information is involved in parametric signal processing method was proposed to estimate
the vibration signal, and the TFR is a powerful tool to the instantaneous speed of rotating machine from vibration
characterize the time-varying IF. Hence, the majority of the signal [42]. An empirical resampling of IMFs obtained from

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 LU et al.: TACHOLESS SPEED ESTIMATION IN OT
EMD was explored to realize approximated OT effect without
a tachometer [43]. In addition, ensemble EMD was intro-
duced to adaptively decompose the vibration signal into a
series of IMFs and then envelope OT is used to transform
the envelope of each IMF from time-domain to angular-
domain to realize bearing fault identification [44]. Ensemble
EMD was combined with neural network to realize TOT
and misalignment fault classification [45]. A regression fil-
ter was used to extract the interested harmonic component
according to the estimated IF and instantaneous bandwidth
for signal resampling [46]. An extended version of variational
mode decomposition method was investigated to obtain the
short-time narrow-banded modes from the vibration signal
for OT [47].
Other types of representative methods are based on the
Vold-Kalman filter (VKF) technique which can simultane-
ously extract multiple orders from a vibration signal [48].
Pan and Lin [49], [50] explored the theoretical details of
the VKF-based OT and compared two kinds of schemes
including the angular velocity and angular displacement. A
chirplet-based method was first used to estimate the IF of a
certain harmonic, and then, VKF was applied to extracting
the harmonic for OT under large speed variations [51]. VKF
was first used to decompose an arbitrarily complex signal
into monocomponents, and then, the higher order energy
separation technique was applied to estimating the IF for
OT [52]. A two-shaft VKF was investigated to determine
a time-accurate output of shaft order tones relative to each
rotor in the condition when the rotating rate of the two rotors
varies [53].
Remarks: Signal decomposition is an effective tool to sepa-
rate multiple monocomponents from a raw signal. This method
is suitable to be used in the condition when the multiple
components have distinguishing oscillation modes. Otherwise,
the components may not be thoroughly separated and such
phenomenon is called mode mixing in the EMD method [54].
In addition, the vibration or sound signal acquired from a
rotating machine may be subjected to noise interference, and
the noise may introduce difficulty and increase the error prob-
ability in signal decomposition. Nevertheless, signal decompo-
sition methods have attracted increased attentions in vibration
or sound signal processing. Besides the classical EMD method
and its variations, variational mode decomposition [55], local
mean decomposition [56], singular value decomposition [57],
Hilbert vibration decomposition [58], and sparse decomposi-
tion [59] methods have been or have possibility to be used
in TOT.
3) Other Techniques: Besides the above two categories of
methods, the IF can be estimated from the vibration signal by
using other methods. Bonnardot et al. [60] proposed a narrow
band filtering method, and this method is probably one of
the earliest methods for IF estimation from vibration signal.
By selecting a suitable band located around one of the gearbox
rotating harmonics, the phase can be demodulated from the
selected band. However, the method is just suitable for a
limited speed fluctuation. To improve the adaptability of the
method in [60], a new method was proposed to automatically
choose the optimal band for demodulation [61]. A tacholess
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2319
synchronously averaged envelope signal processing technique
was proposed, in which a narrow bandpass filter was used
to extract the bearing fault frequency of interest, and then,
the synthesized tachometer signal was estimated from the
time-varying fault frequency [62]. A method was proposed
to obtain the rotational speed of an engine from the lowest
harmonic frequency component of the measured vibration
signal, and a discrete spectrum correction technique was
used to improve the measurement precision in [63]. The
method performance was validated on several engine test rigs
with different configured speeds. A transient signal analysis-
based TOT method was proposed to process the sound signal
acquired from a motor working at variable speed [64]. The
sound signal was first segmented according to the short-time
energy, and then, the locations of the fault-induced impulses
were determined, and finally, the rotating phase was calculated
for OT.
B. Speed Estimation From EM Current
Signal and/or Voltage Signal
EMs which transfer the electrical energy and mechanical
energy from one another are commonly used rotating machines
in industry. Speed adjustment which guarantees a machine
working at different speed conditions is a fundamental function
for an EM control system. The EMs can be classified into
two catalogs according to the types of the working currents,
i.e., dc and ac. In the following, the speed estimation methods
based on EM current analysis are also classified into these two
groups.
