Assignment No.1 Q. 1 What Ethics? Discuss The Basic Ethical Guidelines For Media

Course: Media Ethics & Laws Part – I (6603)
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
Semester: Autumn, 2021 0336-4646739
ASSIGNMENT No.1
Q. 1 What ethics? Discuss the basic ethical guidelines for media.
All over the world codes of conduct have been proposed for journalists. In fact, ethics is inseparable from
journalism, because the practice of journalism is centered on a set of essentially ethical concepts: freedom,
democracy, truth, objectivity, honesty, privacy. If the proper role of journalism is seen as providing information,
then the ethical questions focus on one issue: maintaining the quality of the information. This issue has become a
matter of political controversy and public concern. Many people think the media are inaccurate and biased.
The Robert Maxwell case has re-opened the issue of media ownership. Questions of censorship and freedom of
information have arisen in connection with Spycatcher, the fight against terrorism in Northern Ireland and the
wars in the Falklands and the Gulf. Not to mention issues with ISIL.
There is much concern about the trivializing and exploitative representation of women in the media, etc. The
dissemination and discussion of information concerning the major problems that face the world and its peopleis
necessary to both the democratic understanding and the democratic action without which the problems cannot be
solved – without which, in fact, they will escalate.
Ethics As The Philosophy Of Morality
Although different writers use the words “ethics” and “morals” in different senses, in this article we will make
the following distinctions to help avoid equivocation or these terms in ethical arguments.
Morals is best studied as psychology, sociology, or anthropology. Different societies have different moral codes.
Morals is a descriptive science; it seeks to establish “what is true” in a society or group.
Often morals are the shared ideals of a group, irrespective of whether they are practiced.
In the sense of descriptive ethics or morals, different persons, groups, and societies have different moral standards.
This observation is seen as true by all sides.
a. We would commit the fallacy of equivocation to conclude from this observation that there is no universal
ethical (q.v., below under I, B) standard.
b. We can only conclude by observation that there appears to be, or is, no universal moral standard.
c. This confusion between descriptive and prescriptive ethics occurs quite often by persons untrained in
philosophical analysis. Isaac Asimov got it right when he wrote, “Never let your sense of morals get in the way
of doing what’s right.”
Objective Values (Right And Wrong)
In a sense, morals are the study of what is thought to be right and what is generally done by a group, society, or
a culture. In general, morals correspond to what actually is done in a society.
One man with the name Hinc has a wife who is dying of cancer. Without any success, he has tried to collect the
money for buying the medicine. The cure costs US$2,000 and Hinc has succeeded in collecting US$1,500, but
pharmacist does not want to sell him the cure on credit. Should Hinc steal the cure to save his wife? In this famous
Skilling.pk Stamflay.com
1 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
hypothetical thesis social psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg and his associates have used to illustrate the opposed
values that are rooted in the comprehension of justice.
On one side, Hinc loves his wife and within the interest of the preservation of life, he would have the justification
to steal the medicine. From the other side, doing that he would violate one of the fundamental moral principles in
the Western world – it is forbidden to steal of other people’s property.
Hinc dilemmas are all around us. Those dilemmas are often the essence of emotional debates about social issues
like abortion, possession of guns, death penalties, sexual education, and pornography.
Moral Anarchy
If an ethical system gives moral cohesion to the individuals and institutions, then that is the most needed issue for
professional journalists. Why? Mass media is among the most influential enterprises in democratic society, on
the crossroads between citizens and their political, economic and social institutions.
Ethical standards should be based on the intellect and experience, but we have another very interesting issue
within it – wisdom. Very often we hear things like “he is very wise,” but what he has done might not be ethical
at all. Wisdom also demands breathing room for advertisers who use “puffery” in their commercial messages, if
the ads are not deceptive.
Hyperbole is the handmaiden of salesmanship, and the marketplace suffers little from the introduction of
exaggerated commercial claims of enhanced sex appeal and social acceptance. A code based on wisdom promotes
ethical behavior while avoiding excessive and unreasonable moral propriety.
The application of this criterion to a system of ethics results in flexibility, which shuns the extremes of an
intransigent code at the end and moral anarchy at the other. In journalism, the proper balance is somewhere
between the sensational and the bland.
Inseparability Of Ethics From Journalism
Freedom, democracy, truth, objectivity, honesty, privacy — these five criterions represent the basics of any kind
of ethical system, including the one that belongs to professional journalists.
First, an ethical system must have joint values related to the ones mentioned within the content of this article.
Because, before the bringing of ethical judgments, society must achieve agreement about the standards of moral
behavior.
The second one is that those standards must be based on reason and experience and should try to harmonize rights
and interests of the people with their obligations towards other people.
Third, and ethical system must search for justice. There s hould not be double standards within behavior, except
if there is no convincing and morally sustainable reason for discrimination.
Fourth, an ethical system should be based on the freedom of choice and a system of ethics that is not contained
of responsibility encourages freedom without responsibility and by doing that does not have moral authority to
encourage honorable behavior. And we get, as I said, then – moral anarchy.
2 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
Finally, my firm stand is that we should use this sentence as well in professional journalism: “As much rights I
gain, I should gain an equal amount of responsibilities.”
Ethics Focus On Maintaining The Quality Of The Information
In quality control – should we focus on Law or Ethics? The issue of quality is inescapable. A free and vigorous
press and other organs of mass communications are agreed to be among the essential ingredients of a healthy
democracy. When I mentioned “vigorous” I meant that freedom is not sufficient: a press could be free, yet timid
or torpid.
What is important is that the activity that wishes to call itself professional be conducted on an ethical basis and
that its practitioners be accountable for their actions.
Ethics is not just matter of codes of conducts (plus or minus sanctions), not just matter of rules to be followed. It
is more to do with principles concerning the rights and wrongs of human conduct, principles which have some
reasoned theoretical basis and which therefore apply objectively and impartially within the quality way of
presenting the information.
Yes, maintaining the quality of information, just like having a code of conduct, is the restoration of the honor of
journalism.
What is true on a national level is also true internationally. A commitment to quality of information and
information flow to meet the urgent and demanding need for action in a troubled world is required on a global
scale. To ensure freedom of information on this scale both global networks and democratic access are essential.
Here the enemies of freedom are perhaps even more formidable, through intolerant or totalitarian governments
and transnational capitalist corporations are not natural allies, and to some extent their interests’ conflict. But
whether censorship-ideological, religious or commercial – can prevail against the need for quality in the global
media is not something that can today be predicted.
Metaethics, Normative Ethics And Applied Ethics
Through trying to put questions within the wider context, ethics, as a formal field of research, comprises three
different, but conceptually akin and related, so called, projects: metaethics, normative ethics and applied ethics.
Function of Metaethics
Metaethics deals with study of the characteristics or the nature of ethics. It investigates the meaning of abstract
concepts such as good, right, justice and honesty and try those values that represents the best moral values. This
kind of ethics doesn’t deal with the bringing of moral judgments. For example, dedication to the truth ethicists
recognize as something that is morally good and that value represents one of the foundation of social and thereby
journalistic norms as well.
The function of metaethics is that in an ethical sense it defines that kind of indeterminate concepts and to offer
precision of the meaning, so, in that way, to make all the members of society could start with the process of
enactment of moral judgment from the equal positions.
3 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
Metaethics offers a wide foundation for ethical decision making, but it does not give guidance how to get from
the point A to the point B. When viewers and readers say that some report is not fair, is their concern of ethical
nature or is it just the matter of taste? Or when a media critic writes that a TV show is “good drama”, by doing
that, he did not bring any standards in regards to the moral characteristics of the show.
A brief definition of Metaethics: “A classification within western philosophy that attempts to discover the origin
or cause of right and wrong.” An another example question within metaethics is: “How can we know what is right
and wrong?” There are almost as many different answers as there are different people answering the question.
Some individuals may say that right and wrong are dictated by holy books, or philosophy books, or political
books, or by popular speakers, but there is not yet a good explanation within philosophy that can illustrate the
origins and nature of right and wrong that are verifiable and acceptable to everyone. If the question were “how
can we know that rocks fall to the ground,” it would be a simple choice to observe rocks and to study the physics
of Nature to gain both the personal experience of observing rocks fall as well as gaining a scientific explanation
of why rocks fall. The force of gravity itself might not be perfectly understood, but no healthy mind would deny
that the concept of gravity is a part of the reason why rocks fall to the ground.
Normative ethics and principles of moral behavior
Normative ethics deals with development of general theories, rules and principles of moral behavior. Certain
social bans of lying, cheating or stealing originate from our relations towards normative ethics.
