LIFE SKILLS

Life skills are a set of core activities sometimes described as emotional intelligence. Life skills
help young people achieve their personal best in life by inspiring them to pursue healthy and
productive behaviours. Life skills training promote responsibility and good character amongst
young people. Life skills therefore help youth stay healthy physically, mentally, psychologically,
and emotionally. Life skills training help young people learn how to maintain their bodies, grow
as individuals, work well with others, make logical decisions, protect themselves when they have
to, and achieve their goals in life. Life Skills education is designed to facilitate the practice and
reinforcement of psychosocial skills in a culturally and developmentally appropriate way. It
contributes to the promotion of personal and social development, the projection of human rights,
and the prevention of health and social problems.

Another justification for the life skills approach is that it is a natural vehicle for the acquisition of
the educational, democratic and ethical values. In the delivery of Life Skills, the fostering of
laudable attitudes and values is set alongside the knowledge and skill components. Some of the
commonly held values are respect for self and others; empathy and tolerance; honesty; kindness;
responsibility; integrity; and social justice. The teaching of values is to encourage young people
to strive towards accepted ideals of a democratic, pluralistic society such as self-reliance,
capacity for hard work, cooperation, respect for legitimately constituted authority, and
ecologically sustainable development. This is done in the context of existing family, spiritual,
cultural and societal values, and through critical analysis and values clarification, in order to
foster the intrinsic development of values and attitudes
Components of life skills
These life skills are categorized into three main areas:

1. Skills of Knowing and Living with Ourselves (EMOTIONAL COPING SKILLS)

a. Self-Awareness
This is a skill that enables us to understand and appreciate our strengths and weaknesses. When
we have this skill, we can use it to make judgements about what we can do. In order to be self-
aware we need to know our identity, that is, our name and its meaning, our parents, clan,
community, and ethnic origin, and our culture. Knowledge of this personal identity helps us to
make decisions and choices that are consistent with our capability, culture, and opportunities.

b. Self-Esteem
This is the ability that enables us to be aware of our worth. Self-esteem is enhanced by the
friendly and positive support of the people around us and our relationships with them. Positive,
friendly, and supportive interactions such as recognition, praise, tangible rewards, etc, build self-
esteem. Negative interactions involving hostility, ridicule, shame, etc., damage self-esteem.
Individuals who have high self-esteem feel competent and confident, respect others, exhibit
productive behaviours, and have a sense of responsibility.

c. Coping with Emotions

Emotions such as fear, passion, anger, jealousy, etc., are usually impulsive responses to a
situation, and are therefore subjective. That is why emotional responses often lead to actions that
are not based on logical thinking. They can, therefore, easily make us behave in ways that we
might later regret. In order to cope with emotions, we need to recognize them so that we are in a
position to address their effects.

d. Coping with Stress

Stress is an inevitable part of life. Family problems, broken relationships, examination pressures,
or the death of a friend or family member, or even a happy event such as a marriage, are all
examples of situations that cause stress in people's lives. Stress can be a very destructive force if
we do not learn how to handle it. Therefore, it is important that we recognize stress, including its
causes and effects, and know how to deal with it.

2. Skills of Knowing and Living with Others (SOCIAL SKILLS)

a. Interpersonal Relationships
As children grow up, they develop relationships with peers, parents, teachers, neighbors, local
leaders, visitors, etc. Young people need to know how to appropriately relate to and interact with
people.

b. Friendship Formation
Learning how to form friendships starts early in life. It is important because friends help us to
build our lives by sharing activities, hopes, fears, and aspirations. However, we should be
cautious of friends who could lead us into dangerous or risky behavior. We should look for
friends who can promote positive behavior.

c. Empathy
Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others. When friends, family
members, or acquaintances are faced with problems, such as the loss of a loved one, we should
help lessen their worries or sorrows. We can do this by counselling and giving practical advice,
as well as just being present for them and letting them know we care.

d. Peer Pressure Resistance

Peer pressure resistance means rejecting or refusing to accept peers' values, beliefs, and practices
if they are unacceptable, dangerous, or risky. Peer pressure often has negative influences on a
young person’s habits and lifestyles. We must refuse to do things that we believe to be wrong,
and should be able to defend our stand even if we are threatened, ridiculed, or rejected.

e. Negotiation
Negotiation is a discussion between two parties or individuals aimed at reaching an agreement.
During negotiation we can be assertive and still be respectful but we have to keep in mind
possible risks or threats as we try to uphold or build a mutual understanding and agreement.

f. Non-Violent Conflict Resolution

Conflict in this context refers to a disagreement or clash of two or more interests, principles, or
opinions that can lead to violence. Non-violent conflict resolution skills are necessary so
conflicts do not become violent and destructive.

g. Effective Communication
Effective communication is a skill that enables us to effectively pass on or receive messages. It
requires us to be good listeners, and to be articulate and clear when communicating with others.
h. Assertiveness
Assertiveness means being able to take the relevant and necessary steps to achieve what we
want, and cause others to recognize our rights without being aggressive. It assumes that we know
what we want and why we want it. Assertiveness therefore is not the same as aggressiveness.

