Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
A. Some Questions We Will Consider
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publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
a. Local Field Potential (LFP)
VIII. Distraction
A. Distraction and Task Characteristics
1. Effect of task-irrelevant stimuli
B. Attention and Perceptual Load
1. Load theory of attention
a. Perceptual capacity
b. Perceptual load
c. Low- and high-load tasks
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publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
X. Developmental Dimension: Attention and Perceptual Completion
A. Object unity
B. Method: Habituation
1. Habituation and dishabituation
C. Studies
1. Kelman and Spelke (1983)
2. Slater et al. (1990)
3. Johnson and Aslin (1995)
4. Johnson et al. (2004)
a. Perceivers vs. non-perceivers
Learning Objectives
Chapter 6 begins with a discussion of the need for attention to regulate the overwhelming
amount of information in the environment. It is necessary to focus on “interesting” or
“important” aspects of the environment A brief overview of eye movements follows as
they are one observable measure of attention. The factors involved in determining where
we look in a visual scene are then discussed. These are: (1) stimulus salience; (2)
knowledge about the scene; and (3) task requirements (as exemplified by scanning when
making a sandwich) and predictions about dynamic interactions involved in the task (as
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publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
exemplified by Shinoda et al.’s driving simulation study). The next section of the chapter
addresses how attention enhances perception. Responses to attended locations (spatial
attention; Posner et al., 1978) are faster as are responses to locations within attended
objects (e.g., Egly et al. 1994). Attending to a stimulus can also affect perceived stimulus
contrast (Carraasco et al., 2004). In addition to behavioral effects, attention is reflected in
physiological responses. First, when images are superimposed, applying attention to one,
will lead to increased activation in the relevant brain region. For example, “focusing” on
a house that has a face superimposed on it will lead to increased activation in the PPA,
but not the FFA. Second, covert “movement” of attention can be used to create an
“attention map” corresponding to locations in a scene. Those maps can be used to predict
where someone is attending in the scene. Finally, attention can shift the location of a
neuron’s receptive field. Perception can also be affected by a lack of focused attention:
this is demonstrated by “inattentional blindness” and “change detection.” Inattentional
blindness occurs when observers fail to report an unattended stimulus even though they
look right at it. Simons and Chabris (1999) demonstrated this by showing a film of people
playing basketball, when a person in a gorilla suit walks through. Observers rarely report
seeing the “gorilla.” In the change detection task, any difference between two
successively presented scenes is reported; the difficulty in doing this is termed “change
blindness,” (e.g., Rensink, 2002). Change blindness is related to the concept of continuity
errors, evident in many Hollywood films. Even when observers are forewarned that
changes in the scenes will occur, change detection is still difficult. With evidence for the
importance of attention in stimulus processing, some wonder if attention is required for
the perception of any complex stimulus. The dual-task procedure has been used to
investigate this question in regards to scene perception (here “scene” is loosely defined).
Results of a series of studies suggest that some attention may be required for scene
perception. A discussion of the interaction between task difficulty and the processing of
irrelevant stimuli helps explain the mixed results found in scene perception research.
When a task is difficult, irrelevant stimuli are less likely to be detected/distracting than
when the primary task is easy. This finding is explained by a load theory of attention and
can be related back to the scene-attention research. In addition to being necessary for
basic detection and recognition, attention is needed to experience a “coherent” world.
Perception seems to provide a cohesive experience, but that only comes about via the
integration of many information sources, this is referred to as the binding problem.
Treisman’s feature integration theory states that features are extracted in a pre-
operational stage and then “glued” together in the focused attention stage. Illusory
conjunctions are used as support for this binding function of attention, as is the
functioning of individuals with Balint’s syndrome. Visual search of “real” conjunctions
also highlights the importance of binding. The “Something to Consider” section of the
chapter addresses research on distracted driving, and the use of cell-phones while driving.
The chapter concludes with a discussion of the relationship between infant movement
perception, eye movements/attention, and object perception (perceptual completion). An
infant’s ability to perceive objects as unified has been tested using occluded rods as
stimuli. The perception of a unified rod does occur by 4 months, but movement of the rod
is key to this perception. Johnson showed the importance of eye movements in
developing this ability.
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publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Demonstrations, Activities, and Lecture Topics
(1) Video Suggestion: “The Mind’s Eye: How the Brain Sees the World” has a
clever example of change blindness. Participants walk up to a counter where the
researcher presents the consent form. The researcher then ducks down below the
counter to get something, and a second researcher replaces the first. Very few
participants notice the change! The film includes the reaction of the participants
when they are informed of the change. Video is available from Films for the
Humanities & Sciences (KWX11458-KS for DVD).