For example: Within certain media there exists ban for the journalists to use impostures to get to the news; that
ban is derived from general social norms connected with lying. Journalists, however, under the pressure of
competition and deadlines, are tempted to give up on so generally shaped principles, because they would like to
have exclusive story or believe that they will, through distortion of facts, satisfy public interest, even if they, by
doing that, are breaking one of the basic rules of ethical behavior. When a moral norm went through baptism of
fire in real world, media workers comes to the territory of applied ethics.
The real example of satisfying is, within the pressure of public, of course, normative but also applied ethics, such
as the case of the tabloid News Of The World, owned by Rupert Murdoch, and which in 2011, apologized for
eavesdropping on telephone conversations — and led to it eventually closing its doors and saying goodbye to the
almost seven and a half million readers after 168 years of existence. The target of the journalists were most often
celebrities, but the scandal culminated after it was discovered that the journalists of the News Of The World
intercepted the telephone of 13-year old girl Milly Dowler who was, back in 2002, first kidnapped and murdered.
They apologized in the last issue, but…
Applied ethics: solving problems
Applied ethics is the branch of philosophy of the morality that deals with solving of the problems. Here you can
use knowledge that are derived from meta-ethics and general principles and rules of normative ethics to solve
ethical questions in concrete cases. Let us assume that the barrister of the person accused for the corruption and/or
4 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
murder has kindly asked a journalist to disclose to him the sources of the information he used to write an article
about corruption and/or murder. The journalist has promised to his sources that he will not disclose, until the
beginning of trial, their identities. The barrister, however, believes that this information would lead to the releasing
of his client.
One rule or social norm tells us, in this case, that the given and promised word should be kept always, because in
opposite, we are distorting a trust on which are based relations among individuals. From other side, justice requires
that accused ones should have honest and objectively conducted trial.
In this case we have two abstract principles collides. Applied ethics should lead us through this moral maze in a
way that will confront questions within one real surroundings. Answers cannot always be correct or wrong, but
always must be “well-reasoned”.
Q. 2 Describe different branches of media ethics.
1. Media laws media laws is a legal field that relates to legal regulations of the telecommunication industry,
information technology, press, broadcasting, advertising, entertainment industry, censorship, internet and online
services among others.
2. Printing press in subcontinent
3. Printing in subcontinent was started by Portuguese.
4. Equipment of printing press were brought by ship in 1550.
5. A printing press was developed in goa in 1557. The main objective of the press was to print christian literature.
6. Printing press in subcontinent • following the establishment of a printing press in goa, different presses were
developed in sub continent as follows: 1674 in bombay 1772 in madras 1779 in calcutta 1778 in bangla
7. Press and government 1780-1822 • william bolt in 1776 showed his interest in publishing first newspaper in
subcontinent ,thus, was ultimately deported back to england by east india company. • in 1780, james augustus
hickey started his english newspaper ‘bengal gazette’ also named as hickey’s gazette.
8. Press and government 1780-1822 • just after few months of its first publication, hickey was stopped from using
postal services for his newspaper circulation. • hickey was charged of writing inappropriate paragraph about
renowned personalities, maligning their good reputations and interfering with the peace and calm of the colony.
9. Lord wellesley’s press act, 1799 • the first law enforcement against the english newspapers was carried in 1799.
• publisher had to print his name at the bottom of the newspaper. • the owner and editor of the newspaper were
bound to inform the government about his address.
10. Lord wellesley’s press act, 1799 • newspaper could not be published on sundays. • no newspaper could be
published without the inspection of government secretary. • the person, who would not abide by the above rules,
would be deported to europe immediately.
5 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
11. The press act, 1801 • in 1081, ‘calcutta gazette’ published a public notice that newspapers need prior
authorization to publish the following: military order. army list. books, pamphlets or any printing material
relating to military affairs.
12. The press act, 1813 • the proof sheets of all newspapers, including supplements and all extra publication
should be sent to the secretary to the government before publication. • proof sheets of all advertisements should
be sent to the secretary of the government before publication. • the rules established before would remain in full
force.
13. The press act, 1818 • lord hastings issued directions for the newspapers that they should not publish:
unfriendliness towards the actions of public institutions of england associated with indian government. criticism
on the political judgments regarding stability of the sub-continent.
14. Press and government pre-post 1857
15. The licensing regulations, 1823 • ‘jam-e- jahan nama’, first urdu newspaper appeared on the scene from
calcutta in 1822. • urdu was not a popular language at that time, therefore, it was later converted into a bilingual
newspaper. • an important press act was introduced by the foreign rulers in 1823 immediately after native people
started thinking to publish newspapers in their own languages i.e. Persian, urdu,
16. The licensing regulations, 1823 • every printer and publisher had to obtain a license from the governor general
for starting a press. • the application for obtaining a license must contain names of the newspaper, editor, printer
and its owner. • in case of hiring or firing of any person associated with the paper, the governor general should
be informed.
17. The licensing regulations, 1823 • the governor general had the right to cancel a license or call for a fresh
application. • the penalty for printing any literature without the obligatory license was rs. 400 for each such
publication.
18. The metcalf’s act, 1835 • a declaration would be needed to publish a newspaper. If place of printing would be
changed, a new declaration would have to be submitted. • the printer and publisher would be responsible for the
material published in a newspaper.
19. The metcalf’s act, 1835 • the printer and publisher of every newspaper would be required to declare the
location of the premises of its publication. • violation would be five thousand rupees fine and two year
imprisonment.
20. Press and government pre-post 1857 when the war of independence began, british government wanted to
restrict the freedom of press completely so they victimized different local papers claiming that this war is the
result of that freedom which was given by govt. To local media.
21. Press and government pre-post 1857 • at that time, the press regulation 1823 were maintained in the form of
a new act. • this new act was called gagging act/ licensing act and was promulgated on june 1857 for one year.
6 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
22. The licensing act, 1857 • the act prohibited the keeping or using of printing press without a license from the
government. • the government reserved the discretionary right to grant licenses or revoke them at any time.
23. The licensing act, 1857 • the government was also empowered to prohibit the publication or circulation of any
newspaper, book or other printed matter. • in case of violation the government will seize the printing press.
24. Press and government pre-post 1857 • british came out victorious. • sadaq-al-akhbar edited by syed jamiluddin
and delhi urdu akhbar edited by maulvi muhammad baqir were closed down by the govt. As a punishment to
stand against them. • the number of publications dropped from 35 in 1853 to 12 in 1858.
25. Press and government of the age
26. The newspapers act, 1908  according to this act: • the magistrates were empowered to seize printing presses,
property connected to newspapers which published objectionable material which assisted as provocation to
murder or acts of violence.
27. The newspapers act, 1908 • the newspaper editors and printers were given the option to appeal to the high
court within fifteen days of forfeiture of the press. • under the newspapers act of 1908, the government launched
prosecutions against nine newspapers and seized seven presses.
28. Khilafat movement khilafat movement was a religio-political movement launched by the muslims of british
india for the maintenance of the ottoman khilafat and for not handing over the control of muslim holy places to
non muslims.
29. Khilafat movement • when khilafat movement started in 1914 muslim journalists played a vital role to
navigate the direction of the struggle. zamindar of molana zafar ali khan comrade and hamdard of maulana
muhammad ali jauhar al-hilal and al-balagh of molana abul kalam azad
30. urdu e mualla of molana hasrat mohani • these muslim journalists and their papers were sentenced and
sanctioned several times. • in 1910 another press act was enforced by the govt. • under this press act only zamindar
had to pay security for11 times. Khilafat movement
31. Press and government after 1924 in 1929, after the failure of all parties conference in which hindus rejected
demands presented by muslim leaders and refused to adjust them in anyway, indian politics divided into muslim
politics and hindu politics and similarly muslim journalism and hindu journalism.