3. The Skills of Making Effective Decisions (COGNITIVE SKILLS)

a. Critical Thinking
Young people growing up in the contemporary world are confronted by multiple and
contradictory messages, expectations, and demands from parents, peers, teachers, religious
leaders, and the media. These expectations interact with their own aspirations and ambitions and
constantly require them to make choices. Youth need to be able to critically analyze their
environment and the multiple messages that bombard them.

b. Creative Thinking
The furniture in a room can be arranged in such a way that the room looks pleasing to the eye.
Another person can re-arrange the same furniture in a different way and make the same room
look even more attractive. In general, there is not just one way of doing things. Neither is human
life static. Coming up with new ways of doing things, with new ideas and arrangements is called
creative thinking. Creative thinking is important because we are continually placed in
unexpected or unfamiliar situations where creativity is required to make an appropriate response.

c. Decision Making
Each day we must make decisions. We are frequently faced with demands that cannot be fulfilled
at the same time. When we are confronted with the need to make appropriate decisions about
relationships, our future, our life, etc. we must make choices, and at the same time be aware of
the possible consequences of that choice. Thus, it is important to weigh the consequences before
making a decision and have a framework for working through these choices and decisions so that
we can achieve our personal best.
d. Problem Solving
Problem solving is a skill that enables us to recognize problems and find ways to meet our needs
and avoid conflicts and dangers. Young people need to practice solving problems in order to
strengthen their problem-solving skills.

Categories of life skills (SUMMARY TABLE)

The core of life skills that facilitate the practice of healthy behaviours is divided into the
following groups
Social Skills Cognitive skills Emotional Coping Skill
Interpersonal Decision Making Healthy self-management
Communication Skill skills to include:
 Managing stress
 Managing Feelings
 Creating Self
Awareness
 Building self-
esteem /self
confidence
 Self-Monitoring Skills
 Resiliency Skill
Negotiation /Refusal skill Problem Solving
Empathy Skills Critical and Creative
Thinking Skill
Cooperation Skills
Advocacy Skills

Risk factors and determinants that provide opportunities for the application

Of life skills.

It is generally agreed that life skills help us practice healthy behaviours. But life skills are more
effective when we work at removing those factors that facilitate negative behaviours. There is
therefore need for addressing behavior determinants for the life skills to work effectively. The
scenario below is an example of how skills are affected by behavior determinants.
Marcia is a thirteen-year-old girl who attends secondary school. Her mother with whom she
lives is extremely poor. Marcia has been able to attend school with the help of a mini bus
driver who gives her money in exchange for sexual favours. Marcia is unhappy about her
sexual relationship with the bus driver but does not know how else to help herself through
school.
In the above scenario Marcia may have had the skill to refuse the mini bus driver but may not
have been able to do so unless action is taken to deal with her poverty situation. It can therefore
be said that „Poverty‟ is a determinant of Marcia‟s behaviour.
Therefore, addressing determinant of „Poverty‟ in Marcia‟s case coupled with the use of life
skills such as „refusal‟ and/or „decision making‟ would be the most effective way helping her
achieve positive health outcomes and social relationship.

The present day environment in which individuals live, particularly the youths, presents a
multitude of risk behaviours and determinants for applying the teaching of life skills. Individuals
should therefore be empowered to apply life skills to all the determinants and risk factors that
impact personal lives with a view to motivating positive health and social behaviours. The
following represent some examples of risk factors and determinants that provide opportunities
for the application of life skill

The risks and or determinants to be addressed can be categorized as follows

Social Factors Household Factors Community Factors Adolescent
/Individual factors
Cultural Norms:  Parental  Attitude of Physical development
 gender role expectations peers /Psycho social
expectation and values  Peer influence development
 Unequal  Parental  School  Educational
power guidance influence /cognitive
relations  Size and  Violence skills
between male composition  Substance  Social skills
and female of household abuse  Relationship
beliefs  Mother’s or  Media with parents
 political Care giver’s influence and other
environment level of  Employment family
education opportunities members

 STI‟s  Emotional

including difficulties to
 HIV/AIDS include self-
esteem, self-
worth self-
concept
 Drug/substance
abuse
 Perceptions of
media
 Finding social
supports
 Career choices
 Forming
intimate
relationships
 Access to
health services

Components of life skills

A clear understanding of the components of each of the life skills is important, if life skills must
impact our health and social conditions in a positive way. The following represents the
components of each of the life skills:

i) Effective Interpersonal Communication Skills

This require us to do the following:
Listen Effectively:
This means that we must use:-
 Verbal communication by voicing what we want to say

 Non-verbal communication; for example, using body language that convey certain
meanings.
The following are some examples of body language that represent non-verbal
communication.
 facial expression, (serious face, smiling face, no nonsense face, waving of the hand,
whole body posture that suggest „ back off‟ disapproval, or welcome, approval etc.)
with the speaker
During effective communication, one must understand the other person’s situation, needs and
circumstances and Put themselves in the other person’s shoes and feel what they are feeling,
express that understanding and the feelings back to the person in the form of a paraphrase.

ii) A negotiation skill requires that, you are in a position to give and take to get
“Win/Win” solution. Negotiation is necessary when we want to maintain good
relationships. We negotiate by using: Assertiveness Skills. Assertiveness Skill is
demonstrated through the use of “I” Messages. An “I” Message contains three
parts.“I” (a feeling word) frustrated (why you feel the way you do) because/when you
constantly criticize my work. (Say what you would prefer) I would prefer if you
would show me how I might improve on what I have submitted.

