Part A – General

A1 – Hazards and Risks

Contaminant bioavailability: Is a concept describing how much of a contaminant can reach
the target parts of the body where it will cause most damage. A proportion of pollution may
not reach the target due to it being unavailable (e.g. strongly attached to soil)
Threshold Chemicals: Have no adverse effect on health below a certain concentration.
Non-threshold chemicals (e.g. carcinogens): Carry a risk of harm at all levels with a possibility
of harm increasing with concentration.
Hazardous Waste: Explosive, Oxidising, Flammable, Irritant, Harmful, Toxic, Carcinogenic,
Corrosive, Infectious, Ecotoxic, Mutagenic, Toxic for reproduction.
Pollutant Linkage
Source – The chemical (or other material) that is the source of the hazard.
Pathway – How the source material travels to the receptor.
Receptor – The organism or thing that is affected by the hazard.
Receptor Typical Pathways
Humans Ingestion (soil/dust, food, water), Inhalation, Dermal Contact
Other organisms Ingestion (soil/dust, food, water), Inhalation, Dermal Contact
Water Leaching, Deposition, Infiltration
Buildings Leaching, Deposition
Risk: The possibility of experiencing an adverse impact due to a hazard.
Hazard: An action or material that can cause an adverse impact on a receptor.
If the risk of harm is significant, the management of the risks is required.
Risk Management – 3 Stages:
A. Risk Assessment – Determines the type and extent of any risks.
B. Options Appraisal – Choosing a suitable method of reducing the risk.
C. Implementation of Solutions – Designing and building a system to reduce risk.
Conceptual Model:
1. Developing the site conceptual model:
Hazard Identification – what are the contaminant sources?
Hazard Assessment – Do any hazards potentially pose an unacceptable risk?
2. Quantifying the risk:
Risk Estimation – How severe are any problems, and what’s their likelihood?
Risk Evaluation – Is the risk acceptable or not?
Tier 1 – Preliminary Tier 2 – Generic Quantitative Tier 3 – Detailed Quantitative
 Desk Study  Limited Site Data (Type  Extensive Modelling of
 Existing Information and Concentration of factors.
 Qualitative Assessment contaminants.  Time-consuming and
 Gaps in data supplied expensive.
by generic sources.
Qualitative assessment is useful in a preliminary (tier 1) assessment. Uses ‘fuzzy’ descriptions
such as high, moderate, and low.
Semi-Quantitative ranking method uses risk rating = likelihood x severity.
 Chronic daily intake (CDI) = (CS x IR x CF x FI x EF x ED) / (BW x AT)
CS - Measured contaminant concentration [mg/kg], IR – Ingestion rate [mg/day], CF –
Conversation factor [1x10-6 kg/mg], FI – Soil ingested as a fraction of total ingestion, on a
typical day [No Unit], EF – Exposure frequency [days/year], ED – Exposure duration [years],
BW – Body weight [kg], AT – Averaging time (Non-threshold chemicals, usually given as 70
years, same as ED*EF for threshold) [days]
Hazard quotient = CDI / TDI
CDI – Chronic daily intake, TDI – Tolerable daily intake. If Hazard quotient > 1 then there is a
problem. Used for threshold chemicals.
Excess cancer risk = CDI x slope factor
Used for carcinogens/non-threshold chemicals. Indicates how risk of harm (e.g. cancer)
A2increases with dose.
– Soil Biology If excess cancer risk > 10-4 (1 in 10,000 people) usually unacceptable.
and Chemistry 1L = 1kg = 1000g = 1,000,000mg
Basic Chemistry
Atomic Structure
Nucleus (protons and neutrons) surrounded by Electron cloud.
Particle Mass (mole) Charge
Proton 1 Positive
Neutron 1 No Charge
Electron 0 Negative

Most geological materials are ionic compounds.

Atomic Number: The number of protons in an atom.
Relative atomic mass (RAM): the mass relative to a hydrogen atom. The total number of
protons and neutrons.
Relative molecular mass (RMM): the sum of RAMs of the atoms in a molecule.
Mole: A mole of a substance contains 6.02x1023 individual atoms. One mole of a substance
weighs the same as the RAM or RMM in grams.
Types of Chemicals
Inorganic chemicals (Metals): Often very simple (eg. Sodium Chloride [NaCl], calcium sulphate
[CaSO4], can contain ionic and covalent bonds.
Organic chemicals (contain carbon and hydrogen): Vary from simple (Methane [CH4]) to
complex (the protein Enaptin [C44189H71252O14007S321]) and most contain covalent bonds.
Aliphatic compounds: Organic chemicals with linear and branched chains of carbon atoms.
Aromatics: Organic chemicals with rings of carbon atoms.
Properties are partly conferred by simple structures known as functional groups.

Chemical Reactions
aA + βB≤¿ χC+ δD (Reversible Reaction)
[ C ] χ [ D ]δ
K eq = α β
[ A ] [ B]
Keq is the equilibrium constant. Terms in brackets are concentrations (moles/litre).
Groundwater Chemistry
Groundwater contains dissolved ions and molecules, derived from the surrounding soil, rock,
plants, animals, and anthropogenic contamination.
Solubility
The solubility of a chemical in water largely depends upon it forming hydrogen bonds with the
water. Chemicals containing ionic bonds tend to be soluble, as ions can be surrounded by
water molecules and separated. Similarly, molecules that have covalent bonds but have a
dipole (e.g. ethanol) also interact with water molecules via hydrogen bonds and dissolve
readily. All chemicals have a maximum solubility in water. Above this value, the solution is said
to be saturated, and some of the chemical will be present as ‘free phase’, either solid or liquid.
Oil is a good example – these only dissolve in low amounts in water and so the majority is
present as a separate liquid (known as a non-aqueous phase liquid, or NAPL), as seen in oil
slicks.
pH
pH = -log10[H+]
H+ is determined for the concentration of hydrogen ions (moles/litre)
Acid < 7 Neutral (Water) = 7 Alkali > 7
Many metals are more soluble at lower (i.e. acidic) pH and so can be leached from soil and
pose a greater risk. Conversely, higher pH may lead to these metals precipitating (comes out of
solution as a solid compound), meaning they are no longer a threat. Groundwater is often
slightly acidic, due to factors such as local geology, acid rain and the dissolution of acidic gases
(e.g. carbon dioxide, which reacts with water to give a pH of about 5.5).
Redox Potential (Eh)
Redox potential (Eh, measured in volts) is a measure of the likelihood of chemicals being
oxidised or reduced. A chemical is oxidised if it loses electrons and reduced if it gains them.
Many chemical and biochemical reactions are in fact redox reactions. Oxidation and reduction
reactions occur together – one is balanced by the other.
An environment with oxygen present will be oxidising, as it causes materials in it to be oxidised
(this will have a positive Eh). Conversely, an anaerobic environment is usually reducing, and
will have a negative Eh.
The redox potential of soil environments depends on the chemistry of groundwater and soil,
plus any soil gas present. As with pH, the redox potential has positive and negative effects on
soil contamination. For example, in oxidising conditions, ‘trivalent’ chromium (Cr3+) is oxidised
(loss of electrons) to ‘hexavalent’ chromium (Cr6+, with a larger positive charge). Cr6+ is
considerably more toxic than Cr3+, and so one needs to encourage reducing conditions to
prevent its formation.
OILRIG – Oxidising is loss, Reducing is gain. (Of Electrons)
Soil Chemistry
Inert – silt, sand, gravel
Active – clay, organic matter
Clay and organic matter govern sorption of chemicals to soil, where chemicals in groundwater
become chemically attached to soil particles. Various models have been developed to describe
sorption, including the Langmuir model, which suggests that at low concentrations the
proportion of chemical in solution is proportional to that sorbed to the soil. However, at higher
concentrations the soil becomes saturated (no space left) and so no further sorption occurs.
 S = Kd x C
S – Amount sorbed [mg of contaminate/kg of soil], C – Amount in solution [mg of
contaminate/L of water], Kd – Soil-water partition coefficient [L/kg]
Kd = foc x Koc
foc – Soil organic carbon content [percentage presented as a fraction], K oc or Kow – Organic
carbon partition coefficient or octonal-water partition coefficient (what proportion of the
chemical is attached to organic carbon in the soil, relative to the amount in the solution in
water [L/kg]
Ions sorbed to clays are not permanently attached and may be desorbed. In natural soils, clay
has metal ions (e.g. calcium, sodium) sorbed to them, but heavy metal ions (e.g. lead) are
more strongly attracted to the clay and replace them. This is ion exchange – the cation
exchange capacity (CEC) is the maximum extent to which this can occur with cations and is a
property of the clay. Clays with higher CEC are valuable in barriers such as landfill liners as they
retain more contaminants.
Soil gas is usually close to the surface, where soil pores are only partly water filled. Its
composition depends on infiltration of air from the surface as well as various soil processes
such as respiration of microbes - oxygen content decreases with depth whilst the carbon
dioxide content increases. Some pollutants in groundwater are volatile and escape into the gas
phase. At equilibrium, the gas concentration is proportional to the water concentration – this
is described by Henry’s Law:
Cg = kH x Cw (Cg – concentration in gaseous phase; Cw – concentration in water; kH – Henry’s
Law constant (dimensionless))
This law holds in equilibrium conditions (i.e. when Cg and Cw are constant). Therefore, if the
concentration in water of a chemical is known, the soil gas concentration can be calculated.