32. • this act gave extensive powers to the provincial governments in suppressing the propaganda for the ‘civil
disobedience movement’. • in 1932, the press act of 1931 was amplified in the form of the criminal amendment
act of 1932. The indian press act, 1931
33. • during the second world war, pre-censorship was reinforced and there was a time when the publication of
all news related to the congress activities were declared illegal. The indian press act, 1931
34. In 1942, congress started quit india movement which became quite violent, press laws were amended again
by the government to control them, strict actions were taken against newspapers that supported this movement
and most of them were hindu newspapers. Press and government after 1924
7 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
35. Press and government 1947-1958
36. • when pakistan appeared on the map of world, cold war was going on between soviet union and america and
the channel being used was media. • the whole world was divided in two blocks i.e. Communist block and
american block. Press and government 1947-1958
37. • when pakistan came into being it also has to choose between the two, so leaders of the nation decided to be
a part of american block. • after that numerous actions were taken against those newspapers, magazines and
journalists who were more bent towards communist school of thought. Press and government 1947-1958
38. • important organization formed by mian iftikhar uddin, a former member of a communist party of india, to
publish newspapers from different places to spread the message of muslim league and to support the pakistan
movement. Progressive papers limited (ppl)
39. • the intellectuals in ppl were mostly those that took part in progressive writers movement (1936). • it is the
only organization in the history of pakistan that gathered such a huge number of laureates and intellectuals under
its roof. Progressive papers limited (ppl)
40. • after joining american block the first newspapers and publications that were targeted by the government
were ppl’s publications. • in 1953 communist party was banned. • from 1947-53 almost 58 magazines and books
were banned by the establishment and removed from the market. Press and government 1947-1958
42. • on october 7, 1958, president sikander mirza abolished the constitution and declared martial law in the
country. • this was the first military regime. • the parliamentary system in pakistan came to end. • within three
weeks of assuming charge on october 27, 1958, sikander mirza was ousted by general ayub khan, the then
commander-in-chief of armed forces, who then declared himself president. Press and government 1958-1969
43. • ayub khan within the first week of his coup imprisoned: syed sibt-e-hassan, editor of weekly lail-o-nihar,
ahmed nadim qasmi, editor of amrooz, faiz ahmed faiz, editor of pakistan times journalists who worked for
progressive papers limited (ppl) press and government 1958-1969
44. • in 1961 press and publications ordinance was formed and enforced to keep the newspapers under
government’s control. • it was a black law, completely boycotted by media organizations and journalists. Press
and publications ordinance (ppo)
45. • covering 30 pages, it dealt with printing presses, newspapers, periodicals, books and other publications. •
government had been empowered to ask for security deposits from printing presses for publishing newspapers or
books as well as for issuing objectionable material as defined by the ordinance. Press and publications ordinance
(ppo)
46. • security deposits ranging from rs500 to rs10,000 could be demanded from printing presses. • appeals against
such action would lie with a special bench of the high court. • the government had also been empowered, in certain
8 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
cases, to prohibit the printing presses from publishing books or newspapers. Press and publications ordinance
(ppo)
47. • under the new rules, before obtaining a declaration, a publisher would have to show that he had the financial
resources required for regularly publishing a newspaper. • editor was required to possess reasonable educational
qualifications or satisfactory experience in journalism. • a publisher proceeding abroad for more than three months
was to name a person who was to take over his responsibility. The nominee was to give a written undertaking to
that effect. Press and publications ordinance (ppo)
48. • in 1964, national press trust was established and all the ppl papers were given to this monster. • npt had right
to take over any such newspaper, magazine which is apparently financially not able to run the newspaper or is
dangerous to country’s security. • apparently it was an independent body but actually it was state-controlled.
National press trust (npt)
49. • ppl’s publications daily mashriq was also handed over to npt, • sindhi paper hilal-e-pakistan was also taken
over, • morning news which was being published since 1936 first from calcutta and after partition from karachi
and dhaka was also taken over. National press trust (npt)
50. • some bengali newspapers were also taken over by npt. • dawn, jung, nawa-e-waqt were the only papers that
were not taken in government’s custody but they still had a tough time in ayub’s time as they were not liked by
government. National press trust (npt)
51. • another harsh action taken against press by ayub’s government was the condition imposed on international
news agencies that they cannot directly send news to their subscribers in pakistan. • they were asked to send their
news via app or ppi. This action was taken to restrict the news and information coming from international media
to reach the pakistanis. National press trust (npt)
52. • in march 1969 second marshal law was enforced in pakistan by general yahya khan. • in his regime, press
was given complete freedom and a suspension was put on ppo that it cannot be used against press any further.
Press and government 1969-1971
53. • although freedom of press was enjoyed by the media and newspapers yet general yahya’s period is not
considered as a flourishing period of journalism as in this period no ethics were observed by the newspapers, with
an exception to few reputable papers. • many dummy papers were invigorated, free insulting and even abusive
language was being used. Press and government 1969-1971
54. • in this period certain actions were taken against journalists. • first target was again ppl, 24 journalists were
fired from amroz, pakistan times & lail-o-nihar. • these fired journalists formed journalist united and revived a
dummy paper azad. Press and government 1969-1971
55. • a rebellion case was filed against the editorial board of azad in the marshal law court as they were favoring
the majority party that won the election. • this action made it clear that even in general yahya’s government
freedom was restricted. Press and government 1969-1971
9 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
57. • in 1971 crisis, journalists and newspapers were under strict observation and no journalist or newspaper was
permitted to write about situation in east pakistan, to keep the people blind of the situation. • people’s right to
know was an unacceptable thing to the government. Press and government 1971-1977
58. • later, nation’s anger over country’s humiliating defeat by india boiled into street demonstrations throughout
the country. • to forestall further unrest, general yahya hastily surrendered his powers to zulfikar ali bhutto of
pakistan people’s party. Press and government 1971-1977
59. • after dhaka fall, media played a great role in re-boasting nation’s morale that were very disappointed over
country’s division into two parts and brought them back to the real life. • draconian law, ppo was revived again
and used against the press by the new government. • weekly outlook and punjab punch were closed down using
this ordinance despite the fact that punjab punch and outlook were among those papers that supported ppp in
election.
60. Press and government 1977- till musharraf era general zia-ul-haq came to power by overthrowing prime
minister zulfikar ali bhutto, after widespread civil disorder, in a military takeover on july 5, 1977 and imposed
martial law. • he assumed the post of president of pakistan in 1978 which he held till his death on august 17, 1988.
Press and government 1977- till musharraf era magazines and newspapers were closed down. • and almost 150
journalists were arrested and given different punishments by the marshal law courts in this period. • moreover, no
newspaper could publish anything without prior approval from the information department. Press and government
1977- till musharraf era till 1988 these restrictions continued. In 1988, general zia-ul- haq died in a planned
aircraft crash. • after that the new caretaker government abolished ppo and introduced a new and a better ordinance
registration of printing press and publications ordinance (rpppo). • rpppo was a sigh of relief for the journalists
and newspapers. Since then press is comparatively enjoying and working in a better environment and did not have
a major clash with the government. Press and government 1977- till musharraf era it was just in 1997-99 nawaz
sharif’s government had some problems with the jang group of newspapers. • on 12th october, 1999 general
musharraf took over but no new law or additional restrictions were imposed on the press rather musharraf’s
government appreciated the private sector and gave them a chance to invest more in electronic media which
resulted into many new radio and tv channels. Press and government 1977-2008 in 2014, jang group of
newspapers had to face a lot of restrictions and even the solitude in media sphere; when a senior journalist of the
organization, hamid mir was attached and the media organization blamed the country’s intelligence agency for it.
• besides that, there is no strict rule to punish or imprison the journalists in the going age. Press and government
2009-2017
Q. 3 Explain the ethics and morality in modern perspectives.
10 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
Journalism is under attack. The tensions between the responsibilities of journalists and the prerogatives of the
government when dealing with issues of national security are exacerbated by a body politic fortified by partisan
certitude, by technology designed to ferret out confidential sources, and by nation-states with unknown agendas.
The U.S. government suffers from significant and damaging disclosures of classified information, and the secrecy
bureaucracy is struggling to adapt to a world where the locus of control over national security information is
distributed, and where secrets themselves are an increasingly perishable commodity. And whistleblowers find
themselves in the most precarious state of all. There is no guidebook for them; there are few means for them to
convey their concerns responsibly without attracting a partisan following that can diminish or cast aspersions on
their own motives and efforts.
This conference hopes to meaningfully advance the understanding of four broad challenges, using the conference
as a point of departure to inject fresh thinking about these critical issues into the public sphere.
The first issue involves the responsible reporting of national security crises: while such events are inherently
newsworthy, journalists must grapple with the troubling reality, born out by experience and by scholarship on
how audiences consume information, that such reporting can fuel more terrorist attacks by stoking public fear and
providing the terrorists with the kind of visibility they seek for their cause. Independent media coverage of their
actions can have a reinforcing impact on terrorists’ violent narratives while glorifying the image of those in
charge.
The second topic for discussion is how best to ensure the physical and legal safety of journalists, as well as the
integrity of the constitutionally protected freedom of the press. Journalists can face, easily, and without
consequence for the perpetrators, malevolent online harassment campaigns, hate-based attacks, or related physical
threats or intimidation, due to their race, religion, or nationality, and such conduct can affect the coverage of
national security matters, whether directly or indirectly. Because newsroom budgets have been pared down,
reporters are often sent into disaster zones and denied areas without back-up. The best efforts to protect critical
sources can now be bypassed using communications metadata to identify sources who may be reluctant to reveal
their communications with the media.