For example:
You have a girl friend who wants you to have sex with her but you do not want to. However, you
wish to continue to be her boyfriend. In this situation, you can negotiate by suggesting that the
two of you do things other than having sex. This situation could be expressed with the use of an
“I” statement.
I feel ill prepared to manage all the emotions associated with sexual intercourse because I don’t
want to do anything that will hurt us in the long run. I would prefer if we could have fun by
going to parties and doing other things that you and I enjoy.

iii) Anger management skills: Keeping your temper in check can be challenging. You
can get your anger under control by; Take a few moments to collect your thoughts
before saying anything — and allow others involved in the situation to do the same;
As soon as you're calm and thinking clearly, express your frustration in an assertive
but non-confrontational way. State your concerns and needs clearly and directly,
without hurting others or trying to control them; If you feel your anger escalating, go
for a brisk walk or run, or spend some time doing other enjoyable physical activities;
Give yourself short breaks during times of the day that tend to be stressful. A few
moments of quiet time might help you feel better prepared to handle what's ahead
without getting irritated or angry; Instead of focusing on what made you mad, work
on resolving the issue at hand;

In other cases, mediation methodologies are applied where Mediation suggests that someone acts
as a go between for two parties or people who have difficulty finding a solution to a particular
problem between the two parties. The mediator sets the scene by asking the parties if they want
to solve the current problem. If yes, the mediator sets ground rules (Do not interrupt each other;
Do not put down or call each other names; Speak the truth; Work hard at finding a solution to
the problem; Decide who will speak first).

iv) Conflict resolution skill

First of all remember that conflict exists as a result of needs not being met. A satisfactory
resolution will produce a Win/Win solution and appropriate communication skills are used to
work out a solution.
The following steps are used in conflict resolution:
 Each party is to express his/her needs
  Identify where differences dovetail
 Be creative in coming up with new options that allow persons to get more of their
 individual needs
 All parties must be willing to give up certain needs
 Work as partners rather than rivals

v) Advocacy skills

Advocacy Skills suggest we must try to Persuade/influence/motivate a particular change in

behaviour in an individual or group. Process of advocacy includes the following:
 Knowing your target audience
 Using a method that appeals to your audience (for example the approach used for an adult
would differ to one used for adults)
 Presenting evidence that point to the detriments of a particular behaviour
 Presenting arguments that point to the benefits of working towards changing that
 particular behaviour

vi) Decision making/problem solving

Decision Making/Problem Solving suggests that we do the following when trying to make an
informed decision or solve a problem:
 Gather information
 Provide a number of alternatives/solutions to the decision or problem
 Assess the likely consequences of the solutions
 Determine the likely effect of your preferred solution on your significant others
 Select a solution/decision
 Evaluate the impact of your decision/solution

vii) Critical thinking skills

Critical Thinking Skills suggest that there is a problem to be solved.
We therefore:
 Define the problem
 Ask questions
 Gather information/evidence to solve the problem
 Assess the source and credibility of the evidence
 Find solutions/ alternatives for solving the problem
 Assess the implications of each alternative/solution
 Judge and Evaluate your solution

viii) Creative thinking skills

The word ‘creativity’ suggests that one is making anew or is coming up with something that has
never happened before. It means thinking outside of the box
In creative thinking we:
 Brainstorm for new ideas
 Jot down every idea (none is stupid)
 Try out your ideas to see how well they work.
 Allow some time to pass and then rethink and try your ideas again.
 See how your ideas contribute to the good of mankind

Remember that creativity can happen in an individual as well as in a group

ix) Resiliency skills

Resiliency skills are critical for young people who live in high risk situations within individual
families, school and community. These situations include such experiences as poverty, violence,
crime, sexual abuse, alcohol and substance abuse, poor parenting etc.
Under such circumstances, these young people are provided with a set of protective factors that
point them in the direction of behaviors that encourage positive lifestyle practices
These protective factors can include:
  Mentors with whom youth can receive care, support and form bonds
 Participation in positive activities that are different to their negative experiences
 Learning skills that help youth get along with others (For example: interpersonal skills)
 Affirming positive behavior

Resiliency Skills are based on a set of principles:

I Am........... (A set of positive traits and characteristics that the individual possess)
For example:
I am trustworthy

I Can............ (A set of positive things that the individual can do in relation to self or others)
For example:
I can be a loyal friend

I Have........ (A set of positive traits and characteristics)

For example: I have talents
I will............ (Some positive action taken towards personal well-being)
For example:
I will refuse to participate in gang violence

Using life skills effectively

Skills are most beneficial when applied to real situations in the lives of individuals.
Every effort must therefore be made to help youth apply the skills to the conditions in their lives
that impact negatively on their personal health and wellbeing. Spending time to plan exactly how
a situation can be addressed can best do this.