1) DC EM: DC EM has very wide range of power from
milliwatts to megawatts. Generally, it consists of a rotor
including an armature and a commutator, one or more pairs
of brushes, a stator, a shell and two bearings that support
the rotor shaft. Under ideal condition, the current flows from
one brush to the commutator, to the armature, and then to
the commutator and finally, back to the brush opposite to the
start brush. The current direction from one side to the other
side of the brushes will not change during rotation. However,
the current ripples induced by the commutation between the
commutator and brushes will appear in the EM current in prac-
tice [65]. For an EM with deterministic electrical parameters,
the frequency of the current ripple is related to the rotating
speed. Fig. 4 shows a practical dc current waveform and its
order spectrum under constant rotating speed. Two types of
waveform fluctuations can be found in Fig. 4(a). The first type
is related to the periodic rotation as shown by the red dashed
line, and the second type with high-frequency oscillation mode
is related to the commutation as the dc commutator has
20 segments. Such a conclusion is further confirmed in the
order spectrum in Fig. 4(b), where the 1× and 20× orders are
the most obvious except the dc bias component (0×) at the
leftmost in Fig. 4(b).
Given this, the speed of a dc EM can be estimated from the
current ripple. For instance, an extended Kalman filter observer
was proposed for real-time estimation of rotating speed and
armature temperature using the electrical, mechanical, and
thermal models of a dc motor [66]. Combining the effects
of effective magnetic path reluctance variation and armature
 2320 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 7, JULY 2019
Fig. 4. Practical dc motor. (a) Current waveform. (b) Order spectrum.
commutation cause ripple in armature current, a speed esti-
mation for permanent magnet dc brushed motor was pro-
posed [67]. An adaptive filter was used to estimate the rotating
speed of a sensorless dc motor with brushes [68]. Three meth-
ods including FFT-based spectral analysis, adaptive filtering,
and commutation detection with comparator were studied and
compared with each other in speed measurement of dc motors
without sensors [69]. The support vector machines were used
to speed and position estimation in brushed-dc motor based
on ripple component [70]. An adaptive signal decomposition
and selection method was introduced to estimate the dc motor
speed for TOT [65].
Remarks: The dominated dc EM current is a dc component
and its magnitude is significantly higher than that of the current
ripple. Hence, extracting the rotating information from the
current ripple is a challenging work, especially when the EM
is working at variable-speed condition. In addition, the dc
motor speed is commonly adjusted by the pulsewidth modula-
tion (PWM) technique now. The PWM with high modulation
frequency will also introduce noise in the motor current signal;
such phenomenon should be considered in speed estimation.
From another aspect, speed estimation without using tachome-
ter is not only useful for OT-based fault diagnosis but also have
great values for EM sensorless control [71].
2) AC EM: The earliest ac EMs are the induction
motor (IM) and induction generator (IG). The relationship
between the IM rotating speed and the supply frequency is
expressed as
(1 − s) × 60 × f
n= (1)
p in Fig. 5(a) and 5(b), respectively. It can be found that
in which n is the rotating speed with the unit of rpm, f is
the supply frequency with unit of Hz, p is the number
of pole pairs, and s is the slip ratio which indicates that
the IM is asynchronous. Another kind of representative ac
EMs that have been developed rapidly in recent years are
the synchronous motor/generator such as permanent magnet
synchronous motor/generator (PMSM/PMSG) and brushless
dc motor (BLDCM). Here, the BLDCM is regarded as an ac
motor because its phase current is ac, although this motor is
powered by dc supply. The relationship between the rotating
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speed and the supply frequency still can be expressed by (1),
except that the slip ratio s = 0 as the EM is synchronous.
According to (1), it can be found that estimating speed
from an ac EM current is easier than that from a dc EM,
because the magnitude of the dominated component in the
ac EM current is obviously higher than those of the other
interference components and the dominated component has
explicit relationship with the rotating speed. As the key step
of sensorless control is speed estimation, and the sensorless
control strategies have been extensively investigated in recent
years, this review just selects some representative speed esti-
mation methods which have potentials to be used in TOT. The
methods are classified into two groups according to the EM
type, that is, asynchronous EM and synchronous EM.
a) Asynchronous EM: The rotor speed can be estimated
by various methods. The simplest method is based on the
IM model in considering of the angular-velocity of rotor-flux
vector and slip ratio [72]. Kalman filter-based methods are also
widely investigated in speed estimation. For instance, an opti-
mized extended Kalman filter was introduced to estimate the
speed of an IM [73]. The voltage and current are inputted
in the Kalman filter, and then, the rotating speed and other
electrical parameters can be estimated. Robust Kalman filter
and adaptive speed estimation was investigated for sensorless
control of IM drive [74], in which stator voltages and currents
were the inputs of the Kalman filter. Another solution for speed
estimation is based on the model reference adaptive system
principle [75], [76], in which an error vector is calculated
from the outputs of two models. Generally, in real-time
sensorless control strategy, both the voltage and current should
be measured and analyzed synchronously to obtain an accurate
speed and other electrical states. If the estimated speed is
not used for sensorless control, it can be estimated from
the current solely. For instance, a method was proposed for
estimating the motor slip and rotating speed of an IM running
in stationary or nonstationary condition by using rotor slot
harmonics measured from the stator current waveform [77].