Contaminants in soils
Organic contaminants vary greatly in their chemical structure and properties. Some are
volatile (volatile organic compounds, VOCs) and evaporate into soil gas and the atmosphere.
Of those that remain, some will be partly soluble in groundwater and so may move around.
Some have little or no solubility in water and remain as ‘free phase’ product (a liquid entirely
separate from the water). Depending on density, this either floats on the surface of the
groundwater (light non-aqueous phase liquid [LNAPL]) or sinks to the base of the aquifer 3-7
(dense non-aqueous phase liquid, or DNAPL). These are not easily transported in the ground
but may gradually dissolve, giving a long-term supply of groundwater contamination. Metals
(e.g. lead, cadmium) and inorganic chemical species (e.g. cyanide, sulphate) tend to be in ionic
form in soils. They will either be dissolved in pore water or sorbed to soil particles. The former
are easily transportable in groundwater. Some may become associated with other chemicals –
e.g. mercury can form methylmercury (where it bonds to an organic methyl group – this form
caused the poisoning at Minamata Bay in Japan).
Soil Biology
Soils can contain a huge variety of different living organisms, ranging from the large (moles,
earthworms, insect larvae) to the small (bacteria, fungi). The numbers of living organisms in
soil can also be large – a single gram of surface soil may contain > 109 individual, many of
which will be unknown or unclassified species. Because of the abundance of oxygen, nutrients
and organic matter near the soil surface and the relative lack elsewhere, numbers of
organisms tend to decrease sharply with depth.
Microorganisms are by far the most numerous organisms in soil. Bacteria may have 109 and
above active cells per gram of soil in optimum conditions (consisting of many different
species). They are single-celled organisms that grow and divide into daughter cells. They are
prokaryotic organisms, having relatively poorly defined cell structure; typical cell diameter may
be 1 to 2 m although there is considerable variation. They may be spherical, ovoid, spirals or
filamentous, depending on the species and environment.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms with a well defined cell structure with various identifiable
organelles. As with bacteria, there are many different species. They are variable in size and
may exist as yeasts (single-celled) or as a mycelium (a mass of connected filaments known as
hyphae). Hyphae may be responsible for a significant part of soil structure through binding soil
particles. A mycelium can be extensive, with hundreds of metres of hyphae per gram soil.
Microorganisms have requirements in order to grow, divide and degrade contaminants. They
require the following basic elements with which to construct and maintain their cell: Carbon,
Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Potassium, Iron, Calcium, Magnesium,
Trace elements, Certain preformed organic molecules (e.g. vitamins)
These are obtained from uptake of chemicals from groundwater and are used directly or
broken down to provide material for growth. Microorganisms also need energy – they can get
it from light or chemical (redox) reactions. An important part of this is the electron acceptor.
Oxygen fills this role in aerobic conditions. It is analogous to combustion – an organic molecule
(fuel) reacts with oxygen giving energy. Microorganisms harvests this energy and may also use
resulting molecules as a source of carbon etc. Using oxygen as an electron acceptor gives most
energy so this is most commonly used. However, other chemical species are used, especially in
anaerobic environments.
Microbial growth needs a suitable environment. This means suitable temperature, pH and
moisture level and low levels of toxins, predators and competing organisms. Each organism
has an optimal range of temperature, pH etc. Because organic matter, oxygen concentrations
etc tend to be higher nearer the surface the number of microorganisms is also high. Soil is
often an oligotrophic (low nutrient) environment and so growth occurs where nutrients are
most abundant.
As the majority of the soil environment is oligotrophic, bacteria have developed survival
mechanisms. One example is the formation of biofilms on soil surfaces (these occur on many
surfaces, such as medical equipment in the body and ships’ hulls). Biofilms consist of a
community of microbes (of different species) which may rely to a certain extent on one
another for production of food and removal of waste products. They also afford protection
from antibiotics or pollutants and increase efficiency of nutrient uptake from the environment.
Bioremediation
Although they are small in size, the sheer numbers of microorganisms mean that they can
have significant effects on soil chemistry and the behaviour of contamination. Most obvious is
the impact of biodegradation – microbes need carbon to survive and grow, and organic
 contaminants can provide this. In return, contaminants are broken down into simpler material.
This natural attenuation of organic contamination in the ground is now regularly harnessed by
geoenvironmental engineers for use in bioremediation of contaminated land. The breakdown
products of organic contaminants are either simpler organic molecules or inorganic end
products. In the former case, it is possible that the breakdown products are actually more
toxic than the original molecule, and this must be guarded against. The latter case is known as
mineralisation, and in aerobic conditions the products are carbon dioxide and water. For
simple hydrocarbons, the basic chemical reaction is:

( 4y )O =xC O +( 2y ) H O
C x H y+ x + 2 2 2

Microbes can alter the chemistry in their environment and can lead to oxidation or reduction
of contaminants – this can be used to control the toxicity and transport of heavy metals such
as chromium (see discussion on chromium toxicity in previous section). In some cases they can
produce materials known as biosurfactants, which desorb and dissolve contaminants.
A3 – Solute Transport

C – Concentration (e.g. mg/L) Q – Volumetric flow rate (m3/s)

D – Coefficient of mechanical dispersion (m2/s) v – Darcy velocity (m/s)
Dd – Coefficient of aqueous diffusion in solution (m2/s)
vf – Seepage velocity (m/s)
Dd* - Effective aqueous diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
αl – Longitudinal dispersivity (m)
Dl – Longitudinal hydrodynamic dispersion coefficient (m2/s)
i – Hydraulic gradient (-) αt – Transverse dispersivity (m)
J – Mass Flux (J/m2s, kg/m2s, etc.) ρ – Density (kg/m3)
k – Hydraulic conductivity/coefficient of permeability (m/s) τ – Tortuosity (-)
φ – Total solute flux from sources/sinks (kg/m2s) n – Porosity (-)
q – Specific discharge (m/s)

Initial Concepts
Mass Flux (J) is the rate of mass of contaminant transported through a plane per unit cross-
section normal to the direction of transport.
J = (δM / δA) / δt
Q = Av
I = Vertical Distance (Head difference) / Horizontal Distance
vf = v/n = ki/n
Breakthrough Curves

Show the concentration versus time at a given position.