Life skills-Commandments to Remember

I read, I forget, I discuss, I remember, I do, I inculcate.
1. Life skills are essentially those abilities that help promote overall wellbeing and
competence in young people as they face the realities of life.

2. Life skills are the beginning of wisdom which focuses on behavior change or
developmental approach designed to address a balance of three areas- knowledge, attitude
and skills.

3. Life skills enable individuals to translate knowledge, attitude and values into actual
abilities-i.e. what to do and how to do it, given the scope and opportunity to do so.

4. Life skills however are not a panacea of “how to do abilities”as they are not the only
factors that affect behavour. There are many factors such as social support, culture and
environment that affect motivation and ability to behave in positive ways.

5. Effective acquisition and application of Life Skills can influence the way one feels about
others, ourselves and will equally influence the way we are perceived by others. It
contributes to perception of self-confidence and self-esteem.

6. Life skills for psychosocial competence needs to be distinguished from other important
skills that young people will acquire as they grow up such as reading, numbers, technical
and livelihood skills.

7. We all use Life Skills in different situations such as:

a) To negotiate effectively at home, school or work place, we need to have thinking
skills as well as social skills
b) When faced with difficult situations we tend to think critically, to analyze all the
pros and cons of the situation to think out of box to find a solution to seemingly
difficult problems.
 8. Many life skills are required to manage a particular situation effectively. In a way,
various Life Skills work best in conjunction. In fact, the appropriate combination of Life
Skills in a given moment is an art.

9. Children learn their Life Skills from parents, teachers and significant others who act as
their role model.

Benefits of life skills

In a constantly changing environment, having life skills is an essential part of being able to meet
the challenges of everyday life. The dramatic changes in global economies over the past five
years have been matched with the transformation in technology and these are all impacting on
education, the workplace and our home life. To cope with the increasing pace and change of
modern life, students need new life skills such as the ability to deal with stress and frustration.
Today’s students will have many new jobs over the course of their lives, with associated
pressures and the need for flexibility.

Benefits for the individual

In everyday life, the development of life skills helps students to:

 Find new ways of thinking and problem solving
 Recognize the impact of their actions and teaches them to take responsibility for what
they do rather than blame others
 Build confidence both in spoken skills and for group collaboration and cooperation
 Analyze options, make decisions and understand why they make certain choices outside
the classroom
 Develop a greater sense of self-awareness and appreciation for others

Benefits for employment

While students work hard to get good grades, many still struggle to gain employment. According
to research by the CBI (Confederation of British Industry) in 2011 employers were looking not
just for academic success but key employability skills including:
  The ability to self-manage, solve problems and understand the business environment.
 Working well as part of a team.
 Time and people management.
 Agility and adaptability to different roles and flexible working environments
 The potential to lead by influence.

Benefits for society

The more we develop life skills individually, the more these affect and benefit the world in
which we live:

 Recognizing cultural awareness and citizenship makes international cooperation easier.

 Respecting diversity allows creativity and imagination to flourish developing a more

tolerant society.

 Developing negotiation skills, the ability to network and empathize can help to build
resolutions rather than resentments.

CHILD RIGHT AND CHILD PROTECTION

Child rights, like human rights, come from the idea that all people have fundamental rights that
they are born with. These rights cannot be taken away because of a person’s gender, age,
religion, race, ethnicity, or other factors. It is recognized that special protection must be given to
children to ensure full, happy, and healthy development without fear of harm or exploitation.
These rights are; survival rights; development rights; protection rights; and participation rights.
There are a number of international treaties that deal with child rights, the most important of
which is the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989). It is the most widely ratified
human rights treaty (all but two countries have ratified it) and one of the most quickly ratified.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child covers civil rights, family, health, welfare, education,
leisure, and culture. It is a comprehensive set of goals developed to promote and protect the lives
of children. However, governments are not the only protectors of these rights—organizations,
businesses, and individuals should all work to ensure that these rights are upheld for all children.
Each day, the safety and well-being of some children across the Nation are threatened by child
abuse and neglect. Intervening effectively in the lives of these children and their families is not
the responsibility of any single agency or professional group, but rather is a shared community
concern and responsibility. Child abuse and neglect may be a single incident, such as a caregiver
shaking an infant to try to stop its crying, or a pattern of behavior, such as a parent providing
inadequate supervision or sexually abusing a child over several months or years. It is often
difficult to recognize, particularly in young children who may not be seen regularly by anyone
other than their parents or child care providers

Child abuse is a huge societal problem that most of the time goes unreported as the perpetrators
of the abuse are family members of the child. It’s also difficult to report as children caught up in
this abuse are afraid to come out against their abusers as they more than likely provide them with
shelter and food. Also, the mechanisms of reporting child abuse are not widely known and may
seem like a hassle for those who would like to report.