Sperling, G., Wurst, S. A., & Lu, Z-L. (1993). Using repetition detection to define
and localize the processes in selective attention. In Meyer, D. E., & Kornblum, S.
(eds.), Attention and Performance XIV. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
(3) How Did They Do That?: Attentional Blink: An additional phenomenon that
has generated much research is the attentional blink, in which a second target
stimulus is not reported in RSVP (rapid serial visual presentation) tasks. The idea
is that attention directed to the first target stimulus uses up attentional resources
for about 500 ms, in which time the second target is presented. Jane Raymond is a
prominent researcher on the attentional blink. She has graciously submitted a
narrative of her discovery of the effect:
“At about the time we discovered the ‘attentional blink’ in the lab, I was
actually doing a lot of work on visual motion perception, thinking about visual
information that changes in both space and time and is perceived in episodes.
Attention research at this time was tightly focused on spatial attention, the
spotlight metaphor, and how we select information from static scenes. I wondered
if attention, the spotlight, could also operate in a space-time framework like
© 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
motion. Could the spotlight work in episodes, switching on and off? These ideas
were the beginning of the conceptual groundwork for the attentional blink.
“During this time period, I was becoming too busy to do my own computer
programming in the lab. I had little kids at home, too many students, university
committees, etc. My life just wasn’t compatible with zoning out for three or four
days at a time writing computer code. So I decided to try one of the new (at that
time) high-level software packages that could generate behavioural experiments
more easily. As a test, I decided to re-do a simple experiment reported by
Wechselgartner and Sperling (1987) that involved presenting a rapid sequence of
letters. Moreover, their procedure seemed well suited for looking at how attention
is used across time, something I was developing curiosity about. However, their
procedure seemed overly complicated to me, so I slimmed it down devising a
simple dual task RSVP procedure optimal for probing attention in time. I left it
with my student, Karen Arnell, and went off for a holiday. When I can back, she
had collected a stunning set of data that we realised very quickly was something
important. It turned out that the software package was terrible (its timing was
hopeless); we had to redo the programming (back to creating code from scratch)
and run the experiments all over again. So much for short cuts! After many hours
of discussion with Kim Shapiro and Karen Arnell, we hammered out the critical
control experiments and developed an interpretation of what we had found. The
name, the attentional blink came to me because we were also doing some eye
movement studies of a visual perception task … and noticed that people
habitually blink just when a trial ends. It seemed to me that when an attentional
episode is over, the attentional system does just what the eyes do—blink!”
Raymond, J. E. (2003). New objects, not new features, trigger the attentional
blink. Psychological Science, 14, 54-59.
Shapiro, K .L., Arnell, K. M., & Raymond, J.E. (1997). The attentional blink.
Trends in Cognitive Science, 1, 291-296.
(4) Feature Integration Theory: The best way for students in understand
Treisman’s feature integration theory is to be an observer in a visual search task.
The CD-ROM has a module in which the student can search for different targets,
to demonstrate the difference between pre-attentive processes and focused
attention.
(5) Brain scanning studies of attention: For a great reference for information on
the physiology of attention, get Attention & Performance XX. Part 3 includes
many reviews in this area, including a chapter by Hillyard, who is a leading
researcher in this field.
© 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Hillyard, S. (2004). Imaging of visual attention. In Kanwisher, N., & Duncan, J.
(eds), Attention & Performance XX. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(6) Annual Reviews of Psychology: A great place to get an overview of the major
issues in any topic area is the Annual Reviews of Psychology. Several chapters
have been devoted to attention. Some of the topics included in these chapters
match the text material, such as early vs. late selection, theories of attention, and
processing of non-attended stimuli. Some specific resources are provided below.
Pashler, H., Johnston, J.C., & Ruthruff, E. (2001). Attention and Performance.
Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 629-651.
Egeth, H.E., & Yantis, S. (1997). Visual attention: Control, representation, and
time course. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 269-297.
(7) Eye movements and Attention: The textbook reviews some research on
scanning and attention, but instructors may want to expand on this fascinating
area of attention. The classic work in this area is by Yarbus (as cited in Chapter
6). Noton and Stark are credited with coining the term “scan paths,” a concept
mentioned in Chapter 6. Another major researcher in this area is Eileen Kowler
from Rutgers University; a sample of her work is listed below also.
Gersch, T. M., Kowler, E., & Dosher, B. A. (2004). Dynamic allocation of visual
attention during execution of saccades. Vision Research, 44, 1469-1483.
© 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Noton, D., & Stark, L. (1971). Scanpaths in saccadic eye movements while
viewing and recognizing patterns. Vision Research, 11, 929-942.