Advection
The solute is carried along with the mean water flow at velocity v f
Jadvection = nvfC
Diffusion
Diffusion occurs whether or not water is moving. It occurs in all directions, not just that of
flow. It is spread, typically at low level, over a large area.
Liquid Only: JFick = -Dd (δC/δx) (Fick’s Law)
In soil: JDiff = -nτDd (δC/δx) = -nDd* (δC/δx)
Dd* = τDd
Mechanical Dispersion
Mechanical dispersion is mixing that occurs in porous media as consequence of local variations
in velocity.
D = α l vf
Combining diffusion and mechanical dispersion
Dl = Dd* + D (Dl = Dd* for no mechanical dispersion)
Jdisp = -Dl (δC/δx)
Sorption
Sorption removes contamination from solution. It is one of several mechanisms by which
solutes can be replenished or depleted, known generally as sources and sinks. Other examples
may include biodegradation or chemical reactions. Two main types of sorption processes exist:
 adsorption – solute accumulates on the surface of the grains.
 absorption – solute is taken up into the inside of the grains.
Governing equation for solute transport
Rate of change of solute mass within element = Net rate of flux of solute into element ± Net
solute gain/loss (sources/sinks in element)
𝜕(𝑛𝐶)/𝜕𝑡 = (𝜕(𝐽𝑎𝑑𝑣 + 𝐽𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝)) /𝜕𝑥 ± Φ
For a homogeneous soil with steady state flow, n, Dl and vf will be constant, therefore the 1D
transport equation becomes:
2
∂c ∂ c ∂c ϕ
=D l 2 −v f ±
∂t ∂x dx n
Solution of the advection-dispersion-reaction transport equation
The analytical solution for Advection/dispersion, by Ogata and Banks using Laplace transforms
is:
C (z,t ) 1
C0 [ ( )
= erfc
2
z−v f t
√ 4 Dl t
v z
+ exp f erfc
Dl ( ) (
z +v f t
√ 4 Dl t )]
For large z or t (applicable in most cases), solution approximates to:
C (z,t ) 1
C0 [ ( )]
= erfc
2
z−v f t
√ 4 Dl t
For diffusion only (such as in clays) (vf = 0):

( )
C ( z,t ) z
=erfc
C0 √ 4 Dl t
For advection only: t = z / vf (Use to find maximum limit time for advection/dispersion)
If determining time to just reach receptor use C/C0 value of 0.0035
Steady state solution for advective and dispersive transport
If the landfill is old the contaminant leakage may have reached a steady state, conditions not
changing with time for all z.
Dl ∂2 C ∂C
=
vf ∂ z2 ∂ z
Can be integrated to become:

C=P+ R . exp
( )
vf z
Dl Can then be solved using boundary conditions.

If advection is negligible (diffusion dominates) then steady distribution is linear:

C L−z
≈
C0 L
Part B – Geological Waste Disposal
B1 – MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) Landfill
What happens in landfill?
Landfill or land-raise are major routes for geoenvironmental waste disposal. Their function is
to isolate human-generated pollution from humans and other receptors. To store/dispose of
large volumes of waste economically using side and bottom liner systems or to accumulate
and attenuate contaminant leachates emanating from the waste.
Waste Disposal legislation
UK – Environmental Protection Act 1990 / EU – Landfill Directive (1999/31/EC)
Environment Act 2021
 Licensing for waste sites, operations,  Sperate landfills for inert, non-
and carriers. hazardous, or hazardous waste.
 Covers whole life cycle of waste  Aims to reduce volume of disposal.
 Operation etc must prevent escape of  Waste to be pre-treated to reduce
waste from their control volume and/or toxicity (incineration).
 Significant reduction in biodegradable
waste.

Landfill Construction
1. Fresh waste is discharged from vehicles on the ‘working face’, a slope of about 1 in 3,
allowing efficient compaction and easier capping and vegetable growth along the sides
of a landfill, and with a maximum length of about 45 metres. It is then compacted.
2. Placement and compaction occur until the thickness of this waste ‘cell’ reaches a certain
value (usually 2.5-9m). The height of the cell may be governed by the strength of the
landfill foundation.
3. After each day, the waste is covered by a soil layer (‘daily cover’) typically 0.3m thick to
prevent escape of materials and ingress of moisture and animals.
4. Additional cells will then be created adjacent to the previous one. This ‘layer’ of cells in
known as a lift. Once a lift is completed an intermediate cover may also be required
before additional lifts are placed on top. The final lift is capped with a final cover.
Problems of Landfill
 Chemical and biological processes break down degradable waste. Biodegradation may
take place aerobically or anaerobically, leading to production of gas and new organic
 material. Initially, carbon dioxide CO2 is produced but once Oxygen O2 is used up
methane (CH4) forms instead until the biodegradable waste is exhausted. Heat produced
in these reactions may cause underground fires in the waste.
 Water percolating through waste picks up soluble or suspendable material which may
be toxic (heavy materials). This can be transported across the liner into the surrounding
environment. This leachate is therefore collected at the base of the landfill.
 Settlement occurs as waste is decomposed, crushed, or compacted. There may also be
compression of the foundations. Subsequent settlement of the landfill surface makes
the land unsuitable for future construction, as well as cracking allowing escape of gas.
Waste Geotechnics
Basic properties: - Waste is heterogeneous with wide variations in properties. It can be
considered to be particulate matter and so may be treated using geotechnical methods. The
heterogeneity, however, means it is only possible to make predictions on a large scale.
Depending on the degree of compaction, the unit weight of MSW lies somewhere between 2.8
and 9.4 kN/m3.
Hydraulic conductivity: - Waste hydraulic conductivity varies with heterogeneity and with
degree of compaction. Poorly compacted materials may have average values of the order of
10-4 m/s, with around 10-6 m/s for densely compacted waste; both are far more permeable
than the landfill liner. Industrial (e.g. mining) waste is usually less variable as large volumes of
similar waste are disposed of together. However, variation between different wastes may be
large (e.g. 10-3 to 10-10 m/s for coal wastes).
Strength: - Strength properties of MSW are described using standard geotechnical notation;
typically, drained conditions are assumed. However, as with other properties, the material
changes over time. Initially, MSW may be considered granular and is described by a low
cohesion c’ and a high friction angle '. Over time, decomposition leads to increased ‘fineness’
of the waste, and so c’ increases and ' decreases. Typical ranges are 0-35 kN/m2 and 20-40º
respectively. Other wastes are less problematic because they contain less biodegradable
material and are more uniform.
Stability: - Landfills apply large stresses to underlying soil or rock, and so may cause stability
problems. Both foundation stability and that of the waste may be analysed by geotechnical
methods, with some caveats. Slope stability problems apply to side slopes of the landfill or
slopes in the waste itself; changes in waste pore pressures may be a significant factor, as with
soils, but problems also arise from low shear strength and high settlement for failure surfaces
in waste. Conventional analysis methods are used in this case but higher factors of safety than
is usual may be employed.
Settlement: - Waste settles significantly (typically around 20%, though may be up to 50%)
through initial settlement, primary compression and secondary compression. Initial
settlement, due to physical rearrangement, is often small if the waste was compacted, and can
be neglected. Primary and secondary settlements are important long-term changes.
Settlement, particularly differential settlement, can prevent further use of the landfill site
following closure. Primary compression (Sp) is similar to consolidation so one-dimensional
consolidation theory gives a simple measure of the primary compression of waste layer.
Secondary settlement (Ss) occurs due to processes such as creep, chemical and biological
degradation.