The rotating speed of a double-fed IG was estimated from the
rotor current signal to determine the operating mode [78].
b) Synchronous EM: In recent years, with the devel-
opment of permanent magnet materials and power devices,
the synchronous EMs have been widely used due to its distinct
merits such as scalable power and volume, high efficient,
high power density, and low noise. As the rotating speed
and the supply frequency are strictly synchronous, estimat-
ing speed from the EM current is reasonable. A practical
PMSM current waveform and its order spectrum are shown
the current waveform is almost a pure sinusoid, and its
rotating order (RO) equals to the number of the pole pairs
of the PMSM. In addition, a PMSG with six pole pairs is
connected to an ac–dc rectifier, and the current waveform and
order spectrum are shown in Fig. 6(a) and (b), respectively.
At this case, the original sinusoidal waveform is distorted
due to the feedback of the rectifier, and the RO and its
harmonics are synchronously displayed in Fig. 6(b). Such a
distorted waveform should be first processed by using the TFR
or signal decomposition methods, and then, the IF can be
 LU et al.: TACHOLESS SPEED ESTIMATION IN OT
Fig. 5. Practical PMSM. (a) Current waveform. (b) Order spectrum.
Fig. 6. Practical PMSG connected to an ac–dc rectifier. (a) Current waveform.
(b) Order spectrum.
Fig. 7. Practical BLDCM. (a) Current waveform. (b) Order spectrum.
estimated from the preprocessed current signal. Furthermore,
the waveform and order spectrum of a practical BLDCM
current with two-pole pairs are shown in Fig. 7(a) and (b),
respectively. The BLDCM current is more complicated as
compared with that of the PMSM/PMSG, because the current
is affected by the stator winding inductance and the PWM
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2321
frequency [79]. The RO and its multiple harmonics coexist in
the order spectrum in Fig. 7(b).
It can be found in Figs. 5–7 that besides the PMSM current,
the synchronous EM current is always corrupted by other
noise interference. Given this, signal preprocessing should be
conducted before extracting the rotating speed from the current
signal. For instance, a current-aided OT of vibration signals for
PMSG wind turbine was proposed [80], in which the reference
signal was estimated from the stator current based on TFR
technique. The instantaneous multiscale filtering spectrum of
a PMSG was first estimated from the current signal, and then,
a VKF-based multiscale filter bank was designed, and finally,
the possible bearing fault was identified [81]. An adaptive filter
was designed to estimate the rotating speed from a PMSG, and
then, the synchronous vibration signal was resampled accord-
ing to the estimated speed for TOT [82]. A fast and online
TOT method based on current and vibration signals analysis
was investigated to diagnose the PMSM bearing fault [83],
in which the equal-angle sampling procedure was implemented
on an embedded system. A zero-phase filter was designed to
purify the BLDCM phase current for rotating speed estimation
and TOT [79]. Especially, how to design an optimal filter to
obtain a high-accurate rotating curve was discussed in detail.
A BLDCM rotating speed measurement method in regenera-
tive braking system of an electric vehicle was investigated [84].
The estimated results will not be affected by the misalignment
mounting of Hall position sensors, and the method has several
advantages including high precision, low cost, and reliability.
Remarks: Tacholess speed estimation for TOT and EM
sensorless control has similarity, namely, the rotor speed
is estimated from the current signal and/or voltage signal
instead of a tachometer. Hence, some of the sensorless control
techniques can be transplanted to the TOT applications after
appropriate modifications. However, it should be noticed that
the design requirements of these two kinds of techniques
are different. For the sensorless control, the response time
of speed tracking is crucial as it affects the EM dynamical
performance. In addition, the efficiency of speed estimation
algorithm should be considered as the EM is controlled in real
time. For the TOT-based fault diagnosis, both the instantaneous
and the accumulated errors of speed estimation should be
reduced as these errors will finally affect the accuracies of
signal resampling and fault diagnosis.
C. Speed Estimation From Video Stream
The vibration, sound, and EM current signals-based speed
estimation methods are the conventional methods that have
been widely investigated and applied in practical applica-
tions. In addition, the computer vision-based measurement
and detection techniques have been rapidly developed in
recent years [85]. Computer vision provides a contactless,
flexible, and high-resolution solution for measurement, and
it is very suitable for moving objects detection and tracking,
such as vehicle tracking, pedestrian tracking, and human face
recognition and tracking. A camera transfers a visible object
to a 2-D image, and then, object tracking can be realized by
analyzing the variations of the pixels between the adjacent
video frames in a recorded video stream. Most of the current
 2322 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 7, JULY 2019
Fig. 8. Illustration of computer vision-based rotating speed estimation.
objects tracking methods focus on the 2-D or 3-D position and
attitude tracking.