(8) Pop Culture and Change Blindness: Similar to the concept of continuity errors
discussed in the chapter, there are many videos depicting how changes can go
undetected. YouTube provides some great examples. The “colour changing card
trick,” by “Quirkology” and “Test Your Awareness: Whodunnit?” by “dothetest”
are excellent examples with many changes that easily go undetected. Also, puzzle
books that require the observer to “spot the differences” between two (or more)
pictures are very popular. “Life” magazine’s “Picture Puzzle” books are probably
the most popular, and can easily be purchased at amazon.com. Many grocery
store check-outs will also carry “Brain Games Picture Puzzles,” published by
Publications International Ltd. The underlying challenge here is directly related to
change blindness. And lastly, a 2008 New York Times article by Natalie Angier
entitled “Blind to Change, Even as It Stares Us in the Face” provides an
accessible summary of change blindness research.
Suggested Websites
© 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a
publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
« Et j’entends un homme qui hurle :
« — Tiens bon, confiance et patience, voilà les autres éléphants
qui arrivent.
« — Sainte Mère de Grâce ! que je dis, vais-je devoir monter à
cru toute l’écurie ? Venez me mettre à bas, tas de capons !
« Alors une paire d’éléphants femelles accompagnés de mahouts
et d’un sergent de l’intendance débouchent en tapinois du coin des
casernes ; et les mahouts d’injurier la mère et toute la famille de
notre vieux Putiphar.
« — Vois mes renforts, que je lui dis. Ils vont t’emmener à la
boîte, mon fils.
« Et cet enfant de la calamité mit ses oreilles en avant et dressa
la tête vers ces femelles. Son cran, après la symphonie que je lui
avais jouée sur la boîte crânienne, m’alla au cœur. « Je suis moi-
même en disgrâce, que je lui dis, mais je ferai pour toi ce que je
pourrai. Veux-tu aller à la boîte comme un brave, ou résister comme
un imbécile contre toute chance ? » Là-dessus je lui flanque un
dernier gnon sur la tête, et il pousse un formidable grognement et
laisse retomber sa trompe. « Réfléchis », que je lui dis, et : « Halte ! »
que je dis aux mahouts. Ils ne demandaient pas mieux. Je sentais
sous moi méditer le vieux réprouvé. A la fin il tend sa trompe toute
droite et pousse un son de cor des plus mélancoliques (ce qui
équivaut chez l’éléphant à un soupir). Je compris par là qu’il hissait
pavillon blanc et qu’il ne restait plus qu’à ménager ses sentiments.
« — Il est vaincu, que je dis. Alignez-vous à droite et à gauche
de lui. Nous irons à la boîte sans résistance.
« Le sergent de l’intendance me dit, du haut de son éléphant :
« — Êtes-vous un homme ou un prodige ? qu’il dit.
« — Je suis entre les deux, que je dis, en essayant de me
redresser. Et qu’est-ce qui peut bien, que je dis, avoir mis cet animal
dans un état aussi scandaleux ? que je dis, la crosse du mousqueton
élégamment posée sur ma hanche et la main gauche rabattue
comme il sied à un troupier.
« Pendant tout ce temps nous déboulions sous escorte vers les
lignes des éléphants.
« — Je n’étais pas dans les lignes quand le raffut a commencé,
que me dit le sergent. On l’a emmené pour transporter des tentes et
autres choses analogues et pour l’atteler à un canon. Je savais bien
que ça ne lui plairait pas, mais en fait ça lui a déchiré le cœur.
« — Bah, ce qui est de la nourriture pour l’un est du poison pour
l’autre, que je dis. C’est d’avoir été mis à transporter des tentes qui
m’a perdu moi aussi.
« Et mon cœur s’attendrit sur le vieux Double-Queue parce qu’on
l’avait également mal traité.
« — A présent nous allons le serrer de près, que dit le sergent,
une fois arrivés aux lignes des éléphants.
« Tous les mahouts et leurs gosses étaient autour des piquets,
maudissant mon coursier à les entendre d’une demi-lieue.
« — Sautez sur le dos de mon éléphant, qu’il me dit. Il va y avoir
du grabuge.
« — Écartez tous ces gueulards, que je dis, ou sinon il va les
piétiner à mort. (Je sentais que ses oreilles commençaient à frémir.)
Et débarrassez-nous le plancher, vous et vos immorales éléphantes.
Je vais descendre ici. Malgré son long nez de Juif, c’est un Irlandais,
que je dis, et il faut le traiter comme un Irlandais.
« — Êtes-vous fatigué de vivre ? que me dit le sergent.