Neglect and abandonment have also been identified as the root cause of all other forms of child
abuse in Kenya with the most reported forms of child neglect in the form of prohibition from
school, lack of medical attention and denial of food. The child neglect is mostly perpetrated by
immediate family members followed by parents and extended family at respectively.

Definitions
A child - According to The Child Act of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the
Child, a child is defined as: “a human being under the age of 18 years’’ it is internationally
recognized, under the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN CRC), that children need
to be afforded special protection until they have reached a level of physical, mental and
emotional maturity to take on the duties and responsibilities of an adult. The Kenya Children Act
2001 also adopts the age of 18 years to define a child. Several other laws in Kenya prescribe the
same age to children. Such laws are like the Registration of Person’s Act that requires one to be
18 years to qualify for the National Identification cad the Traffic Act that allows only persons
over 18 years to be given a driving licence. The employment act however, requires one to be 16
years and above to participate in the employment labor.

Right – A right is an entitlement. It is something that one may do, or have by law or legally.
Having rights means possessing proper authority to claim something. Rights, therefore, refer to
claims which are fair for every human being to have. A child therefore has a right to essential
services such as education, shelter, health, food etc. It is protected by international and local
laws.

Abuse – Abuse is a deliberate act of ill treatment that can harm or is likely to cause harm to a
child‘s safety, wellbeing, dignity and development. It includes all forms of physical, sexual,
psychological and emotional ill treatment.

Neglect- neglect includes abandonment, the failure to properly supervise and protect children
from harm as much as is feasible, the deliberate failure to carry out important aspects of care
which results or is likely to result in harm to the child, the deliberate failure to provide medical
care or carelessly exposing a child to harm for examples can amount to neglect.

Exploitation -refers to the use of children for someone else’s advantage, gratification or profit
often resulting in unjust, cruel and harmful treatment of the child. These activities are to the
detriment of the child’s physical or mental health, education, moral or social-emotional
development. This covers manipulation, misuse, abuse, victimization, oppression or ill-
treatment.
Child Protection is a broad term used to describe philosophies, policies, standards, guidelines
and procedures to protect children from both intentional and unintentional harm.

Categories of rights

The rights of the child as enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the child
(UNCRC), the African Charter on the rights and welfare of the child and the children Act 2001
are discussed below under four broad categories, namely; survival, development; protection; and
participation rights.

I. Survival Rights.
Survival rights guarantee the sustainability of life through the fulfillment of the following
rights:
 Right to life: The protection of the right to live starts from the time of conception
and continuous for the rest of the child’s life.
 Right to adequate living standards: A child should be provided with proper
nutrition and safe and clean water, shelter, adequate and appropriate clothing and
safe and hygienic environment to live.
 Right to access the highest attainable standards of health. For a child,
antenatal care, immunization, growth monitoring, and promotion and preventive
and curative care are very important and must be adhered to.
II. Development Rights.
Development rights are those that enable a child to grow physically, mentally, socially,
emotionally, spiritually, and morally. A child will develop in a wholesome manner if the
following rights are accorded to him/her:
 Right to education. The education of a child commences at the time of training
in basic life skills (dressing and toileting) to primary and secondary school and
continuous up to the institution of higher learning. The government has the
obligation to make primary education available and free to all. It must ensure that
every child leaving primary school has access to secondary education or
vocational training.
  Rights to leisure, recreation and cultural activities. Every child has a right to
rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the
child’s age and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts.
 Rights to parental love. A child has a right to know who his parents are and also
to be loved and cared for by them. When parents are separated, the child still has a
right to maintain personal relationship and direct contact with both parents on
regular basis unless it is not in the child’s best interest. In cases where parents are
diseases or unfit for any reason, the child deserves to receive love and care from
other family members or from alternative system of care such as fostering or
adoption.
 Right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion. Every child has a right
to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This is usually guided by parents,
age of the child and the national laws and police.
 Right to privacy. The privacy of a child, his/her family, home or correspondence
should not be unlawfully interfered with. The law protects a child from unlawful
attacks on his/her honour and reputation. Parents or legal guardians have the right
to exercise reasonable supervision over the conducts of their children.
 Right to access appropriate information. Every child has a right to access
appropriate information and material and the state has the responsibility to make it
accessible by encouraging the media to disseminate information which is of social
and cultural benefits to the child, and protect the child from harmful materials like
pornography.
 Right to freedom of expression. Children have a right to express their opinions
or views freely, obtain information, make ideas and information known regardless
of frontiers. They also have the right to have those views and opinions taken into
account in any matter or procedure affecting them.
III. Protection Rights.
A protection right defends the child from physical and psychological harm, material
deprivation and any dangerous situation or environment. A child should be protected
from:
  Being exploited economically and from performing work that is likely o be
hazardous, h
 Cruelty, torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. In addition, a
child offender should be punished as per the prevailing laws.
 Drugs and other substance abuses, drugs promotion, production and trafficking.
 Sale, abduction, and kidnapping.
 Emergency situation like wars, internal strife/tension such as tribal wars and
national calamities.
 Parent neglect such as denial of basic needs and love.
 Physical and psychological abuse.
 Sexual abuse and sexual exploitation.
 Discrimination of any kind on the basis of gender, religion, nationality and birth
(Such as children born out of wedlock)
 Harmful cultural and social practices such as early marriage, female genital cuts
and other norms likely to negatively affect the child’s health, social welfare,
dignity, physical and psychological development.
 Being recruited into or taking part in war.
IV. Participation Rights
Participation rights are those that provide the child with the opportunity to freely express
their views and opinions in order to influence decisions that affect them in accordance
with their age and their best interest.