( )
'
C σ
S P= c H log 10 1'
1+ e 0 σ0

()
'
Δⅇ =C C log 10 σ 1'
σ0

SP – Primary compression of waste layer, CC – Compression Index, σ '0, σ '1 - Effective stresses
at midpoint of layer, before and after surcharge [kPa], H – thickness of layer [m], e – Void
ratio (-).
'
S S=C α H c log 10
( tt )1

C α - Secondary compression index, t1 – Time to completion of primary compression, t –

'

Time since start of primary compression, HC – Thickness after primary compression.

Values of Cc, e0 and C’ may vary considerably due to waste heterogeneity and age.
Typically, Cc/(1+e0) will be in the range 0.2-0.5 for MSW, whilst C’ may be between 0.03
and 0.15.
Landfill Planning and Design
Site Location
 Geography: such as proximity to surface water and site topography.
 Geology: do ground conditions allow stable containment of waste?
 Hydrology/hydrogeology: permeability of the surrounding ground, groundwater flow
direction, presence of aquifers and groundwater chemistry.
 Socioeconomic: health, community, land use.
Site Investigation
Desk Study:
 Historical archives  Previous land use
 Maps (e.g. Geological, topographical)  Water supply and distribution (other
 Regional geological publications services if relevant)
 Meteorological data, arial photos  Available borehole/previous SI data
Preliminary Investigation:
This should confirm or correct data gathered in the desk study by direct observation of the
site, for example by identifying the location of services or visible ground features (surface
conditions, fill/cuttings, exposed rock). This may be used to plan a more detailed SI,
considering access and obstructions. Simple techniques (e.g. trial pits) allow visual and
laboratory examination of soil strata or waste materials at shallow depths. Sufficient data are
collected to develop an initial design for the facility to seek preliminary regulatory approval.
Detailed Investigation:
Field tests for rock and soil:
Boreholes Identification of soil stratigraphy, extraction of samples for lab tests.
Cone penetrometer Can measure strength, pore pressure in situ (soil only).
tests (CPT)
Trial Pits Can be dug in large numbers quite cheaply for analysis of surface
materials.
Geophysics Surface/borehole geophysics for determination of strata thickness,
location of bedrock etc.
Permeability Field-scale tests give good indication of likely leachate behaviour.
measurements
Groundwater Height of water table, tracer tests (identifies preferential flow paths),
properties pumping and infiltration tests.
Lab tests:
Stress/deformation tests E.g. triaxial tests determine the behaviour of the soil under the
load of the landfill
Soil classification Determination of accurate properties (e.g. Atterberg limits,
particle sizes)
Permeability tests Lab scale tests give more accurate results on specific soil types
than field tests
Chemical tests Will potential leachate constituents travel easily through it or be
retarded? Properties of contaminants may depend on properties
of the ground (e.g. pH)

Design Considerations:
 Leachate detection/collection system  Foundations (e.g. for pumping stations)
 Geotechnical monitoring instruments  Monitoring wells
 Liner  Subgrade
 Gas venting system  Capping
Liners
Lining systems consist of:
Geological barrier Artificial liner
 Surrounding geology plus any low  Requirements according to ‘Landfill
permeability engineered layer Regulations [England & Wales 2002]
(compacted clay).  Minimum 0.5m thick.
 Max permeability = 10-9 m/s (10-7 for  Contain sealing layer and drainage
inert waste) layer.
Layers
Clay Liner:
Depends on: Degree of compaction, Method
of compaction, Quality Control, Moisture
Content and Effect of waste contamination
on permeability.
Geosynthetic Clay Liner (GCL):
Thin (5mm) layer of swelling clay (bentonite), Leachate water arises from: moisture in
sandwiched between two geosynthetic
layers. May be reinforced by stitching the
layers together with geotextile fibres.
Leachate Collection
Flexible Membrane Liner (FML):
Advantages: Flexible and Impermeable.
Disadvantages: Degraded by certain
chemicals, affected by the elements, low
tensile strength and seaming of sheets
together.
Leachate Management:
waste, precipitation, surface run-on,
groundwater migration, water generated
from decomposition. Can contain inorganics
and organics.

Gravel, k = 10-2 – 10-4 m/s

Clay Liners:
Compaction of liners increases density and strength and reduces permeability.
 Sheepsfoot rollers – studded rollers that knead soil. Good for clay liners.
 Smooth wheel rollers – Useful for course-grained materials and sometimes fine soils.
 Standard (Proctor) compaction test
measures moisture content and
density. Variables: compactive effort
and initial moisture content.
Effect of density: maximum dry
density, optimum moisture content.
Effect on permeability: for clays
increase in moisture content, decrease
in permeability. This is due to
dispersion of the soil particles.
Effect on shear strength: Compacted
wetter soil (MC > optimum) has lower
strength than drier soil but less brittle.
Water uptake after compaction
reduces strength in drier soil,
therefore wetter soil better.
Typical criteria for material suitability
of clay liners are:
 Capable of achieving a
permeability of 10-9 m/sec or
less.
 Minimum clay content
(particle size <0.002mm) of
10%
 Liquid limit not greater than
90.
 Plasticity index not greater
than 65.
 Appropriate shear strength parameters.

Capping
Capping is to prevent escape of waste, reduce/control percolation, control/collect gas
emissions, barrier between waste and environment, may allow alternative use of site,
aesthetics.
Surface/topsoil – provides support for growth of vegetation
Filter(s) – segregates different soil layers
Biotic barrier – prevents deep penetration of plant roots or burrowing animals
Drainage – diverts infiltrating water, preventing percolation
Hydraulic barrier – prevents water percolation into the waste
Foundation – supports hydraulic barrier, minimising deflections
Filter(s) – segregates different soil layers
Gas Control – diverts landfill gas for collection/disposal
Waste
Gas Management
Decomposition produces large amounts of landfill gas (CO2 and CH4 (50%) especially). CH4 is
explosive in concentrations of 5-15% in air. Gas production increases with moisture content
and temperature (up to a point) and decreases with increasing waste density, hence the
importance of compaction and moisture control. Gas venting methods shallow pipe vent,
shallow trench and vertical vent. It is now common to recover gas for energy generation.
Monitoring
Physical monitoring: Settlement, displacement, stresses as well as:
Pore Pressure Moisture Content Groundwater levels
 Saturated soils –  Neutron probes  Piezometers
piezometers  Time domain  Standpipes
 Unsaturated soils - reflectometry (TDR)
tensiometers Upper limit for methane
Gas Monitoring emission is 1 microgram
per square metre.