« — Pas du tout, que je dis ; mais il faut que l’un de nous deux
soit vainqueur, et j’ai idée que ce sera moi. Reculez, que je dis.
« Les deux éléphants s’éloignèrent, et Smith O’Brien s’arrêta net
devant ses propres piquets.
« — A bas, que je dis, en lui allongeant un gnon sur la tête.
« Et il se coucha, une épaule après l’autre, comme un glissement
de terrain qui dévale après la pluie.
« — Maintenant, que je dis en me laissant aller à bas de son nez
et courant me mettre devant lui, tu vas voir celui qui vaut mieux que
toi.
« Il avait abaissé sa grosse tête entre ses grosses pattes de
devant, qui étaient croisées comme celles d’un petit chat. Il avait l’air
de l’innocence et de la désolation personnifiées, et par parenthèse
sa grosse lèvre inférieure poilue tremblotait et il clignait des yeux
pour se retenir de pleurer.
« — Pour l’amour de Dieu, que je dis, oubliant tout à fait que ce
n’était qu’une bête brute, ne le prends pas ainsi à cœur ! Du calme,
calme-toi, que je dis. (Et tout en parlant je lui caressai la joue et
l’entre-deux des yeux et le bout de la trompe.) Maintenant, que je
dis, je vais bien t’arranger pour la nuit. Envoyez-moi ici un ou deux
enfants, que je dis au sergent qui s’attendait à me voir trucider. Il
s’insurgerait à la vue d’un homme.
— Tu étais devenu sacrément malin tout d’un coup, dit Ortheris.
Comment as-tu fait pour connaître si vite ses petites manies ?
— Parce que, reprit Térence avec importance, parce que j’avais
dompté le copain, mon fils.
— Ho ! fit Ortheris, partagé entre le doute et l’ironie. Continue.
— L’enfant de son mahout et deux ou trois autres gosses des
lignes accoururent, pas effrayés pour un sou : l’un d’eux m’apporta
de l’eau, avec laquelle je lavai le dessus de son pauvre crâne
meurtri (pardieu ! je lui en avais fait voir) tandis qu’un autre extrayait
de son cuir les fragments des carrioles, et nous le raclâmes et le
manipulâmes tout entier et nous lui mîmes sur la tête un
gigantesque cataplasme de feuilles de nîm [8] (les mêmes qu’on
applique sur les écorchures des chevaux) et il avait l’air d’un bonnet
de nuit, et nous entassâmes devant lui un tas de jeunes cannes à
sucre et il se mit à piquer dedans.
[8] Nom d’une plante de l’Inde.
Mulvaney se tut.
— Et après ? demandai-je.
— Vous le devinez, reprit Mulvaney. Il y eut confusion, et le
colonel me donna dix roupies, et le commandant m’en donna cinq, et
le capitaine de la compagnie m’en donna cinq, et les hommes me
portèrent en triomphe autour de la caserne.
— Tu es allé à la boîte ? demanda Ortheris.
— Je n’ai plus jamais entendu parler de mon malentendu avec le
pif de Kearney, si c’est cela que tu veux dire ; mais cette nuit-là
plusieurs des gars furent emmenés d’urgence à l’ousteau des Bons
Chrétiens. On ne peut guère leur en faire un reproche : ils avaient eu
pour vingt roupies de consommations. J’allai me coucher et cuvai les
miennes, car j’étais vanné à fond comme le collègue qui reposait à
cette heure dans les lignes. Ce n’est pas rien que d’aller à cheval sur
des éléphants.
« Par la suite je devins très copain avec le vénérable Père du
Péché. J’allais souvent à ses lignes quand j’étais consigné et
passais l’après-midi à causer avec lui : nous mâchions chacun notre
bout de canne à sucre, amis comme cochons. Il me sortait tout ce
que j’avais dans mes poches et l’y remettait ensuite, et de temps à
autre je lui portais de la bière pour sa digestion, et je lui faisais des
recommandations de bonne conduite, et de ne pas se faire porter
sur le registre des punitions. Après cela il suivit l’armée, et c’est ainsi
que ça se passe dès qu’on a trouvé un bon copain.
— Alors vous ne l’avez jamais revu ? demandai-je.
— Croyez-vous la première moitié de l’histoire ? fit Térence.
— J’attendrai que Learoyd soit de retour, répondis-je
évasivement.
Excepté quand il est soigneusement endoctriné par les deux
autres et que l’intérêt financier immédiat l’y pousse, l’homme du
Yorkshire [10] ne raconte pas de mensonges ; mais je savais Térence
pourvu d’une imagination dévergondée.
[10] Learoyd.
Clark Russell.