Instruments providing for the rights of children and the principles of the rights of the child
– (Historical development of the rights of the child)
There are various international instruments (documents) from which the rights of the child
evolved over time. These are:
1. The Geneva Declaration on the Rights of the Child 1924
2. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948
3. The Declaration on the Rights of the Child 1959
4. The International Covenant on civil and political rights 1956 (The Political Covenant)
5. The International Covenant on the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 (The
Social Covenant)
6. United Nations Standards Minimum Rules for the administration of Juvenile justice 1985
(Beijing rules)
7. The United Nations Convention on the Rights and Welfare of the Child 1990 (African
Charter).
Types of Child abuse

Abuse is often divided up into four different types:

1. Physical Abuse involves the use of violent physical force so as to cause actual or likely
physical injury or suffering (e.g. Hitting, shaking, burning, female genital mutilation, torture).

2. Emotional or psychological abuse includes humiliating and degrading treatment such as bad
name calling, constant criticism, belittling, persistent shaming, solitary confinement and
isolation.

3. Sexual abuse includes all forms of sexual violence including incest, early and forced marriage,
rape, involvement in pornography and sexual slavery. Child sexual abuse may also include
indecent touching or exposure, using sexually explicit language towards a child and showing
children pornographic material.

4. Neglect: Deliberately, or through carelessness or negligence, failing to provide for, or secure

for a child, their rights to physical safety and development. Neglect is sometimes called the
‘passive’ form of abuse in that it relates to the failure to carry out some key aspect of the care
and protection of children which results in the significant impairment of the child’s health or
development including a failure to thrive emotionally and socially.

Child abuse will be committed regardless of any justification or reason that may be provided for
the ill treatment including discipline, legal sanction, economic necessity, the child's own consent
to it, or in the name of cultural and religious practice.

Definitions of Physical Abuse

Physical Abuse involves the use of violent physical force so as to cause actual or likely physical
injury or suffering (e.g. Hitting, shaking, burning, female genital mutilation, torture).
Corporal or physical punishment (and the threat of it) is the deliberate use of pain to punish. This
includes hitting the child with the hand or with an object (such as a cane, belt, whip, shoe, etc);
kicking, shaking, or throwing the child, pinching or pulling their hair; forcing a child to stay in
uncomfortable or un-dignified positions, or to take excessive physical exercise; and burning or
scarring the child. In schools and some other learning institutions physical abuse practiced is
corporal punishment like caning and hard labor.
The consequences of physical punishment can range from physical pain, minor cuts and bruises
to serious injuries resulting in chronic physical disability. Although the physical consequences
are more immediate and obvious, it is the long term psychosocial aspects which give raise to
most concern. No matter what their age, children’s developing minds are damaged by violent
treatment. There is a relationship between physical and humiliating punishment and depression,
low self-esteem, negative psychological adjustment and poor relationship with parents. The
following list provides some of the better understood psychosocial effects of physical
punishment of children.

 It lowers children's self–esteem, teaching them poor self-control and promoting negative
expectation of themselves. The child feels a sense of worthlessness.

 It interferes with the learning process and with their cognitive, sensory and emotional
development.
  It discourages the use of reasoning. By doing away with dialogue and reflection, it
hampers the capacity to understand the relationship between behaviour and its
consequences.

 It makes children feel lonely, sad and abandoned, diminishing their confidence in society
as a protective environment.

 It promotes a negative view of other people and of society as a threatening place.

 It can quickly lead to a loss of interest in learning.

 It creates barriers that block parent-child and/or teacher-child communication and

damages the emotional links between them.

 It can stimulate anger and for some desire to run away from the school or home.