Third: the re-publishing of unauthorized disclosures of classified information by WikiLeaks or other such third-
party, quasi-journalistic outlets, or independent platforms with cultures of disclosure that differ from the
established media’s formal processes and well-considered habits. In such cases, the disclosed information usually
remains classified, and intelligence agencies are unlikely to acknowledge whether the leaks are based on bona
fide classified documents regardless of independent coverage. When dealing with these disclosures, how should
news organizations that operate according to more conventional ethical codes disseminate such information?
The fourth challenge relates to the advent of “fake news” and its use as a weapon of asymmetric warfare. It has
become a national security threat. Our recent electoral experience with foreign disinformation raises the question
of the responsibilities vested in journalists, private firms, and the government to protect democracy from foreign
11 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
political subversion through the dissemination of “fake news” intended to affect political discourse or undermine
national security. The field is professionally unprepared for this new reality.
This two-day, workshop-style conference consisting of experts from such diverse fields as the law, academia, the
media, the national security establishment, and the whistleblowing community, will explore these complex legal
and ethical problems through a series of moderated sessions.
The objective is to foster a constructive, interdisciplinary dialogue among people who do not often talk with one
another and to provide all participants with a more nuanced appreciation of the issues that lie at the intersection
of journalism and national security. We also hope to provide solutions, even temporary ones, to the problems
we’ve identified.
This event is co-sponsored by the Annenberg School for Communication (ASC), the Center for Advanced
Research in Global Communication at ASC, the Middle East Center at the University of Pennsylvania, and the
law firm of Miller & Chevalier.
Q. 4 Critically discuss culture and privacy practices with examples.
Global media ethics aims at developing a comprehensive set of principles and standards for the practice of
journalism in an age of global news media. New forms of communication are reshaping the practice of a once
parochial craft serving a local, regional or national public. Today, news media use communication technology to
gather text, video and images from around the world with unprecedented speed and varying degrees of editorial
control. The same technology allows news media to disseminate this information to audiences scattered around
the globe.
Despite these global trends, most codes of ethics contain standards for news organizations or associations in
specific countries. International associations of journalists exist, and some have constructed declarations of
principle. But no global code has been adopted by most major journalism associations and news organizations.
In addition to statements of principle, more work needs to be done on the equally important area of specific,
practice guidelines for covering international events. An adequate global journalism ethics has yet to be
constructed.
The idea of a global media ethics arises out a larger attempt change, improve or reform the global media system
to eliminate inequalities ion media technology and to reduce the control of global media in the hands of minority
of Western countries. This attempt to re-structure the media system have been controversial, often being accused
of being motivated by an agenda to control media or inhibit a free press. The debate continues today.
Beginning in the 1970s, there was an attempt to establish a “New World Information and Communication Order
(NWICO)” prompted by concerns that Western media and its values were threatening the cultural values in non-
Western, developing nations. The main players in NWICO were non-aligned nations, UNESCO, and the Sean
McBride Commission. The recommendations of the McBride report in 1980, One World, Many Voices, outlined
12 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
a new global media order. The report was endorsed by UNESCO members. The USA and Great Britain left
UNESCO in the early 1980s in opposition to NWICO.
The dream of a set of principles and policies for equitable and responsible dissemination of information worldwide
has not died. More recently, the United Nations has held two meetings of a movement called “World Summit on
the Information Society.” At a summit in Geneva in December 2003, 175 countries adopted a plan of action and
a declaration of principles. A second summit was held in Tunisia in November 2005 which looked at ways to
implement the Geneva principles. At the heart of the summits’ concerns was the growth of new online media and
the “digital divide” between the Global North and South.
On the history of the NWICO debate, see Gerbner, G. & Mowlana, H. & Nordenstreng, K., eds., The Global
Media Debate. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing, 1999.
The attempt to reform the global media system is much wider in scope than an attempt to construct a global media
ethics. The former looks at what norms should guide media practitioners when they face difficult decisions on
what to report. The latter goes beyond ethical reflections to include the economics, politics, and technology of
media.
There are at least two reasons:
(1) Practical: a non-global ethic is no longer able to adequately address the new problems that face global
journalism, and
(2) Ethical: new global responsibilities come with global impact and reach.
News media now inhabit a radically pluralistic, global community where the impact of their reports can have far-
reaching effects — good or bad. News reports, via satellite or the Internet, reach people around the world and
influence the actions of governments, militaries, humanitarian agencies and warring ethnic groups. A responsible
global ethic is needed in a world where news media bring together a plurality of different religions, traditions and
ethnic groups.
One responsibility is to report issues and events in a way that reflects this global plurality of views; to practice a
journalism that helps different groups understand each other better. Reports should be accurate, balanced and
diverse, as judged from an international perspective. A biased and parochial journalism can wreak havoc in a
tightly linked global world. Unless reported properly, North American readers may fail to understand the causes
of violence in Middle East, or a famine in Africa. Biased reports may incite ethnic groups in a region to attack
each other. A narrow-minded, patriotic news media can stampede populations into war. Moreover, journalism
with a global perspective is needed to help citizens understand the daunting global problems of poverty,
environmental degradation, technological inequalities and political instability.
For a systematic study of global media (and journalism) ethics, see Stephen J. A. Ward, Global Journalism
Ethics (in bibliography below).
NEW STAGE IN JOURNALISM ETHICS
13 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
Since the birth of modern journalism in the 17th century, journalism has gradually broaden the scope of the people
that it claims to serve — from factions to specific social classes to the public of nations. The journalistic principle
of “serving the public interest” has been understood, tacitly or explicitly, as serving one’s own public, social class
or nation. The other principles of objectivity, impartiality and editorial independence were limited by this
parochial understanding of who journalism serves. For example, “impartiality” meant being impartial in one’s
coverage of rival groups within one’s society, but not necessarily being impartial to groups outside one’s national
boundaries.
Global journalism ethics, then, can be seen as an extension of journalism ethics — to regard journalism’s “public”
as the citizens of the world, and to interpret the ethical principles of objectivity, balance and independence in an
international manner. Journalism ethics becomes more “cosmopolitan” in tone and perspective.
COMPONENTS OF GLOBAL MEDIA ETHICS
The development of global journalism ethics has the following tasks.
Conceptual tasks
New philosophical foundations for a global ethics, which include:
• global re-interpretation of the ethical role and aims of journalism
• global re-interpretation of existing journalism principles and standards, such as objectivity, balance and
independence
• construction of new norms and “best practices” as guides for the practice of global journalism
Research tasks
More research into the state of journalism, amid globalization:
• studies of news media in various regions of world
• studies on the evolution and impact of globalization in news media, with a focus on ownership, technology and
practice
• studies on the ethical standards of new media in different countries
• studies on news coverage of international problems and issues
Practical tasks
Actions to implement and support global standards:
• application of this global perspective to re-define the coverage of international events and issues
• coalition-building among journalists and interested parties with the aim of writing a global code of ethics that
has wide-spread acceptance
• initiatives to defend and enhance free and responsible news media, especially in areas where problems are the
greatest.
Q. 5 Mention different international codes of ethics for the journalists.
1. Code of ethics
14 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
2. Privacy is the right to be let alone, or freedom from interference or intrusion. Information privacy is the right
to have some control over how your personal information is collected and used.
3. Without some degree of privacy civilized life would be impossible, both a personal and societal need for
privacy exists, Hodges  Society need privacy as a shield against the power of the state. As the state gains more
information about its citizens, it is increasingly easy to influence , manipulate , or control each one.
4.  Privacy is not to be viewed as a luxury or as an opinion, it is a necessary component of a democracy upon
which many of its values such as freedom, individual dignity and autonomy.  Journalist have been caught
between what the law allows and what their consciences will permit. This confusion has led to ethical bugling on
a scale that has probably undermined the entire professions credibility and fed two stereotypical notions
5.  journalist will do anything to get story  audience will willingly consume anything the journalist delivers
6. legal and ethical definitions  intrusion upon a persons seclusion or solitude, or into private affairs, such as
invading ones home or personal papers to get story.  Public disclosure of embarrassing private facts, such as
revealing someone’s notorious past when it has no bearing on that persons present life  Publicity that places a
person in a false light such as enhancing a subjects biography to sell additional books
7.  Misappropriation of a persons name or likeness to sell Pepsi without his permission.
8. The continuing conflicts  The govt demands that its citizen that provide it with certain information that is
otherwise private.  Govt is not only institution today that can demand and receive private information. Banks
,credit companies , docters, attorneys all can request and receive a variety of highly private information, the bulk
of willingly disclosed.  with advancement in technology installing applications access your all private
information and with allowing access to information the application cannot be installed.
9.  With speed-of-light technological innovation, information privacy is becoming more complex by the minute
as more data is being collected and exchanged. As the technology gets more sophisticated (indeed, invasive), so
do the uses of data. And that leaves organizations facing an incredibly complex risk matrix for ensuring that
personal information is protected.