Leachate Monitoring
Leachate is monitored in landfill (waste or liner), surrounding soil, groundwater, and surface
water.
Permanent monitoring points: boreholes/standpipes and shallow groundwater monitoring.
What is monitored?
Water Chemistry Contamination
 pH, conductivity, redox potential, and  Dissolved metals, ammoniacal
dissolved oxygen nitrogen, phenols, mineral oil.
 biological/chemical oxygen demands  Possibly microbiological (e.g. coliform
and total organic content. bacteria)

B2 – Geological Industrial Waste Storage

Tailings lagoons
Slurried mine waste (tailings) can be highly polluted and high-density liquid. They have very
high hydrostatic pressures, so the tailings dams (not engineered) used to store them are prone
to failure. Waste is pumped in a cyclone and separated into:
 Course-grained material ‘sands’: High permeability (quick draining) and non-cohesive.
Placed behind dam to provide drainage through the dam.
 Fine-grained material ‘slimes’: High voids ratio (up to 10), usually non-cohesive, angular
particles from ground up-rock (not usually clay), high liquefaction potential, similar
consolidation properties to clays (slow).
Upstream dams: new dam created from deposited sands (creates a shell). They are unstable
because they are supported by slimes, slow to consolidate, susceptible to liquefaction, slip
circles often pass through unstable slimes. Cheap, less material, less land, less engineering.
Centreline/downstream dams: new dam created from the existing dam (either straight up or
moving away from the waste). More stable as is not supported by slimes, can include drainage
features, and reduce pore pressures. More expensive, more material, more land, more
engineering.
Failure
Can be calculated using flow nets. Not quite the same as water retention dams as the
upstream face is not so distinct and so is not equipotential. Can fail due to ‘piping’ (high flow in
the dam can mobilise the sand, meaning more water can flow through it). Can fail from
environmental changes (rainfall or seismic activity) or rapidly increasing the dam height
(causing liquification of the slimes). Consequences of failure can be catastrophic.
Engineering tailings lagoons
Considerations: construction of dam from waste materials, slowly over several years, often
design by mining engineers, stored material is a pollutant, no rapid drawdown possible (waste
is too thick). Drainage should be included where possible, internal filters and drains lower the
phreatic surface and limit the rate of dam height increase. Design analysis tools include: flow
nets to determine likely pore pressures at critical points, consolidation of tailings, slope
stability (flow net) and solute transport.
Land raise and spoil heaps
Waste products may be used to build up land. Fly ash from power stations has been used to
level ground or increase height of the ground, although this has led to contamination
problems. Mine waste is commonly disposed of in soil heaps, which can suffer from stability
problems.
Current methods of placement for slope stability include compaction in layers of 300mm thick,
slope angle < angle of shearing resistance, use of berms and proper drainage (prevent
liquefaction)
Nuclear Waste
Sources include:
Energy Production Mining (e.g. for uranium), waste from nuclear power
Medical applications Various radioisotopes used in diagnostic tests, x-ray and
radiotherapy sources
Agricultural applications Food irradiation, plant breeding
Technical & scientific Use as tracers; waste from biochemical markers and many
 other areas of research
Military applications Use and testing of nuclear weapons, use of nuclear for power
Nuclear Waste Categories and Storage:
Level Description Proportion Storage for disposal
of waste
Low (LLW) Material from operating & 94% of total Compacted, grouted in metal
decommissioning facilities. canisters.
Intermediat Non-fuel materials (e.g. 6% of total Mixed with cement, placed in
e (ILW) reactor components) – stainless steel containers.
doesn’t generate a lot of
heat.
High (HLW) Spent fuel, reprocessing <0.1% of Vitrified (converted to or
waste – typically liquid, total (95% of encased with glass) and placed
generates lots of heat. radioactivity) in stainless steel drums.
Disposal: LLW canisters have long term storage. ILW and HLW may benefit from the multi-
barrier containment system, Deep Geological Repositories (DGR).
Test labs established in several countries, 1km below the ground. Needs stable geological
surroundings. Includes natural and manmade barriers.
Suitable environments for DGR:
Hard rocks in low=relief terrain: Low flow potential
Small islands: Groundwater regime not linked to mainland
Seaward-dipping strata: Slow flow towards and under the coast
Offshore sediment: Minimal groundwater flow
Inland basinal: Downward flow towards centre of basin
Low permeability basement rocks: Groundwater flows in more permeable cover material
Part C – Ground Remediation & Reclamation
C1 – Contaminated land causes and investigation
Contaminated land legislation (pollutant linkage)
20 years ago, the Environment Agency estimated around 67,000 hectares of contaminated
land in the UK. Up to 20,000 sites, 300,000 hectares potentially affected, later data not
available. Encouraged to develop on previously developed sites (including contaminated land)
however, it is complex and expensive. Environmental Protection Act (EPA) 1990 state that a
site is contaminated if significant harm is being caused, or there is a significant possibility of
harm being caused, or pollution of controlled waters its being or is likely to be caused.
There are three main ways in which legislation is used to deal with contaminated land:
1. Under Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act local authorities have had to find and
list contaminated sites in their area to determine whether remediation is required. This
is used for ‘historic’ contamination. ‘Special sites’ (highly contaminated or sensitive) are
usually controlled by the Environment Agency instead.
2. Planning regulations: sites where land use is to be changed (e.g. industrial to residential)
pass through the planning system. Guidance (e.g. Planning Policy Guidance 23: Planning
and pollution control) requires that a potentially contaminated site is investigated and
any pollution remediated. Risks are determined with respect to the new use, not the old
one.
3. Pollution Prevention and Control Act 1999 (PPC): Certain industrial sites must have a
PPC licence. If pollution occurs then the terms of the licence require the site to be
cleaned.
Typical causes for contaminated land (pollutant linkages)
Controlled waste sites: Landfills can contain a wide range of wastes and leachate which if
escapes the landfill then can significantly affect the quality of groundwater nearby.
Radioactive waste: Contamination can be varied but often is metallic or inorganic form. In the
environment these form ions, which are easily transported.
Oil refining/hydrocarbon Industries: Refining of crude oil and processing of the products
involves many different organic and inorganic products. Behaviour of and risk from
contamination from leaks or spills depends on the chemicals involved. Specific contaminants
are many and varied due to the complex nature of oil. Some will be simple aliphatic molecules
(straight/branched chains), aromatic (ring) structures (e.g. benzene) and some will be complex
mixtures of the two. Common soil contaminants are grouped together – BTEX (Benzene,
Toluene, Ethylbenzene, Xylene) and TPH (Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons) are examples.
Underground Storage Tanks: Leaks (often chemicals such as petroleum) are common. Petrol
filling stations store fuel in USTs (640,000 USTs in the US [USEPA estimate]). Typical escapes
occur through leaks in the tanks and through spillages in day-to-day use. Engineering solutions
(better design, spill catchment basins) are employed to reduce the risk.
Gas Works: Before the advent of natural gas, methane was produced from coal in gasworks,
which were common in the UK until the 1960s. Coal was heated with limited access to oxygen
and the resulting ‘coal gas’ cleaned, removing contaminants such as tar, ammonia and
hydrogen cyanide. These and other by-products (e.g. coke) were used in other industries but
escapes and spillages were common. Contamination on former gasworks sites typically
comprises coal tar (containing polyaromatic hydrocarbons [PAHs]), phenols, sulphates and
cyanides.
Metal Working:
Dry Cleaning: Use organic solvents rather than water to clean textiles. The most used solvent
is tetrachloroethene (also known as perchloroethylene).
Energy Transmission: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are organic chemicals that are
particularly good flame retardants. They were used extensively in electrical transformers.
Extremely persistent in the environment as well as a danger to health, and a major
contaminated land problem.
Asbestos production/use: Naturally occurring silicate minerals that have useful properties,
including thermal insulation and fire retardant. It is a carcinogenic hazard to human health