In recent years, the computer vision techniques have also
been applied to tacholess rotating speed estimation as shown
in Fig. 8. A camera focuses on a rotating component such
as a mechanical coupling, and the features on the coupling
surface are detected. The features move with the rotation of
the coupling, which induces pixels variation in the adjacent
video frames as shown in the right panel of Fig. 8. By tracking
a feature from position P1 (x 1 , y1 ) to position P1 ’(x 1’,y1 ’),
the rotating angle is calculated by establishing a mapping
from the planar coordinate to the rotating coordinate as shown
in the right bottom of Fig. 8.
According to this principle, a method was proposed for TOT
of a motor bearing signal in [86]. The rotating speed was esti-
mated from a video stream recorded by a high-speed camera
using the Kanade–Lucas–Tomasi object tracking algorithm.
This paper established a mapping from the pixel variation
to the angle increment of a rotating component. In addition,
a speeded-up robust feature (SURF) extraction and match-
ing algorithm was introduced to estimate the instantaneous
rotating speed of a motor for TOT [87]. A template-based
Lucas–Kanade algorithm was proposed to realize rotating
motion tracking by aligning the template image in the video
stream [88]. This algorithm can concisely extract the rotating
phase with only one parameter. A special double-sine-varying-
density fringe pattern was designed and pasted on the rotating
shaft surface, and then, the rotating speed was estimated from
the high-speed camera [89]. An artificial linearly varying-
density fringe pattern was designed as a sensor, and a high-
speed camera was used as a detector to realize instantaneous
angular speed estimation [90]. A vision-based system was
designed for simultaneous monitoring of shaft rotational speed
and axial vibration using nonprojection composite fringe pat-
tern [91]. An image similarity evaluation and spectral analysis
method was proposed for rotating speed measurement on a
low-cost imaging device [92]. In this paper, the camera was
placed along with the axial direction of the rotating shaft. Note
that the camera was placed vertically to the axial direction
in [86]–[91].
Remarks: Though the computer vision-based rotating speed
estimation methods have distinct merits, some preconditions
should be satisfied before applications. First, the rotating
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component should be visible and cannot be shielded by other
objects. In other words, if a rotating component cannot be
clearly seen by human eyes, it is also hardly to be tracked
by using a camera. Second, for any computer vision-based
objects tracking systems, the textures on the object surface
are necessary to guarantee the tracking accuracy. Hence, some
artificial textures can be painted on the rotating components.
Third, the light and illumination also have major impacts on
the estimation accuracy, especially for a high-speed camera.
Given this, supplementary lighting can be added and the
exposure time should be carefully adjusted to obtain a bright
and clear video stream.
IV. TOT A PPLICATIONS IN FAULT D IAGNOSIS
A. Motor Bearing Fault diagnosis: A Comparative Study
Bearing is one of the key components in a rotating machine
and it is prone to failure after long time of operation, especially
when it works in harsh environments. When a localized
fault appears in a bearing component such as inner raceway,
outer raceway, cage and roller, the impacts will be induced
during rotation and then the machine resonance appears under
the excitations of the impacts. The fault-induced impulses
which are modulated by the machine resonance frequency will
appear in the acquired vibration signal. The FCF can then be
obtained by demodulating the vibration signal within a proper
bandwidth. However, when the rotating speed of the fault
bearing is variable, the FCF will be expanded in the spectrum
which induces frequency smearing. In this case, the FCF is
hardly to be recognized in the spectrum, and the bearing fault
type cannot be clearly determined. TOT technique provides
an effective solution to address such an issue by resampling
the time-varying signal. In the follows, two case studies are
first provided to intuitively demonstrate the TOT methods
in bearing fault diagnosis and then a bibliography of the
published works in this topic is provided to facilitate the use
of the methods.
In the case study, three techniques are used to estimate
the rotating speed of a BLDCM, and then, the estimated
speed information is used for motor bearing fault diagnosis
based on TOT. The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 9(a),
in which a 500-W three-phase BLDCM drives an encoder
(100 pulses per revolution) through a coupling. Two bear-
ings (6002Z) with different sizes of outer raceway faults [FCO
at outer raceway (FCOO ) = 3.59] are installed separately on
the drive-end of the motor as shown in Fig. 9(b) and (c).