10. Distinguishing between secrecy and privacy  Privacy is the state of being unobserved; changing clothes for
example -- that which I keep private, I am merely withholding from public view. Private matters are those traits,
truths, beliefs, and ideas about ourselves that we keep to ourselves. They might include our fantasies and
daydreams, feelings about the way the world works, and spiritual beliefs. Private matters, when revealed either
accidentally or purposefully, give another person some insight into the revealer.
11.  Secrecy is the act of keeping things hidden -- that which is secret goes beyond merely private into hidden.
While secrecy spills into privacy, not all privacy is secrecy. Secrecy stems from deliberately keeping something
from others out of a fear. Secrets consist of information that has potentially negative impact on someone else-
15 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
emotionally, physically, or financially. The keeper of secrets believes that if they are revealed either accidentally
or purposefully, the revelation may cause harm to the secret-keeper and those around him or her.
12.  Private: I got terrible grades in high school.  Secret: I forged my degree.
13. Discretion: Whether to reveal private information  Discretion demand moral reasoning where the interest of
more than one party are balanced.  Once a source decides to reveal private information, a reporter discretion
remains the sole gatekeepers between that information and a public that might need the information or might
merely want the information.  More attention should be paid to ‘’what the public needs to know’’ rather than
‘’what it is curious’’ about
14. References  https://www.slideshare.net/riccikhan/media-ethics- privacy  https://iapp.org/about/what-is-
privacy/  https://ethics.journalists.org/topics/privacy-and- reporting-on-personal-lives/
ASSIGNMENT No.2
Q. 1 What are detailed note on Media’s lack of maturity and professionalism with examples.
Media professionalism is the conduct of media coverage and activities according to high standards of ethics,
accountability, legality and credibility, while exercising rights such as freedom of expression and information.
An important element in a media environment is the degree of professionalism and experience of journalists
and other media practitioners. It is common that journalists in a country that has only recently emerged from a
highly restrictive political system will lack many of the skills and professional standards of their counterparts
in a country with a long history of media freedom. However, the experience of an authoritarian regime may
not be entirely negative. In many cases, courageous independent journalism has played an important part in
pressuring dictatorships to open up the political space. Journalists who have successfully investigated and
published sensitive stories in such a media environment will have developed professional skills that are
unmatched by their colleagues in friendlier circumstances. In the context of an election, the professional
challenge will be to bring these skills to bear on a new and unfamiliar set of stories to be reported.
Most of the ethical and professional issues that journalists encounter in covering elections are variants of what
they confront in their everyday working lives. However, these issues and dilemmas may present themselves in
particular ways during elections.
Examples of such professional dilemmas might include:
▪ Newsworthiness v. balanced and thorough coverage: News coverage is typically driven by
considerations of what is unique or remarkable and therefore of particular interest in an event. Yet
16 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
electors require fair and balanced presentation of the manifestoes and agendas of the different parties
(which may be far from distinct or interesting). How can the media reconcile their news function with
their public service function?
▪ Transparency v. integrity of the election process: One of the reasons that the media play an essential
role in democracies is that they are able to scrutinise and expose malpractice in elections. However,
proper administration of an election also depends on security and confidentiality. Balancing these two
elements is an issue for lawmakers and those responsible for drawing up electoral regulations. However
it is also a day-to-day practical issue for journalists themselves.
▪ Reporting inflammatory speech: Politicians are more likely to express extreme and inflammatory
sentiments during election campaigns – with the intention of impacting large audiences. Yet, it is
perhaps paradoxical that while election campaigns are occasions where these sentiments frequently
have negative impact or consequences, campaigns are also occasions when freedom to express
differing political views is of utmost important. The regulatory implications of this dilemma are for
policymakers to resolve. For journalists the challenge is to report inflammatory political speech in a
manner that is both accurate and least likely to provoke violence.
▪ Resourcing elections coverage: In the developing world in particular, media outlets often operate
with minimal resources, and journalists are often poorly paid. This provides a number of ethical
problems for editors. For example, what should a media outlet do if there are not enough journalists
(or supporting communication equipment and funding) to cover an election? For some, one answer has
been to allow journalists to receive ‘per diem’ or ‘honoraria’ or other material reward for covering a
story, sometimes by a candidate or contestant, a practice which although widespread is in fact bribery
and detrimental to independent reporting.
The following pages explore the following elements of media professionalism:
▪ Codes of conduct
▪ Legal issues in election reporting
▪ Accuracy in election reporting
▪ Impartiality in election reporting
▪ Responsibility in election reporting
Q. 2 Elaborate the ethical issues of online journalism.
Digital media ethics deals with the distinct ethical problems, practices and norms of digital news media. Digital
news media includes online journalism, blogging, digital photojournalism, citizen journalism and social media. It
includes questions about how professional journalism should use this ‘new media’ to research and publish stories,
as well as how to use text or images provided by citizens.
17 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
A REVOLUTION IN ETHICS
A media revolution is transforming, fundamentally and irrevocably, the nature of journalism and its ethics. The
means to publish is now in the hands of citizens, while the internet encourages new forms of journalism that are
interactive and immediate.
Our media ecology is a chaotic landscape evolving at a furious pace. Professional journalists share the journalistic
sphere with tweeters, bloggers, citizen journalists, and social media users.
Amid every revolution, new possibilities emerge while old practices are threatened. Today is no exception. The
economics of professional journalism struggles as audiences migrate online. Shrinkage of newsrooms creates
concern for the future of journalism. Yet these fears also prompt experiments in journalism, such as non-profit
centers of investigative journalism.
A central question is to what extent existing media ethics is suitable for today’s and tomorrow’s news media that
is immediate, interactive and “always on” – a journalism of amateurs and professionals. Most of the principles
were developed over the past century, originating in the construction of professional, objective ethics for mass
commercial newspapers in the late 19th century.
We are moving towards a mixed news media – a news media citizen and professional journalism across many
media platforms. This new mixed news media requires a new mixed media ethics – guidelines that apply to
amateur and professional whether they blog, Tweet, broadcast or write for newspapers. Media ethics needs to be
rethought and reinvented for the media of today, not of yesteryear.
TENSIONS ON TWO LEVELS
The changes challenge the foundations of media ethics. The challenge runs deeper than debates about one or
another principle, such as objectivity. The challenge is greater than specific problems, such as how newsrooms
can verify content from citizens. The revolution requires us to rethink assumptions. What can ethics mean for a
profession that must provide instant news and analysis; where everyone with a modem is a publisher?
The media revolution has created ethical tensions on two levels.
• On the first level, there is a tension between traditional journalism and online journalism. The culture of
traditional journalism, with its values of accuracy, pre-publication verification, balance, impartiality, and
gate-keeping, rubs up against the culture of online journalism which emphasizes immediacy, transparency,
partiality, non-professional journalists and post-publication correction.
• On the second level, there is a tension between parochial and global journalism. If journalism has global
impact, what are its global responsibilities? Should media ethics reformulate its aims and norms so as to
guide a journalism that is now global in reach and impact? What would that look like?
The challenge for today’s media ethics can be summarized by the question: Whither ethics in a world of multi-
media, global journalism? Media ethics must do more than point out these tensions. Theoretically, it must untangle
18 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
the conflicts between values. It must decide which principles should be preserved or invented. Practically, it
should provide new standards to guide online or offline journalism.
LAYERED JOURNALISM
What would an integrated ethics look like?
It will be the ethics of the integrated newsroom, a newsroom that practices layered journalism. Layered journalism
brings together different forms of journalism and different types of journalists to produce a multi-media offering
of professional-styled news and analysis combined with citizen journalism and interactive chat.
The newsroom will be layered vertically and horizontally.
Vertically, there will be many layers of editorial positions. There will be citizen journalists and bloggers in the
newsroom, or closely associated with the newsroom. Many contributors will work from countries around the
world. Some will write for free, some will be equivalent to paid freelancers, others will be regular commentators.
In addition, there will be different types of editors. Some editors will work with these new journalists, while other
editors will deal with unsolicited images and text sent by citizens via email, web sites, and twitter. There will be
editors or “community producers” charged with going out to neighborhoods to help citizens use media to produce
their own stories.
Horizontally, the future newsroom will be layered in terms of the kinds of journalism it produces, from print and
broadcast sections to online production centers.
Newsrooms in the past have had vertical and horizontal layers. Newspaper newsrooms have ranged vertically
from the editor in-chief at the top to the cub reporter on the bottom. Horizontally, large mainstream newsrooms
have produced several types of journalism, both print and broadcast. However, future newsrooms will have
additional and different layers. Some news sites will continue to be operated by a few people dedicated only to
one format, such as blogging. But a substantial portion of the new mainstream will consist of these complex,
layered organizations.