through the formation of microscopic fibres which can be inhaled and retained in the lungs. It
is now largely banned in industrialised countries, although is still present in large quantities in
older buildings. Demolition and incorporation of demolition rubble into the ground are the
major routes by which asbestos enters the geo-environment. Once there it is almost
impossible to remove with available technologies, aside from excavating the affected area and
disposing of the soil in a landfill.
Mining: Contamination due to buried materials being removed to the surface or exposed in
the mine. It is the newly oxidising conditions or exposure to water that leads to them
becoming a problem. Water trickling through spoil heaps can leach chemicals from the waste
rock, which then get into groundwater or surface water. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a
problem in parts of the world, including South Wales. Exposure of iron bearing minerals to the
atmosphere can lead to acidification of groundwater and leaching of heavy metals. A typical
process starts when iron sulphide (FeS2) is oxidised and dissolves, creating an acid solution
(hydrogen [H+ ] ions):
2FeS2 + 7O2 + 2H2O  2Fe2+ + 4SO42- + 4H+
This can be easily transported to nearby water bodies. The iron (Fe 2+) ion is oxidised to Fe3+
(this may be partly catalysed by bacteria such as Thiobacillus ferrooxidans):
Fe2+ + (1/4)O2 + H+  Fe3+ + (1/2)H2O
Fe3+ reacts with water producing acid H+, which dissolves other potentially harmful metals and
insoluble iron hydroxide (commonly visible as reddish-brown precipitate), which can severely
impact the life in the water by coating plants and surfaces, killing most organisms.
Fe3+ + 3H2O  Fe(OH)3 + 3H+
Agriculture: Commonly performed on an industrial scale and involve significant applications of
chemicals directly to the soil and groundwater. Fertiliser application does not usually involve
chemicals that are detrimental to human health but can alter environmental conditions and
ecosystems severely. The eutrophication of water courses, where excess nutrients enter
bodies of surface water, causes excess plant growth and ultimately loss of oxygen in the water
with the subsequent loss of aquatic life. The application of pesticides is more contentious, as
these chemicals (such as organophosphates, DDT etc) are deliberately designed to kill pests
and are often extremely harmful to other, non-target organisms. They also may not degrade
easily. Both pesticides and fertiliser are usually applied across large areas but at a relatively
low level – this widespread application can lead to diffuse pollution, as opposed to point
sources usually seen elsewhere. This is considerably more difficult to deal with.
Natural contamination: In some cases, natural soils and waters may be classified as
contaminated based purely on their chemical content. Arsenic is a good example, in
Bangladesh and many other parts of the world, including the UK Midlands, where the geology
has led to elevated arsenic in soils. In some cases, this ‘natural’ contamination has only arisen
due to some human intervention that allowed the problem to develop. In Bangladesh the
problem is thought to have been caused by the drilling of wells, changing chemical conditions,
and making arsenic more mobile. Natural contamination is also usually a diffuse pollution
problem and is difficult to counteract.
Rodon: Natural radioactive isotopes are present in most soils, but at very low levels. Decay of
radioisotopes in granitic rocks leads to the formation of radon, a radioactive, gaseous
carcinogenic that percolates through the soil. This can collect in buildings can cause long-term
health problems. In the UK, it is particularly prevalent in Cornwall and Devon.
Site Investigation of contaminated land
Purpose of geoenvironmental SI: Quantitative, quantitative information. Soil properties,
contaminant distribution. Identifies pollution linkages. It is like geotechnics SI. It is important
to perform a desk study before site work commences. This will identify past uses and suggest
likely contaminants and their locations. However, physical investigation, sampling and testing
are required to confirm this.
Sampling
Non-targeted: Applies to sites with no expected contamination patterns, e.g. waste tips or
where haphazard contamination may have occurred. However, contamination is rarely evenly
distributed and is likely to located in discrete hotspots.
log (1−P) P=1−(1−a)
n
n=
log (1−a)
P – Probability of finding a hotspot [as a fraction], a – Hotspot area as a fraction of total area, n
= Number of samples in different locations to land in hotspot.
Targeted: Appropriate for sites where contamination is linked to specific points, e.g. a leak
from a particular machine or storage area. It is important to note that even where a targeted
investigation may be considered appropriate, site layouts and uses may have changed over
time and so more extensive contamination should not be ruled out.
Targeted sampling locations would be determined by knowledge of contamination sources
and potential methods of transport (e.g. groundwater). An initially coarse spacing of sampling
points can be used before narrowing down based on results from these first locations. Water
and gas monitoring boreholes are more likely in targeted investigations as it is important to
know where the contamination is likely to be before expending considerable effort on only a
few locations.
Methods of Investigation
Intrusive:
Trial Pits: Max depth of a few metres, substantial disturbance of surface. Samples from the
wall of pit at different depths. Samples are often disturbed due to mixing up during digging.
Dynamic sampling: Tube pushed into the ground, sample taken from within the tube. Can be
hand driven or machine driven. Good for clays and coherent soils, less extensive than trial pit.
Sandy soils can cause issues when tube taken out, soil can fall out of the bottom.
Boreholes:
Continuous Solid drill bit, soil comes up the flight and piles up at the top. Quick and easy,
flight auger good for consolidated soils. Not good for specific depth, can cause mixing of
(CFA) the samples.
Hollow- Like CFA, but with a hollow drill stem. Works in unconsolidated and
stem auger consolidated soils. Samples can be taken via the hollow stem.
(HSA)
Rotary Annular drill bit cuts through soil or rock to leave core of material which can be
coring retrieved. It may be necessary to flush the drill bit with fluids such as air, water,
or special drilling mud as it can generate heat. In the latter cases, this affects
chemical analyses and so may not be suitable for environmental investigation.
More difficult in coarse soils. (Good for sandstone)
Cable Weighted steel tubes have a cutting shoe which, when the tube is repeatedly
percussion lifted and dropped, cuts into the soil and recovers a core of soil. Simple, cheap,
good for clays, soft soils, common in UK. Significantly disturbed samples, not
good for sands or gravel.
Groundwater monitoring often requires sampling of liquids over time periods longer than a
typical SI. Monitoring boreholes are used and usually lined to both to maintain stability of the
hole but also to ensure that fluids from different depths are not mixed. If two separate
aquifers are present it will be necessary to use a lined borehole with slots in the liner to allow
access only from the correct aquifer.
Non-Intrusive: Geophysical techniques (electrical, electromagnetic, gravitational and seismic)
can be used to remotely detect differences below the surface. Although these non-intrusive
methods do not directly locate contamination, and although they are typically less accurate,
they provide data over a large area that links with discrete intrusive sampling points to create
an entire site profile. They can also locate specific sub-surface anomalies such as tanks, cellars
or thickness of waste or made ground.
Analysis:
On-site: Likely to be lower accuracy. Simple tests to analyse pH/conductivity, common
chemicals, shear strength and gas meters (e.g. methane)
Off-site: Very accurate, though only as good as the sampling. Tests to analyse,
chromatography (atomic absorption/emission), sorption, metabolic capacity (chemical
reactions to produce energy), and toxicity.
C2 – Contaminated land treatment
Remediation methods for soil and groundwater:
In situ: Treatment occurs in the ground, without excavation. Conditions controlled ‘remotely’
may be less reliable. Low effort, little surface disturbance. May require long time periods.
Always on-site. Don’t work well in finer-grained soils.
Enhanced in-situ bioremediation – Organic contaminants broken down to
simpler forms by microorganisms. May involve the provision of nutrients,
oxygen and/or moisture, may require control of temp, pH, or redox potential.
Applicability: Petroleum, solvents, wood preservatives, pesticides and other
organics.
Limitations:
 Soil matrix may prevent contact between contaminants and
microorganisms.
 Movement of fluids may increase contaminant mobility and cause
problems elsewhere.