An accelerometer (CA-YD-1182, SINOCERA, Inc.) is used to
acquire the vibration signal. One phase current of the motor is
acquired by a current probe (80i-110 s, Fluke, Inc.). A high-
speed camera (2F04, Agile Device, Inc.) which focuses on
the rotating coupling acquires the video signal at 800 frames
per second. The vibration, current, and encoder signals are
sampled by a signal acquisition system (USB-4432, NI Inc.) at
25.6-kHz sampling rate. The signals and videos are synchro-
nously recorded by a computer. Especially random textures
are artificially painted on the coupling surface to improve
the feature tracking performance [86]. The encoder signal is
 LU et al.: TACHOLESS SPEED ESTIMATION IN OT
Fig. 9. (a) Experimental setup. (b) Deep-cutting large-sized line fault.
(c) Small-sized spot fault.
served a reference signal that uses to evaluate the errors of
different tacholess speed estimation methods.
First, the motor bearing with a large-sized fault is tested.
A speedup test is configured for the BLDCM, and the synchro-
nous signals are shown in Fig. 10. The sampling time is 10 s.
The fault-induced impulses can be seen in the vibration signal
as shown in Fig. 10(a). The vibration magnitude increases
and the impulses become more and more intensive with the
increase in rotating speed. The motor phase current and the
zoomed-in waveform are shown in Fig. 10(b), where it can
be found that the current waveform is irregular due to the
electrical disturbance. The captured video snapshots are shown
in Fig. 10(c), in which the textures on the coupling surface
move with the motor rotation. The reference encoder signal
is a series of rectangular waves as shown in Fig. 10(d). Sub-
sequently, the IRFs will be, respectively, estimated from the
signals in Fig. 10(a)–(c), and then compared to the reference
IRF from Fig. 10(d).
The procedures for processing the vibration, current, and
video are displayed in Fig. 11. The vibration signal is filtered
using a zero-phase lowpass filter with the cutoff frequency
setting as 25 Hz, and the TFR of the filtered signal is
presented in Fig. 11(a). The IRF which starts from ∼12 Hz
and ends at ∼22 Hz is displayed in the TFR as indicated
by the arrow. To eliminate the noise interference, the motor
phase current is filtered using a zero-phase bandpass filter at
the bandwidth of [20 and 50 Hz], and the filtered signal is
presented in Fig. 11(b). It can be found in the zoomed-in
waveform that the filtered signal has been purified as compared
to the original waveform in Fig. 10(b). The video stream is
processed by using a SURF feature extraction and matching
algorithm. The details of the SURF algorithm can be found
in [87]. The effects of the SURF algorithm are shown in
Fig. 11(c), in which the left panel shows one frame of the
video and the right panel shows the sequential frame. The
detected features in the left and right frames are, respectively,
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2323
Fig. 10. Synchronous sampled signals. (a) Vibration signal. (b) Phase current
signal. (c) Video stream. (d) Encoder signal.
marked by the red and green points, and their corresponding
matching relationships are indicated by the horizontal yellow
lines. The algorithm tracks the pixel variations of the matching
pairs, and then, the rotating angle between these two adjacent
frames can be calculated, and finally, a continual IRF is
obtained by processing all the frames in the video stream.
Finally, the estimated IRFs from the vibration, current,
video, and encoder signals are shown in Fig. 12(a)–(d),
respectively. The theoretical IRF is calculated by linear fitting
the estimated IRF from the encoder and obtained as
IRF(t) = 1.127t + 11.69(Hz), t ∈ [0, 10]. (2)
A comparison among the estimated IRFs and the theoretical
IRF is presented by the black and red lines in Fig. 12(a)–(c).
It can be found that the estimated IRF from current signal
matches the theoretical IRF best in Fig. 12(b). The cross
section of the coupling is not a strict circle because a painted
paper is pasted on the coupling surface to obtain the artificial
textures. Thus, the periodic fluctuation can be noticed in the
estimated IRF from the video stream in Fig. 12(c).
To further evaluate the effect of speed estimation in
TOT-based bearing fault diagnosis, the estimated rotating
angles are used to resample the original vibration signal,
 2324 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 7, JULY 2019
Fig. 11. (a) TFR of the filtered vibration signal. (b) Filtered motor phase
current signal. (c) Illustration of features matching between two adjacent
frames using SURF algorithm.
Fig. 12. Estimated IRFs from (a) vibration signal, (b) motor phase current
signal, (c) video stream, and (d) encoder signal.
and the results are demonstrated in Fig. 13. First, the envelope
spectrum of the original vibration signal is shown in Fig. 13(a),
where it can be seen that the frequency smearing phenomenon
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Fig. 13. (a) Envelope spectrum of the original vibration signal with
large-sized fault. Envelope order spectra of the resampled vibration signals
according to the estimated angles from (b) vibration signal, (c) motor phase
current signal, and (d) video stream.
exists in the spectrum due to the increased rotating speed. Such
phenomenon causes the bearing FCF not be clearly identified
for fault diagnosis. Next, the estimated rotating angle curves
are used to resample the vibration signal to obtain the envelope
order spectra as shown in Fig. 13(b)–(d). After resampling,
the bearing fault indicator FCOO and its harmonics are shown
in the spectra. The envelope spectra generated from the
extracted rotating angles from the vibration signal [Fig. 13(b)]
and current signal [Fig. 13(c)] are better than that from the
video stream [Fig. 13(d)], and such results are consistent with
the extracted IRF curves in Fig. 12. Namely, a higher accuracy
of the estimated rotating speed will reduce the errors of signal
resampling and OT.