 The strongest, usually unintended, message that physical and humiliating punishment
sends to the mind of the child is that violence is acceptable behavior, and that it is alright
for a stronger person to use force to coerce a weaker one

Sexual exploitation: the abuse of a position of vulnerability, differential power, or trust for
sexual purposes; this includes profiting monetarily, socially or politically from the exploitation
of another as well as personal sexual gratification. Examples include: child prostitution,
trafficking of children for sexual abuse and exploitation, child pornography, sexual slavery.
Neither sexual abuse of children nor sexual exploitation of children is limited to specific
situations or circumstances. Rather each affects children in all countries and is found at all levels
of society. Some children at particular risk are children in the street, children in armed conflict,
children working as domestics, displaced children, children with disabilities, children in
institutions and children in detention.
Sexual exploitation usually has a devastating effect on the physical and mental health of
children, and also on their families and communities.
Individual impact: the effects of sexual exploitation on the individual child can be profound, and
can be experienced on several levels:
 Physical consequences can include genital injury, sexually transmitted diseases and the
contraction of HIV/AIDS. There is evidence that adolescent girls are more likely to
contract HIV from a single sexual contact than are adult women. Unwanted pregnancy
can have further consequences including, for example, stigmatization and unsafe
abortions;

 Emotional consequences can include the distress of violent exploitation. In some

societies, a sense of shame at having been violated, and especially if pregnancy results,
can have severe consequences for the child;

 Social consequences can include ostracism by the family or community especially if the
child is disbelieved or blamed for what has happened. In some cultures, sexual
exploitation will have a negative impact on the child’s chances of marrying;

 Secondary trauma can result if the incident is handled insensitively. Examples include
aggressive interviewing of the child (e.g. by the police), insensitive medical examination,
or those in authority disbelieving the child or even blaming him/her for the incident.
These can all inflict further trauma.

Definitions of emotional abuse

Emotional or psychological abuse includes humiliating and degrading treatment such as bad
name calling, constant criticism, belittling, persistent shaming, solitary confinement and
isolation. Emotional abuse is like brain washing since it continues to eat away at the victim's
self-confidence, sense of self-worth, trust in their own perceptions, and self-concept. Indicators
that emotional abuse may be occurring are when the family or teacher:
 Constantly blames or puts down child
 Acts in a cold and rejecting manner towards the child
 Is indifferent to child's problems or welfare
  Withholds affection
 Shows preferential treatment to other students or other children in the family
Humiliating or Degrading Punishment takes various forms such as psychological punishment,
verbal abuse, ridicule, isolation, and ignoring the child. While corporal punishment is meant to
cause physical pain, emotional punishment is meant to humiliate the child and cause
psychological pain. Similar to negative verbal punishment, but much more severe, it can include
public ridicule, sarcasm, threats, name calling, yelling, and commanding, or other humiliating
actions, such as denying a child clothing or food or forcing them to stay in undignified positions
for everyone to see and comment on.

Definitions of neglect

Neglect: Deliberately, or through carelessness or negligence, failing to provide for, or secure for
a child, their rights to physical safety and development. Neglect is sometimes called the ‘passive’
form of abuse in that it relates to the failure to carry out some key aspect of the care and
protection of children which results in the significant impairment of the child’s health or
development including a failure to thrive emotionally and socially. Neglect includes
abandonment, the failure to properly supervise and protect children from harm as much as is
feasible, the deliberate failure to carry out important aspects of care which results or is likely to
result in harm to the child, the deliberate failure to provide medical care or carelessly exposing a
child to harm for examples can amount to neglect.
Examples of child neglect include:
 Not meeting a child's need for cleanliness, clothing, emotional support, love and
affection, education, nutritious food, clothing, adequate shelter or safety;
 Leaving a child unwatched and unsupervised;
 Leaving a child in an unsafe place or causing a child to be in a dangerous situation or
place;
 Not seeking necessary medical or dental attention for a child when it is urgently needed.
Often a neglected child can be found abusing alcohol or other drugs, begging for or stealing
food, consistently dirty, unwashed, hungry, or inappropriately , constantly tired or listless,
engaging in dangerous activities and delinquent acts. S/he is likely to have unattended physical
problems having been abandoned or without supervision for extended periods of time. Neglected
children are unlikely to be attending school, and if they are, chances are high that they skip
classes often

CAUSES OF CHILD ABUSE

There is not any single fact which causes child abuse; abuse usually occurs in families where
there is a combination of risk factors. Abuse and neglect occur most often in families who are
under pressure and lack support. Most abuse other than sexual abuse occurs in families to which
some, or all, of the following apply:

 Poverty
 Lack of education
 Serious marital problems
 Frequent changes of addresses
 Violence between family members
 Lack of support from the extended family
 Loneliness and social isolation
 Unemployment
 Inadequate housing

Some cultures follow practices that may physically hurt children to the point of what some might
consider abuse. Many of these cultural practices are steeped in tradition and are considered
normal by that culture. Cultural practices that may physically hurt children include moxibustion
(an Asian folkloric remedy using a burning cone or stick that may cause the skin to burn) and
coining (in which the body is rubbed vigorously with a coin, which causes bruising, in an effort
to treat a particular illness or making some cuts in the face among the Yoruba community in
Nigeria to make some face marks symbolizing clan background. Certain community attitudes
may encourage child abuse. These include:

 Acceptance of the use of violence and force

 Acceptance of physical punishment of children
  Acceptance of parents "ownership" of children and their right to treat children as they see
fit
 Racism
 Inequality between men and women

In some cases the abuser may also display the following:

 Very high expectations of the child and what the child should achieve
 The parent may have been abused as a child
 A lack of knowledge and skills in bringing up children
 Low self-esteem and self confidence
 Depression
 Alcohol and/or drug abuse
 Mental or physical ill health
 Work pressures

3.2 signs and symptoms of child abuse

Although these signs do not necessarily indicate that a child has been abused, they may help
adults recognize that something is wrong. The possibility of abuse should be investigated if a
child shows a number of these symptoms. Regardless of the number of indicators of abuse, it is
important to fully investigate the situation.