Layered journalism will confront two types of problems. First, there will be ‘vertical’ ethical questions about how
the different layers of the newsroom, from professional editors to citizen freelancers, should interact to produce
responsible journalism. For example, by what standards will professional editors evaluate the contributions of
citizen journalists? Second, there will be ‘horizontal’ questions about the norms for the various newsroom
sections.
The ‘democratization’ of media – technology that allows citizens to engage in journalism and publication of many
kinds – blurs the identity of journalists and the idea of what constitutes journalism.
In the previous century, journalists were a clearly defined group. For the most part, they were professionals who
wrote for major mainstream newspapers and broadcasters. The public had no great difficulty in identifying
members of the “press.”
19 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
Today, citizens without journalistic training and who do not work for mainstream media calls themselves
journalists, or write in ways that fall under the general description of a journalists as someone who regularly
writes on public issues for a public or audience.
It is not always clear whether the term “journalist” begins or ends. If someone does what appears to be journalism,
but refuses the label ‘journalist’ is he or she a journalist? If comedian Jon Stewart refuses to call himself a
journalist, but magazines refer to him as an influential journalist (or refers to him as someone who does engage
in journalism) is Stewart a journalist?
Is a person expressing their opinions on their Facebook site a journalist?
A lack of clarity over who is a journalist leads to definitional disputes over who is doing journalism. That leads
to the question: What is journalism? Many people believe, “What is journalism?” or “Is he or she doing
journalism?” is a more important question than whether who can call themselves a journalist.
At least three approaches to this question are possible – skeptical, empirical, and normative. Skeptically, one
dismisses the question itself as unimportant. For example, one might say that anyone can be a journalist, and it is
not worth arguing over who gets to call themselves a journalist. One is skeptical about attempts to define
journalism.
Empirically, there is a more systematic and careful approach to the question. We can look at clear examples of
journalism over history and note the types of activities in which journalists engaged, e.g. gathering information,
editing stories, publishing news and opinion. Then we use these features to provide a definition of journalism that
separates it from novel writing, storytelling, or editing information for a government database.
The normative approach insists that writers should not be called journalists unless they have highly developed
skills, acquired usually through training or formal education, and unless they honor certain ethical norms.
The skills include investigative capabilities, research skills, facility with media technology of media, knowledge
of how institutions work, and highly developed communication skills. The ethical norms include a commitment
to accuracy, verification, truth, and so on.
The normative approach is based on an ideal view of journalism as accurately and responsibly informing the
public. One defines journalism by considering the best examples of journalism and the practices of the best
journalists.
A writer who has these skills and these ethical commitments is capable of publishing good (well-crafted, well-
researched) and ethically responsible journalism. Persons who do not meet these normative requirements may
call themselves journalists but they are not considered journalists from this normative perspective. They are at
irresponsible, second-rate, or incompetent writers seeking to be journalists, or pretending to be journalists.
ANONYMITY
Anonymity is accepted more readily online than in mainstream news media. Newspapers usually require the
writers of letters to the editor to identify themselves. Codes of mainstream media ethics caution journalists to use
20 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
anonymous sources sparingly and only if certain rules are followed. The codes warn journalists that people may
use anonymity to take unfair or untrue “potshots” at other people, for self-interested reasons.
Online, many commentary and “chat” areas do not allow anonymity. Online users resist demands from web site
and blogs to register and identify themselves. Anonymity is praised as allowing freedom of speech and sometimes
helping to expose wrong doing. Critics say it encourages irresponsible and harmful comments. Mainstream media
contradict themselves when they allow anonymity online but refuse anonymity in their newspapers and broadcast
programs.
The ethical question is: When is anonymity ethically permissible and is it inconsistent for media to enforce
different rules on anonymity for different media platforms? What should be the ethical guidelines for anonymity
offline and online?
SPEED, RUMOR AND CORRECTIONS
Reports and images circulate the globe with amazing speed via Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, blogs, cell phones,
and email. Speed puts pressure on newsrooms to publish stories before they are adequately checked and verified
as to the source of the story and the reliability of the alleged facts. Major news organizations too often pick up
rumors online. Sometimes, the impact of publishing an online rumor is not world shaking – a false report that a
hockey coach has been fired. But a media that thrives on speed and “sharing” creates the potential for great harm.
For instance, news organizations might be tempted to repeat a false rumor that terrorists had taken control of the
London underground, or that a nuclear power plant had just experienced a ‘meltdown’ and dangerous gases were
blowing towards Chicago. These false reports could induce panic, causes accidents, prompt military action and
so on.
A related problem, created by new media, is how to handle errors and corrections when reports and commentary
are constantly being updated. Increasingly, journalists are blogging ‘live’ about sports games, news events, and
breaking stories. Inevitably, when one works at this speed, errors are made, from misspelling words to making
factual errors. Should news organizations go back and correct all of these mistakes which populate mountains of
material? Or should they correct errors later and not leave a trace of the original mistake –what is called
“unpublishing?”
The ethical challenge is to articulate guidelines for dealing with rumors and corrections in an online world that
are consistent with the principles of accuracy, verification, and transparency.
IMPARTIALITY, CONFLICTS OF INTEREST, AND PARTISAN JOURNALISM
New media encourages people to express their opinion and share their thoughts candidly.
Many bloggers take pride in speaking their mind, compared to any mainstream reporters who must cover events
impartially. Many online journalists see themselves as partisans or activists for causes or political movements,
and reject the idea of objective or neutral analysis.
21 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
Partial or partisan journalism comes in at least two kinds: One kind is an opinion journalism that enjoys
commenting upon events and issues, with or without verification. Another form is partisan journalism which uses
media as a mouthpiece for political parties and movements. To some extent, we are seeing a revival (or return) to
an opinion/partisan journalism that was popular before the rise of objective reporting in the early 1900s.
Both opinion and partisan journalism have long roots in journalism history. However, their revival in an online
world raises serious ethical conundrums for current media ethics. Should objectivity be abandoned by all
journalists? Which is best for a vigorous and healthy democracy – impartial journalism or partisan journalism?
To make matters more contentious, some of the new exponents of opinion and impartial journalism not only
question objectivity, they question the long-standing principle that journalists should be independent from the
groups they write about. For example, some partisan journalists reject charges of a journalistic “conflict of
interest” when they accept money from groups, or make donations to political parties.
Economically, mainstream newsrooms who uphold traditional principles such as impartiality increasingly feel
compelled to move toward a more opinionated or partisan approach to news and commentary. To be impartial is
said to be boring to viewers. Audiences are said to be attracted to strong opinion and conflicts of opinion.
Even where newsrooms enforce the rules of impartiality — say by suspending a journalist for a conflict of interest
or partial comment — they fail to get full public support. Some citizens and groups complain that newsroom
restraints on what analysts and reporters can say about the groups they cover is censorship.
Is it good, that more and more, journalists no longer stand among the opposing groups in society and try to inform
the public fairly about their perspectives but rather become part of the groups seeking to influence public opinion?
The ethical challenge is to redefine what independent journalism in the public interest means for a media where
many new types of journalism are appearing and where basic principles are being challenged.
ENTREPRENEURIAL NOT-FOR-PROFIT JOURNALISM
The declining readers and profits of mainstream media, as citizens migrate online, has caused newsrooms to
shrink their staff. Some journalists doubt the continuing viability of the old economic model of a mass media
based on advertising and circulation sales.
In response, many journalists have started not-for-profit newsrooms, news web sites, and centers of investigative
journalism based on money from foundations and donations from citizens. Some journalists go online and ask for
citizens to send them money to do stories. This trend can be called “entrepreneurial journalism” because the
journalist no longer simply reports while other people (e.g. advertising staff) raise funds for their newsroom.
These journalists are entrepreneurs attempting to raise funds for their new ventures.
The new ventures raise ethical questions.
How independent can such newsrooms be when they are so reliant on funds from a limited number of donors?
What happens if the newsroom intends to report a negative story about one of its main funders? From whom will
22 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
these newsrooms take money? How transparent will they be about who gives them money and under what
conditions?
The challenge is to construct an ethics for this new area of journalism.
REPORTERS USING SOCIAL MEDIA
Many news organizations encourage their reporters to use social media to gather information and to create a
“brand” for themselves by starting their own blog, Facebook page, or Twitter account. However, online
commenting can put reporters, especially beat reporters, in trouble with their editors or the people they comment
about, especially if the news outlet says it provides impartial reporting. For example, a reporter who covers city
hall may report dispassionately in her newspaper about a candidate for mayor. But on her blog, she may express
strong opinion, saying the candidate is an unlikeable and incompetent politician. Such comments would give the
candidate cause to complain about the lack of impartiality of the reporter.
The ethical challenge is to develop social media guidelines that allow reporters to explore the new media world
but also to draw reasonable limits on personal commentary.