 Growth of microbes may cause clogging of nutrient and water injection
wells.
 Preferential flow paths decrease contact between injected fluids and
contaminants.
 High concentrations of contaminants can be toxic to microorganisms.
 Bioremediation slows at low temperatures.
 In-situ techniques tend to take a long time – from months to years.
 It is difficult to evaluate the degree of clean-up.
Biological Bioventing/biosparging - pumps air through soil as an oxygen supply (known as
biosparging below the water table).
Bioaugmentation - Supply of microbes with the necessary metabolic capabilities
to degrade target contaminants (genetically engineered microorganisms have
been developed for use in specific situations but have not been used yet).
Cometabolism – Introduction of a similar but less toxic chemical that is
degraded by microorganisms and works as an enzyme to degrade the
contaminant as well.
Phytoremediation – Plants can be used to remove stabilise or destroy
contaminants (Most contaminant groups. Some plants specific to certain
contaminants, especially metals).
 Enhanced biodegradation takes place in the soil immediately surrounding
the plant roots due to the number of microbes residing there.
 Phytoextraction - uptake of contaminants by plant roots and the
translocation/accumulation of contaminants into plant shoots and leaves.
 Phytodegradation - metabolism of contaminants within plant tissues.
 Phytostabilisation – production of chemical compounds by plants to
immobilise contaminants at the interface of roots and soil.
Limitations:
 Depends on suitable plant growth – high contaminant concentrations
may be toxic.
 Plants may have to be harvested and disposed of as hazardous waste.
 Monitored natural attenuation (MNA) - Natural attenuation of contamination
occurs continuously through dilution, volatilisation, biodegradation, adsorption,
and chemical reaction and is considered remediation if fast enough.
Soil flushing/pump and treat - Water flushed through soil (from boreholes or
the surface) dissolves contamination which is recovered. Rising water table
allows contaminant recovery from unsaturated zone. Similar technique used for
groundwater (pump & treat). Additives (e.g. surfactants) used to increase
extraction rate.
Applicability: Can treat metals and organics, including pesticides, VOCs, SVOCs
and fuels.
Limitations:
 Low permeability soils are difficult to treat.
 Surfactants can adhere to soil and reduce effective soil porosity.
 Reactions of flushing fluids with soil can reduce contaminant mobility.
 Contaminants may be washed beyond the extraction zone.
 May take a considerable period of time to achieve its objectives.
Soil vapour extract (SVE)/thermally enhanced SVE - Can remove volatile
contaminants. Air flow is induced in the soil (through elevated pressure or,
more usually, vacuum), vacuum allows collection of gases and contaminants at
the pump. Elevated temperatures (thermally enhanced SVE) increase
volatilisation rate – can use hot air or steam, or electromagnetic heating.
Physical Applicability: Used to treat VOCs and some fuels. Henry’s law constant > 0.01.
or Can treat SVOCs and some pesticides by using thermally enhanced SVE.
thermal Limitations:
 May be ineffective in low permeability soil, too high or too low moisture
content, high organic content, or a high degree of stratification.
 Air emissions and residual liquids/solids may require treatment and
disposal.
 SVE is ineffective in the saturated zone, but the water table can be
lowered.
 Initially high contaminant recovery soon decreases.
 TESVE performance with certain contaminants depends on maximum
temperature achieved.
Dual phase extraction (DPE) - Extracts contaminated gas, water and also free
phase contamination and uses SVE technology below the water table.
Mechanical soil aeration - Agitates soil using tilling or other means to volatilise
contaminants. Only applicable for surface contamination.
Permeable reactive barriers (PRB) - Constructed wall allows passage of water
but contains materials that either extract or destroy the contamination. The
reactive material depends upon the contaminant, but main processes are
sorption (widely applicable), precipitation (heavy metals), and degradation
(organics). Permeability must be large to allow water to flow through so the
reactive material is usually mixed with course soil such as sand. Two processes,
‘Continuous PRB’ and ‘Funnel and Gate system’. There has to be significant
transport via groundwater. Can treat most contaminant types.
Limitations:
  Only for use with contaminants transported by groundwater.
 Requires monitoring and aftercare for long-term projects.
Oxidation/reduction - Contaminants are chemically oxidised/reduced to non-
hazardous or less toxic products. Oxidising agents include hydrogen peroxide,
Chemical hypochlorites.
Electrokinetics - Application of electric field to soil causes various phenomena
that move contaminants.
Ex situ: Require excavation or extraction. Usually easier/quicker to perform, greater control
over the soil. Usually involves more effort (considerable earthworks). Can be either on-site or
off-site.
Ex-situ bioremediation – Once soil is excavated and sorted/screened/crushed,
it is treated by one of the processes below. Easier to add chemicals uniformly
than it is in in-situ. Coarse grained soils are easier to treat. As in-situ.
Limitations:
 Requires considerable earthmoving – may develop new pathways.
 Affected by temperature/weather.
 Often needs large areas of surface space for operation/storage.
 High concentrations of heavy metals, highly chlorinated organics, long
chain hydrocarbons, or inorganic salts are likely to be toxic to
microorganisms.
Biological Windows – Soil is arranged in rows, often a few metres wide and high, on basis
of concrete or compacted soil (collects leachate). The are mixed by a tractor-
based window turner, introducing oxygen.
Biopiles – Piles of soil many metres wide/long on concrete/compacted base.
They are not turned – instead, pipes under the pile force air through it.
Landfarming - Contaminated soil is spread over an impermeable surface and
tilled regularly. This aerates the soil, encouraging degradation and
volatilisation.
Bioreactors - Contaminated groundwater, soil or sludge (latter two combined
with water) passed through mixing tank. Conditions controlled by additives.
Soil washing - Contaminants associated with clay and organic matter removed
by soil washing - separates fine and coarse particles in an aqueous system.
Cleaned coarse soils can be reused.
Incineration/pyrolysis - Occurs at high temperatures (870 to 1200ºC) and
Physical or removes organic or degradable material – used for recalcitrant compounds
thermal such as PCBs.
Pyrolysis - High temperature heating without oxygen
Thermal desorption - Can be operated at low (LTTD - 90 to 320ºC), or higher
temperatures (HTTD - 320 to 560ºC). Contaminants are volatilised, not
incinerated.
Solvent extraction - Suitable solvents are mixed with contaminated soil to
allow contaminants to transfer from soil to solvent.
Water treatment - Various forms of cleaning for extracted contaminated water
exist, many of which are taken directly from the water treatment industry.
These include: air stripping (encourages volatilisation), adsorption/ion
 Chemical exchange (like that used to purify domestic water), filtration (removes
suspended solids), precipitation (additives encourage precipitation of
contaminants), Ultraviolet (UV) light used for photolysis of contamination.
Oxidation/reduction – As in situ.
Containment methods for soil and groundwater:
In-situ:
Biological stabilisation - Plants and microbes can control chemical conditions
Biological in the soil to encourage stabilisation of contaminants (i.e. changing the
contaminant to a less toxic form or converting it to an insoluble or otherwise
non-bioavailable material).
Cover system - A cap is applied to the surface of contaminated soil, preventing
contaminants reaching the surface (Not contaminant specific). Applied when
main risk is to receptors on the soil rather than groundwater. Example cap is,
crushed concrete capillary break layer (contaminated groundwater cannot
pass through it), geotextiles plastic sheeting above concrete (prevents plant
roots reaching contaminated material and act as a marker to prevent
excavation beyond that point). Clean fill is placed above geotextiles. Other
features such as gas venting, drainage layers or engineered layers for
foundations may be used.
Limitations:
 Source of material for cap – importing large quantities of fill may be
difficult or costly depending on local conditions and distance from
source.
 Non-permanent solution only prevents transport in one direction.
 Can limit future site development.
 Containment solution only.
 Does not prevent groundwater movement, may not prevent volatile
Physical chemicals reaching the surface.
Barrier walls - In ground walls constructed from clays, cement, and other
materials - they prevent lateral transport of contamination. Barrier walls are
usually vertical and may be ‘keyed’ into an impermeable layer to provide a