B. Method Robustness Evaluation: Diagnosing
on Small-Sized Bearing Fault
To further evaluate the performances of different methods
in rotating speed estimation, a motor bearing with a small-
sized fault is tested. Fig. 14(a) and (b) shows the bearing
vibration signal and its envelope spectrum, respectively. The
signal amplitude first increases and then decreases as shown
in Fig. 14(a). A mass of frequency components is displayed
in Fig. 14(b), but no explicit components can be used to
identify the bearing fault type. Three rotating speed curves are
extracted from the vibration signal, motor current signal, and
video stream, respectively. The curves are used to resample
the vibration signal in Fig. 14(a), and the corresponding
envelope spectra of the resampled signals are plotted in
Fig. 14(c)–(e). The fault indicator FCOO is pointed out in each
subfigure. In Fig. 14(c) and (e), obvious noise interferences
are surrounded around the FCOO . In contrast, the FCOO
and its second harmonic are clearly displayed in Fig. 14(d).
 LU et al.: TACHOLESS SPEED ESTIMATION IN OT 2325

TABLE I
C OMPARISON OF D IFFERENT TOT M ETHODS

in which P[i ] is the magnitude of the frequency line in the

envelope order spectrum, NFFT represents the number of
sampling points in FFT calculation, and  f is the frequency
resolution determined by the sampling frequency and NFFT.
In addition, the computation time of each method is also
estimated on the computer configured as: dual-core 2.30-GHz
CPU, 8.00-GB Memory, 64-bit WIN10 Operation System, and
MATLAB 2018b. The computation time is the average time
for processing two kinds of bearing signals with different fault
Fig. 14. (a) Bearing vibration signal with small-sized fault and (b) its sizes.
envelope spectrum. Envelope order spectra of the resampled vibration signals It can be found in Table I that the IRF RMSD value
according to the estimated angles from (c) vibration signal, (d) motor phase
current signal, and (e) video stream.
has positive correlation with the output SNR. Especially as
the speed of an ac motor is adjusted by the current with
variable frequency, the accuracy of speed estimation from
These results indicate that the rotating speed estimated from the phase current is the highest among three methods. The
the motor current has higher accuracy as compared with that computation time of the vibration signal analysis is almost
from both vibration signal and video stream. equivalent to that of the current signal analysis because these
two signals are both 1-D. The video processing time is
C. Comparison on Different TOT Methods significantly high because the image is 2-D and the image
In addition, a comprehensive comparison on three kinds processing requires many resources. The comparisons on other
of TOT methods is conducted. The root mean square devi- aspects are also summarized in Table I. The accuracy of speed
ation (RMSD) between the estimated IRF (IRFe [i ]) and the estimation from the vibration signal depends on the SNR.
theoretical IRF (IRFt [i ]) is used to evaluate the speed estima- As indicated from the results in Figs. 13 and 14, if the
tion error and it is calculated as bearing fault size is small, the signal information related to

N the rotation is also weak as compared with the background
i=1 (IRFe [i ] − IRFt [i ])
2
RMSD = (3) noise. Hence, the accuracy of the estimated rotation curve is
N low, which further affects the accuracy of signal resampling
in which N is the number of sampling points. In addition, and fault diagnosis. In contrast, the bearing fault size will
when the original vibration signal is correctly resampled, not significantly affect the motor rotation, and thus, the speed
the energies will concentrate on the FCOO and its harmonics estimation accuracies based on the current signal analysis and
in the envelope order spectrum. Given this, signal-to-noise video analysis are independent of the fault size. In summary,
ratio (SNR) is used to evaluate the performance of OT and different methods have their distinct advantages, and the
fault diagnosis. SNR is calculated in considering of the FCOO available instrumentations and measurement scenarios should
and its second to fifth harmonics as shown in the following: be considered when choosing a method for TOT-based fault
diagnosis.
SNR    
5 FCOO
i=1 P i × round f + 1 D. Bibliography of the Fault Diagnosis
= 10 log10  5     Methods Based on TOT
NFFT/2
i=1 P[i ]− i=1 P i ×round FCO f
O
+1 As reviewed in Section III, a plenty of tacholess methods
(4) have been proposed to estimate the rotating speed without

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 2326 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 7, JULY 2019

TABLE II
TOT M ETHODS FOR B EARING FAULT D IAGNOSIS

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 LU et al.: TACHOLESS SPEED ESTIMATION IN OT 2327

TABLE II
(Continued.) TOT M ETHODS FOR B EARING FAULT D IAGNOSIS

using a tachometer. Among these, the methods that can be
used for fault diagnosis are listed as a bibliography in Table II.