Q. 3 What ethical practices should be exercised in photo journalism?
Ethics is rooted in the ancient Greek philosophical inquiry of moral life. It refers to a system of principles which
can critically change previous considerations about choices and actions.It is said that ethics is the branch of
philosophy which deals with the dynamics of decision making concerning what is right and wrong. Scientific
research work, as all human activities, is governed by individual, community and social values. Research ethics
involve requirements on daily work, the protection of dignity of subjects and the publication of the information
in the research.
However, when nurses participate in research they have to cope with three value systems; society; nursing and
science. The societal values about human rights, the nursing culture based on the ethic of caring and the
researcher's values about scientific inquiry. According to Clarke these values may conflict with the values of
subjects, communities, and societies and create tensions and dilemmas in nursing.
Human experimentation has been conducted even before 18th century. However, the ethical attitudes of
researchers drawn the interest of society only after 1940's because of human exploitation in several cases.
Professional codes and laws were introduced since then in order to prevent scientific abuses of human lives. The
Nazi experiments led to the Nuremberg Code (1947) which was the leading code for all subsequent codes made
to protect human rights in research. This code focuses on voluntary informed consent, liberty of withdrawal from
research, protection from physical and mental harm, or suffering and death. It also emphasises the risk- benefit
balance. The only weak point of this code was the self regulation of researchers which can be abused in some
research studies. All declarations followed, forbade nontherapeutic research. It was only in 1964 with the
declaration of Helsinki that the need for non therapeutic research was initiated. The declaration emphasised the
23 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
protection of subjects in this kind of research and strongly proclaimed that the well being of individuals is more
important than scientific and social interests.
In terms of Nursing the first inquiry was the "Nightingale Pledge" (1983). Since then there has been a significant
development of professional codes in conduct and research. The American Nurses' Association (ANA) Guidelines
for Research, the Human Rights Guidelines for nurses in clinical and other research (1985) and the Royal College
of Nursing Code for nurses in research (1977) provide a strong assistance to professional nurses as well as
reassurance to patients, the public and society, of professionals’ intentions.
A common feature in professional conduct codes and those specific to research is the principle of non-malificence.
The ANA Code of conduct declares that the nurse protects the clients and the public from unethical, incompetent
or illegal practice of any person. [8] This statement raises the issue of advocacy when nurses have to protect
patients from the researchers’ incompetence or unethical behaviour. Even if nurses are certain about the
incompetence of the investigator, which is usually very difficult, they have to deal with serious dilemmas. First
they have to consider the fact that if patient learn that they are exposed to professional misconduct, they may lose
faith in health care. Jameton though, believes that patient should be informed as they will appreciate the trust
shown to him by frankness. [13] If the researcher does not inform or compensate patient then nurses have to
decide between the duty to safeguard the well-being of patient and be loyal to them, and the loyalty to colleagues.
However, even if nurses decide that their duty of caring and being loyal to the patient is more important, they
may have to deal with the hierarchical and bureaucratic systems of institutions which demand loyalty to
subordinates to the institution. In case the incompetent researcher is a higher status professional, nurses may be
obliged to show loyalty, but this can conflict with loyalty to patients. Consequently, nurses may feel that their
patients are vulnerable and exposed and that they can not prevent it because they do not have a voice or power to
resist. This is merely why many authors believe that it may not be possible for nurses to act as advocates of
subjects in research. Many support the idea that the prohibition from the advocacy role comes from the origins
and development of nursing as a women’s occupation dominated by medicine in a bureaucratic system.
Another possible issue of conflict is that the caring nature of nursing with regard to the right of patients to the
best treatment/care is sometimes conflicting with the aim of research in non therapeutic studies. According to the
Belmond commission the general aim of practice is to enhance the well being of individuals while the purpose of
research is to contribute to general knowledge. This distinction highlights the differences in the aims of a nurse
practitioner and a researcher. It is therefore very difficult for nurses to be engaged in studies whose aim is not
directly beneficial to the subject. They must though, consider that these studies may generate and refine nursing
knowledge.
Another problem that nurses may have to face is taking part in randomised control trials. According to Brink and
Wood dedicated nurses are finding themselves under pressure when they are asked to exclude some patients from
an obvious beneficial treatment such as relaxation techniques for relief of post operative pain. So, they suggest
24 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
that whenever it is possible to predict such problems for nurses, the control data should be collected before
introducing the beneficial variable. Skodol Wilson implies that there should be some provisions for alternative
effective care. Finally, Brink and Wood recommend that withholding benefits can be rectified at the end of an
experiment. This compensation must be planned in advance so that enough money and time will be available.
In order to prevent human exploitation, ethics committees were introduced. The criteria on which the proposals
are to be judged are the physical and mental discomfort or harm of subject, the qualifications and experience of
the supervisor, the scientific value, the adequate consent procedures and the adequate information given to
subjects. Clark warns that there is a danger that the members may have vested interests in a research. The success
of any ethics committee will always depend on the commitment and moral competency of its members. If instead
of the patient and his needs, the central aims of the committee are personal interests, profits and academic prestige,
then nurses will have none to share their concerns with, and deal with their dilemmas in research. Nurses, need a
greater accessibility to committees and demand a multidisciplinary synthesis in order to deal with very difficult
cases. Moreover, the committees should be less strict so as not to prevent knowledge development in nursing.
The issue of confidentiality which is stated as very important in the Hippocratic oath, is another possible issue of
conflict for nurses either as practitioners or researchers. Clause 10 of the ICN Code for nurses emphasises that all
information obtained during nursing practice should be kept secret apart from cases that it should be reported in
a court, or in cases that the interests of society are important. On the other hand the ICN Code for nurses in
research states that: "Nurses acting as data collectors must recognise that they are now committed to two separate
roles " .
According to the professional code they can not reveal confidential information not even to the members of the
research team. It is important therefore, to seek advice in ethics committees to get approval for disseminating the
results of the data collection including an account of what happened.In addition, they have to deal with the issue
of anonymity when some features of the research make the subjects easy to identify. It is very important that
nurses always bear in mind that they should protect the privacy of the patient. The trust showed to them must not
be jeopardised. Patients reveal information concerning their body and mind and expect them to be used only in a
therapeutic manner. When dilemmas according to confidentiality arise, trust as a basic element of a therapeutic
relationship should be considered and maintained. thical issues, conflicting values, and ambiguity in decision
making, are recurrently emerging from literature review on nursing research. Because of lack of clarity in ethical
standards, nurses must develop an awareness of these issues and an effective framework to deal with problems
involving human rights. This is necessary in order to come into terms with the issue of the researcher's values
relative to the individual's rights versus the interests of society. Professional codes, laws, regulations, and ethics
committees can provide some guidance but the final determinant of how research is performed, rests with the
researcher's value system and moral code. To prepare future nurses, ethics in research, must receive special
attention in nursing curricula. The criticism and uncertainties that arise, should be rather encouraged than
25 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
suppressed in nursing education. Hunt suggests that in order to liberate nursing from its "technocratic impasse"
ethics should be broadly interpreted as an arena of new ideas which can change professional hierarchies, to open
cross-disciplinary discussions, and question the concepts "abnormality", "patient" and " illness". He also declares
that nursing, not as a biomedical branch, but as a science and art of caring, is able to start the redefinition of
research in health care which was in the recent history dominated by the biomedical "paradigm".
Q. 4 Provide some ethical guidelines in the light of Quran and Sunnah.
Islam is considered by the majority of Muslims as a way of life and not just a religion. Islam teaches what is 'right'
and 'wrong' according to Allah's commandments, conveyed to Mankind by Prophet Muhammad peace be upon
him (PBUH). Ethics according to ordinary people's understanding is about differentiating between 'right' and
'wrong'.
If a Muslim behaves in a manner contradicting the teachings of Islam he will be deemed to have behaved in an
unethical manner as he has committed a wrong act. On the other hand if a person for example a journalist slanders
an individual then he has acted in an unethical manner. Slander is prohibited by law in many countries and by
Islamic Law as well (see Quran Surah No. 104 - Humazah) whether being a Muslim or not the behavior was
wrong and it is not expectable from a journalist. Even other journalists will consider this person’s behavior as
unethical and brings the journalism profession disrepute.
Media is defined as the means of communication used to inform or influence people at a local, national and
International level. This could be in the form of television, radio, magazine, newspaper, publications or the
internet. It is important to discuss Islamic ethics and the Media because there are many Muslim journalists and
media networks employing Muslims all over the world and they need to understand Islamic ethics regarding
media in order to guide and assist them in their profession and to help them maintain the Islamic character in their
work as adopted by the International Islamic Mass Media Conference in Jakarta in 2000. This may also be very
helpful to governments of Muslim countries in regulating the media.