continuous barrier. For a floating contaminant (above the water table) a wall
just below the water table may be sufficient. Can be used to divert
groundwater around contaminant (upgradient) or be used with extraction
wells to extract contaminant (downgradient). Choice of material for the wall
may be governed by contaminant type.
Limitations:
 Containment solution only.
 Care is required to obtain a homogeneous wall.
 May suffer reduced performance, and eventually fail, in the medium to
long term.
Limitations:
 Depth of contaminants may limit technique in certain cases.
 Long term performance is good but will break down over time.
 Some processes result in a significant increase in volume (up to double
 to original)
 Certain wastes are incompatible with variations of this process (Limited
success with organics and volatiles can be driven off by heat of setting
reactions).
 Hydrophobic organics coat particles and inhibit reaction, redcuing the
strength of the S/S soil.
 Like all in-site treatments, it is difficult to confirm that the treatment was
effective.
 Containment technique only.
Vitrification - A large electric current applied to soil elevates the temperature
and melts the soil particles (1600 to 2000ºC required). Organics are mostly
Chemical destroyed, and metals encapsulated in the hard glassy product.
Oxidation/reduction - Rather than destroying chemicals, this can also be used
to convert them to a more stable, less toxic state (e.g. chromium).
Ex-situ:
Dig & dump - Most used technique (until recently) was excavation and disposal
to landfill due to its simplicity, low cost, and rapidity. It also doesn’t need
specialist equipment. Contaminated material (the complete range of
contaminants) is excavated and transported to off-site treatment and/or
disposal facilities. Some pre-treatment of the contaminated media is now
required to meet land disposal restrictions. The resulting void may be filled
with uncontaminated fill. Limitations:
 Generation of fugitive emissions may be a problem during operations.
Physical  Distance from the contaminated site to the nearest disposal facility will
affect cost.
 Depth and composition of the media requiring excavation must be
considered.
 Transportation of the soil through populated areas may affect
acceptability.
 Disposal options for contaminated soils are now limited due to the
requirements of the Landfill Directive (no co-disposal of hazardous and
non-hazardous waste)
 Landfill tax has increased cost.
Stabilisation/solidification - As in situ (wastes disposed of in landfill)
Chemical Vitrification - As in situ (wastes disposed of in landfill)
Oxidation/reduction - As in situ (wastes disposed of in landfill)
C3 – Reclamation of derelict land
Existing structures
Old foundations can be difficult to remove and so may be left in place prior to redevelopment.
They may be reused, although usually additional foundations are required as the new
structure will not fit to the old plan. Their capacity must be proved by testing, for example
piles should carry at least 1.5 times the new design load. With raft foundations, the presence
of existing structures may lead to ‘hard spots’ over which the concrete raft may bend and
crack; these may therefore need to be removed to a certain depth.
Underground Voids
Mining activities in the UK have resulted in the formation of underground voids such as mines,
tunnels, and shafts. Underground mine cavities can be access tunnels (horizontal adits or
vertical shafts) or the mines themselves. Old mines were excavated as ‘rooms’ with pillars left
in place to support the roof. More recently, longwall mining, entirely removes rock along one
wall. Hydraulic supports provide protection from roof falls, but as the works progress, they are
moved allowing the roof to collapse into the space left behind.
Subsidence at the surface may cause significant damage to infrastructure, particularly with
differential settlement.
 Shafts may be deep (up to 1 km) but of limited diameter (up to 10 m) and can be
partially or wholly filled. Subsidence occurs if fill moves into the mine below.
 Failure of room-and-pillar structures depends on pillar deterioration (e.g. due to
erosion) and may take many years, unpredictable.
 Failure of longwall mines is extensive but predictable and occurs in a relatively
controlled fashion during or shortly after extraction (2 years).
If mines are blocked up, build-up of mine water can lead to catastrophic failure. Mine drainage
is now treated by passive systems (Wheal Jane). For example.
 Anoxic limestone drains (ALD) provide high pH environment to remove acid. Inflow must
have little oxygen to prevent metal precipitation clogging up the drain.
 Aerobic wetlands slow water flow and provide oxygen for controlled precipitation of
iron and certain other metals.
 In an anaerobic wetland, oxygen is used by the action of microorganisms and plants,
leading to precipitation of other metals such as cadmium.
 Passes through a rock matrix before releasing into natural river stream.
Reclamation of spoil heaps
Old spoil heaps may need work to prevent failure. Major methods include mechanical
reworking (reshaping or changing the hydraulic properties of the soil and may incorporate
remining, extracting valuable material from the waste) and ‘naturalisation’ (revegetation of
slopes etc.)
Mechanical reworking techniques:
A. Creating a berm by removing spoil from the upper portion of the slope. This leads to a
reduction in the disturbing moment, making the slope less susceptible to failure.
B. By re-grading the slope or reducing the height, the disturbing moment can be reduced.
C. Drainage will reduce the height of the phreatic surface, increasing effective stress and
therefore shear strength and resistance to failure.
D. Placing free-draining material at the toe of the slope adds extra weight to this region
(resists disturbing moment) while not adversely affecting drainage conditions.
Vegetation: Agricultural practices, including cultivation and supply of fertilisers, help develop a
covering of grassy plants which in time leads to a more varied vegetative cover. If specific land
use is envisaged, e.g. agriculture or forestry, then imported topsoil might be needed.
Vegetation is not purely aesthetic – it affects soil moisture and mechanical properties. Plants
remove water from the ground and can limit infiltration (Figure 9-4). Water uptake leads to
unsaturated soils with suction helping maintain stability. Also, run-off is limited or hindered,
minimising erosion. Mechanically, roots act as reinforcement in the ground and, in the case of
trees with deep roots, may act as ‘piles’ if the root is founded in stronger, deep layers.
Reclamation of tailings ponds
Control of water is most important. Water levels in tailings gradually decrease, however
rainfall and run-on are the biggest post-closure cause of failure. It can cause erosion,
overtopping and instability/liquification.
Reclamation techniques include clay cap to prevent run-on, vegetation to improve stability
and some ground improvement methods.
Ground improvement
Natural and made ground can be unsuitable to support construction. Old excavations are often
backfilled but are often not properly engineered with rubble/spoil dumped in place. If they are
susceptible to compression/consolidation, then settlement can be predicted (same formula as
in waste). There are also reclamation methods such as excavating and replacing, using
different foundations (piles), or improve the ground material.
Grouting: Certain chemicals added to ground, react chemically in and with soil/waste.
Examples include lime (CaO, Ca(OH)2) and cement. These then create solid monolithic mass.
Lime reacts with water to dehydrate and consolidate the ground, it decreases plasticity, reacts
with clay particles (long term) to form calcium silicate. Cement does the same as lime but
faster. Application: Shallow soils over large areas, extensive structures (roads). Deep soil
mixing, columns of soil-cement, modified augers, depth up to 50m, up to 2m diameter, can
create a wall.
Compaction (dynamic): Dropping a large weight onto soil/waste, typically 5-20 tonnes, height
up to 30m. Gives higher bearing capacity, lower settlement. Best for loose, coarse soils
(drained) rubble as no consolidation time needed.
Compaction (static): AKA preloading. Application of loading (fill, rubble water). Decreases
volume, increases effective stress. Increased strength, reduced settlement during operation.
Works with all soils, slow if fine-grained and impermeable, duration reduce by artificial
drainage paths (permeable layers/drains (sand, geotextile). Sand drainage installation, hollow
mandrel pushed into soil (up to 0.6m in diameter, 30m deep) removal of mandrel leaves void
which is then filled with sand or water. Geotextile can be installed instead which are thinner so
can go much deeper (60m)
Biogeotechnics: Plants especially willow (can strengthen itself over time), can be used for
retaining walls, embankments to strengthen soil, this is very low maintenance.
Microorganisms can be used like cement to precipitate CaCO 3 to turn sand into a solid.