Especially the methods are listed in chronological order in
considering that the new methods are generally more effective
as they were developed and improved from the old ones.
The signal source represents the source from which the rotat-
ing speed is estimated.
Some statistical indicators related to the methods in Table II
are shown in Fig. 15. Generally, the publication number
increases as the years go on [Fig. 15(a)], which indicates that
this topic attracts more and more attentions as it has promising
applications in industry. From another aspect, most of the TOT
methods were realized by extracting the rotating information
from the vibration or sound signals as shown in Fig. 15(b). The
vibration or sound signal has already been acquired for fault
diagnosis, and hence, extracting the rotating information from
these signals are the most convenient, efficient, and economic.
The classification from the aspect of diagnosis object is shown

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 2328 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT, VOL. 68, NO. 7, JULY 2019
Fig. 15. Statistical indicators of the TOT publications. (a) Number of
publications versus year. (b) Signal source. (c) Diagnosis object.
in Fig. 15(c), where it can be found that most of the TOT-based
fault diagnosis methods focus on bearing and gearbox because
these two objects are the basic and key components in rotating
machines. Finally, we expect that the readers can find the
proper methods and improve them for their specific application
scenarios.
V. R ESEARCH P ROSPECTS
The tacholess speed estimation methods have been catego-
rized into three groups including vibration or sound signal,
EM current signals, and video streams, and the TOT-based
rotating machine fault diagnosis methods have also been
analyzed and summarized from different aspects. To make
these methods more efficient and reliable in practice, some
research prospects are discussed in the following.
A. Relationship Between Tacholess Speed
Estimation and Fault Diagnosis
Tacholess speed estimation is indeed a signal preprocess
step in the successive fault diagnosis procedures including
signal processing, feature extraction, and pattern recognition.
OT techniques can transform an equal-time-interval sampled
signal to an equal-angle-interval sampled signal by signal
resampling according to the estimated rotating speed. Then,
the original time-varying signal is transformed to a quasi-
stationary one. The resampled signal can be processed by
many fault diagnosis methods that are suitable for analyzing
the stationary signals. More advanced and powerful signal
processing-based fault diagnosis methods could be introduced
and cooperatively applied with the TOT methods to improve
the diagnosis accuracy and efficiency.
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B. Noise Suppression for Improving Estimation Accuracy
Most of the tachometer speed estimation methods focus
on signal filtering and noise suppression, especially when
processing the vibration or sound signals. The rotating speed
information exists in the acquired vibration signal but it is gen-
erally weak as compared to other noise interferences. Hence,
effective signal filtering guarantees the accurate extraction
of a rotating speed curve. From another aspect, the filter
parameters such as filter type, bandwidth, and filter order have
great effects on the performance of noise suppression [79] for
both the conventional filters such as the finite-impulse/infinite
impulse response filters and the specific filters such as wavelet
transform-based filters [117]. In this condition, a robust and
adaptive filter that can effectively adjust its parameters to
track the random speed variation is promising in practical
applications, which deserves a further investigation.
C. Estimating Rotating Speed From Other Possible
Sensors Using Multisensor Information Fusion
Nowadays, more and more sensors have been installed onto
an integrated machine to measure and monitor the machine
conditions. Besides the classical speed sensors, it is expected
to extract the rotating speed from other possible installed sen-
sors by fusing multisensor signals. For instance, as introduced
in Section III-B, many sensorless control techniques have
been investigated for speed control in EMs. The sensorless
control is generally realized by combining the EM voltage and
current signals. Hence, the estimated speed for motor control
can be used for TOT-based fault diagnosis of the mechanical
components such as bearing and rotor. In addition, in most of
the present methods, the rotating speed is estimated from a
single sensor. If the multisensor signals can be simultaneously
analyzed to extract the rotating speed, the accuracies of speed
estimation and fault diagnosis could be further improved.
D. Instrument Fault Detection and Isolation
In this paper, different sensors are used to estimate the
rotating speeds from the corresponding signals. The estimated
accuracy is determined by the sensor reliability. If the sen-
sor performance degrades, extra noise interference will be
introduced in the acquired signal, which will further affect
the accuracy of speed estimation and fault diagnosis. Hence,
instrument fault detection and isolation should be involved
in the design of the monitoring system to improve both the
accuracy and reliability of the rotating speed estimation and
fault diagnosis system [118]–[120].