Media ethics differs from one country to another around the world depending on the political system or culture
of the country. There might be some agreement on media ethics applied throughout the media but there are some
genuine differences. If values differ amongst different cultures, the issue arises of the extent to which behavior
should be modified in the light of the values of specific cultures. Consider the following examples of controversy
from the field of media ethics, the first being the publication of the book called 'The Satanic Verses' in 1988 by
Salman Rushdie. the book was considered blasphemous by many Muslims because in the book it is claimed that
the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) first proclaims a revelation in favor of the old polytheistic deities but later
renounces these verses as being influenced by Satan hence the reason why the title of the book is 'The Satanic
Verses'.
26 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
The second controversy was in 2006 the Danish newspaper Jyllands- Posten published cartoons of Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH) including one with a bomb in his turban which resulted in protests from Muslims around
the world and condemnation from Arab and Muslim Governments.
Had Islamic ethics been applied to both Salman Rushdie and the Jyllands Posten cases then there would not have
been any controversy as they would not have been able to insult the Prophet Muhammad or any religious figure
as respect for other religions is contained in the Holy Quran 'You have your religion and I shall have my religion'
(the last verse of Surah Kafirun;109:6).
The issue of drawing the line between censorship and free speech or freedom of expression arose especially when
other European newspapers reprinted the cartoons aggravating the situation. In many Muslim countries it is
considered immoral and blasphemous to depict Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) but not so in European countries.
Therefore the issue of relativism in morality and media ethics needs to be investigated.
A key issue regarding ethics in entertainment is the illustration of violence, sex and strong language. Ethical
guidelines and legislations in this area are common as a way of regulating the entertainment industry in many
countries but this may differ from one country to another. Film and computer games are subject to rating system.
For example, a particular film may be rated only suitable for adult viewers over the age of 18 in the UK by the
British Board of Film Classification but in the USA it might be rated by the Motion Picture Association of
America as 'R-Restricted' this would allow viewers under the age of 18 to watch the film if they are accompanied
by an adult.
The main principle here is that it is up to the individual countries themselves to decide how to rate the films. There
does not seem to be a global agreement on entertainment/film ethics and perhaps there might be a need for one.
Islamic ethics would prohibit the depiction of sex, strong language, nudity and most if not all forms of violence.
We may also need to consider applying Islamic ethics to strands of social media such as ‘YouTube’, ‘Twitter’
and ‘Facebook’ as these strands were used during the Arab spring to organize protests and show the world the
atrocities being committed by Arab dictators. Arab dictators also banned or placed restrictions on Journalists who
are covering the real issues and stories, so YouTube was used by protesters to upload their own videos and share
their struggle and stories with others around the world. YouTube was used to show the world that protesters were
being shot and killed and this have increased pressure on the dictators which eventually lead to them stepping
down. In essence YouTube was used to bypass and overcome the restrictions placed on Journalists.
Changes in journalism practice, developments in new media technologies and different patterns of ownership all
play a role in creating ethical dilemmas. Therefore Islamic ethics must be applied where necessary as Prophet
Muhammad (pbuh) was sent to teach mankind the difference between 'right ' and 'wrong' which is all centered
around ethics and character.
Q. 5 Elaborate women as consumer of media with suitable examples.
27 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
Media is regarded as eyes and ears of a society which not only serves as a watchdog but also provides credible
information regarding important and newsworthy national and international events to enrich and strengthen the
social fabric. Thus the significant information through media plays a role of oxygen in social structure. If people
do not know precisely what is happening around, they cannot become active citizens and play their meaningful
part in the affairs of the country. It is hard to imagine of having real democracy or good governance without
informed citizens. In any democratic dispensation, public opinion is required to develop freely and independently
and journalists have a special responsibility in this regards. Mass media being an educator, informer, reformer,
guide and a trend-setter is more accountable. Hence it should follow ethics strictly.
Ethics is a branch of philosophy and its purpose is to describe moral sentiment as well as to establish norms for
good and fair behaviour. Boundaries of ethics are drawn in different dimensions in different societies. In Pakistan,
the ethical dimensions are partly similar to those of other countries having different demographic, religious and
social backgrounds. Media ethics kept the journalism and cultural industries with the responsibility to perform
for the betterment of society. Until 2002, the only television channels that operated in Pakistan were the state-run
PTV and a couple of its specialized news and entertainment subsidiaries. Media in Pakistan purposely followed
the ethical lines to disseminate the credible information. which caused to the gradual rise in the maturity in the
attitude of the people towards politics and the social responsibility. However, the last decade has witnessed a
great shift in the media policy of the government due to opening of a lot of private television channels. In line
with the global trends, the government also introduced the new media technologies in the country resulting in a
rapid growth of broadcast media in Pakistan. With the passage of time it has become diverse and touching the
topics which once were considered forbidden for public consumption.
But in the same vein, media in Pakistan has become an industry in the real sense of the word and is following its
own agenda. With the opening up of the media industry, the unrestrained news channels are involved in a mad
race of breaking news syndrome in order to gain the audience and popularity instead of delivering correct
information to viewers. Today, prominent news channels are broadcasting uncensored violence, crime stories,
live coverage of terrorist attacks while compromising media ethics.
Commercial interest of media to generate revenue never let it to observe public service message time. News
channels dramatize the event to make them saleable which is against media ethics. The TV anchors are losing
their credibility as they are found biased and manipulate the issue most of the time, serving their owners or other
specific stakeholders for petty gains. This practice is against the norms of journalism.
Sensitive issues regarding gender are highlighted in a vulgar way. Yellow journalism and inappropriate division
of time for coverage of news event and personalities through broadcast media raised the question about media
ethics. Issues that are more important for society and have to be dealt with the masses such as non-availability of
potable water, loadshedding, public health, infrastructure, wages, poverty, unemployment, etc. are not pursued
by the media properly to a point where a solution is eventually reached.
28 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
In November 2009, a Gallup Pakistan poll found that almost one-third of all Pakistanis (31 per cent) blame media
for political instability in Pakistan. These findings have two important implications: first, media are creating
confusion and chaos by distracting the public from the real issues; and second, by discrediting themselves with
unconfirmed reports, members of media are undermining their own profession and ultimately freedom of press.
In Pakistan, Council of Pakistan Newspapers Editors, All Pakistan Newspapers Society and Pakistan Federal
Union of Journalists have developed code of ethics to follow. Similarly, Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory
Authority (PEMRA) has developed rules to follow but implementation in this context is the weak link. Media in
Pakistan is is not fully mature yet. At such stage it is very vital to prioritize the socio political health of the public
through credible and newsworthy information and positive entertainment. We need to develop a code of ethics
for the media so that it could serve as a watchdog in the society besides helping public form opinion about national
and international issues through provision of authentic and verifiable debates. The government always formulates
a code of ethics through which it can control the media in its own favour. Press Council Ordinance and the
PEMRA rules and regulations are obtrusive examples. Similarly the code of ethics drafted by the owners and
broadcasters unnecessarily defends their rights. The working journalists are not giving any importance and the
audience rights not secured. All the abovementioned issues can be resolved through a code of ethics based on a
broadest possible consensus among all stakeholders. This is the right time that media owners, editors, practitioners
and professional journalists should pay due attention to the issue and prepare a comprehensive code. This code
should be acceptable for all parties including audience. Further Pakistan’s media community should adopt the
international practice of defining standards that it shall always strive to attain. The Pakistan Federal Union of
Journalists (PFUJ) has drafted a code of ethics for Pakistani media which is based upon the belief that fair,
balanced and independent journalism is essential for good governance, effective public administration and the
capacity of people in Pakistan to achieve genuine democracy and peace. The code recognizes that the creation of
a tolerant, peaceful and just society depends upon the freedom of citizens to have access to responsible journalism
through media that respect principles of pluralism and diversity.
For this code to be effective, journalism and media policy in Pakistan must be guided by the following principles:
That media, whatever the mode of dissemination, are independent, tolerant and reflect diversity of opinion
enabling full democratic exchange within and among all communities, whether based on geography, ethnic
origins, religious belief or language, That laws defend and protect the rights of journalists and the rights of all
citizens to freedom of information and the right to know; That there is respect for decent working and professional
conditions, through legally enforceable employment rights and appropriate regulations that guarantee editorial
independence and recognition of the profession of journalism; That there is credible and effective peer
accountability through self-regulation by journalists and media professionals that will promote editorial
independence and high standards of accuracy, reliability, and quality in media.
29 Diya.pk
0314-4646739 0332-4646739
30 Diya.pk

Assignment No.1 Q. 1 What Ethics? Discuss The Basic Ethical Guidelines For Media

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Assignment No.1 Q. 1 What Ethics? Discuss The Basic Ethical Guidelines For Media

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Course: Media Ethics & Laws Part – I (6603)

You might also like