Emotional abuse Sexual abuse

 Physical, mental and/or emotional
development is slower than in other
children
 Sudden speech disorders
 Self-depreciation showing lack of self-
worth
 Overreaction to mistakes
 Extreme fear of any new situation
 Chronic running away
 Being overly affectionate or
knowledgeable
 in a sexual way inappropriate to the
child’s age
 Medical problems such as chronic
itching,
pain in the genitals, venereal diseases
 Other extreme reactions, such as
depression, self-mutilation, suicide
  Attention seeking behaviour attempts, running away
 Inappropriate response to pain  Returning to younger behaviour
 Extremes of passivity or aggression patterns
such as thumb sucking
 Sudden loss of appetite or compulsive
eating
 Being isolated or withdrawn
 Inability to concentrate
 Lack of trust or fear of someone they
know
Physical abuse Neglect
 Unexplained injuries or burns, bruises,  Frequent hunger
dislocations, bites  Stealing or hiding food
 Unlikely excuses for injuries  Poor personal hygiene
 Chronic running away  Constant tiredness
 Self-destructive tendencies  Poor clothing
 Aggression towards others  Untreated medical problems
 Distrust of adults  No social relationships
 Fear of physical contact - shrinking  Scavenging
back if
 touched

Prevention strategies of child abuse and neglect

Preventing child abuse and neglect requires a comprehensive approach that influences all levels
of the social ecology (including the societal culture), community involvement, relationships
among families and neighbors, and individual behaviors. Effective prevention strategies focus on
modifying policies, practices, and societal norms to create safe, stable, nurturing relationships
and environments. The strategies for prevention are explained in the table below
Other strategies include:
  Teach younger children about the right and wrong touch. Inform them that no one has
a right to touch them in ways they do not like.
 Teach them that it is in order to disobey a teacher if the teacher asks them to do
something wrong like kiss or have sex with the teacher and that she or he cannot be
punished for disobeying the teacher on that account.
 Tell them to report to their parents or to an adult they trust if someone has been
touching the child in ways she or he does not like. Tell the child to be persistent in
reporting such incidents even if he or she is ignored or not taken seriously until
somebody takes him or her seriously and takes action.
 Tell the child not to assist strangers or to remain alone with strangers. Tell the child
not to agree to a request for help by a stranger. Instead the child should tell the
stranger to seek the assistance of an adult.
 Teachers should strictly adhere to the Code of Conduct for teachers and not engage in
sexual activities with students.
 Inform children to immediately report any threats to you as a teacher or to the parents
 Observe and respond to early warning signs of abuse or neglect– How long abuse is
allowed to continue can be a factor in how well a child recovers. You are well placed
to notice those subtle signs as early as possible
 Respond to family crisis

Consequences of child abuse in the society

Child abuse and neglect affect children’s health now and later, and costs to our country are
significant. Neglect, physical abuse, custodial interference, and sexual abuse are types of child
maltreatment that can lead to poor physical and mental health well into adulthood. The physical,
psychological, behavioral and economic consequences of child maltreatment are explained
below.
  Improper brain development
 Impaired cognitive (learning ability) and socio-emotional (social and emotional) skills
 Lower language development
 Blindness, cerebral palsy from head trauma

Strategies used by the government to address child abuse

The Kenya Government’s strategy aims to strengthen child protection systems as powerful tools
to end to violence, exploitation and abuse in their multiple forms and across all contexts
(including humanitarian). The strategy also addresses societal factors and social norms that
perpetuate violence as well as promotes positive social change and outcomes. The effectiveness
of child protection depends on: laws, policies and standards; services and service delivery
mechanisms (comprising promotion, prevention and response actions); human and fiscal
resources and management (or capacities); communication and advocacy; collaboration and
coordination; and evidence and data for decision-making.

When these actors and components work together attuned to the cultural, social and political
environment, they create a child protection system that is better able to protect all children from
all forms of violence, exploitation and abuse across all contexts. As mentioned, such a system
also addresses societal factors and social norms that perpetuate violence and, by doing so,
promotes positive social change and outcomes.

The government has partnered with bilateral organizations and a range of government agencies
(including line ministries and administrative bodies) working in the areas of education, finance,
health, home affairs, justice, labor, planning and social welfare as well as in the travel and
tourism, and information and communication technology sectors. Additional key partners include
non-governmental, community-based and faith-based organizations, the private sector, and
academics