E. Machine Fault Diagnosis Using
Rotating Speed Signal Only
Generally, machine fault diagnosis under variable-speed
condition is realized with two steps as: 1) estimating speed
from encoder, vibration, current, or video signal and 2) diag-
nosing fault from the vibration or current signal. It can be
found that the vibration and current signals can be used
for both speed estimation and fault diagnosis. In addition,
the encoder signal was also used for rotating machine fault
diagnosis in recent years. For instance, an instantaneous
 LU et al.: TACHOLESS SPEED ESTIMATION IN OT
speed jitter detection method was proposed for planetary
gearbox fault diagnosis by processing the encoder signal [121].
An encoder signal analysis method was proposed for health
assessment of turbine planetary gearbox [122]. According to
this principle, it is expected that more information can be
explored from one sensor signal only to realize both speed
estimation and fault diagnosis. Such work is interesting and
meaningful as it can reduce the number of installed sensors
as well as system cost.
VI. C ONCLUSION
The tacholess speed estimation methods for OT and their
applications in rotating machine fault diagnosis are reviewed.
The conclusion remarks are listed as follows.
1) Three kinds of OT methods including HOT, COT, and
TOT are introduced and revisited.
2) The tacholess speed estimation methods are classified
into three groups including vibration or sound signal,
EM current signal, and video signal, according to the
signal source from which the speed is estimated.
3) An illustration of TFR- and signal decomposition-based
speed estimation methods is provided in the group of
vibration or sound signal.
4) Practical current waveforms are provided and analyzed
for some typical EMs including dc motor, PMSM,
PMSG, and BLDCM in the group of EM current signal.
5) Two comparative case studies are conducted, in which
the rotating speed is estimated from the vibration, phase
current, and video signals, respectively. The estimated
speed curves are used for TOT-based motor bearing
fault diagnosis. Qualitative and quantitative analyses
are provided to evaluate the performances of different
methods.
6) The TOT-based fault diagnosis methods which are listed
as a bibliography are analyzed from different aspects
such as publication year, signal source, and diagnosis
object.
7) The research prospects of tacholess speed estimation and
TOT-based fault diagnosis are discussed.
Finally, the TOT methods are flexible and effective for fault
diagnosis without using a tachometer, and they have promising
applications in industry. We hope this review provides useful
and sufficient information for the researchers on the use of
TOT methods in rotating machine fault diagnosis.
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Siliang Lu (S’13–M’18) received the B.S. and Ph.D.
degrees in mechanical engineering from the Uni-
versity of Science and Technology of China, Hefei,
China, in 2010 and 2015, respectively.
He is currently an Associate Professor with the
College of Electrical Engineering and Automa-
tion, Anhui University, Hefei. He has authored and
co-authored over 40 SCI-indexed papers in the
reputable journals. His current research interests
include machinery condition-based monitoring and
fault diagnosis, signal processing, embedded system
and robotics.
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE MINAS GERAIS. Downloaded on January 16,2024 at 20:36:20 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Ruqiang Yan (M’07–SM’11) received the Ph.D.
degree from the University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA, in 2007, and the
M.S. degree from the University of Science and
Technology of China, Hefei, China, in 2002.
From 2009 to 2018, he was a Professor with
the School of Instrument Science and Engineer-
ing, Southeast University, Nanjing, China. In 2018,
he joined the School of Mechanical Engineering,
Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China. His current
research interests include data analytics, machine
learning, and energy-efficient sensing and sensor networks for the condition
monitoring and health diagnosis of large-scale, complex, dynamical systems.
Dr. Yan is a member of the ASME. He was a recipient of the New Century
Excellent Talents in University Award from the Ministry of Education in
China, in 2009. He is an Associate Editor-in-Chief of the IEEE T RANS -
ACTIONS ON I NSTRUMENTATION AND M EASUREMENT.
Yongbin Liu received the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
in mechanical engineering from the University of
Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China,
in 2004 and 2011, respectively.
He is currently a Professor with the College
of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Anhui
University, Hefei, where he is currently a Profes-
sor with the National Engineering Laboratory of
Energy-Saving Motor and Control Technology. His
current research interests include smart material
actuators and machinery condition monitoring and
fault diagnosis.
Qunjing Wang (M’13) received the Ph.D. degree
in mechanical engineering from the University of
Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China,
in 1998.
He is currently a Professor and a Vice-President
with Anhui University, Hefei. He serves as a
Research Chair Professor with the National Engi-
neering Laboratory of Energy-Saving Motor and
Control Technique, Anhui University, where he was
with the Power Quality Engineering Research Center
of China Ministry of Education, and the Provin-
cial Collaborative Innovation Center of Industrial Energy-saving and Power
Quality Control. His current research interests include motor and drive,
converter technology, power quality, and micro grid.