Social Problems A Down to Earth

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 Chapter 6

Crime and Criminal Justice

A. CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter explores the essential nature of crime, and what groups in a society have the
power to write and enforce laws. We analyze the criminal justice system, its biases in
regard to race–ethnicity, gender, geography, and the disparity in sentencing, as well as
how this current system fails to prevent crime. We examine different insights into the
problem of criminal violence from all three theoretical perspectives, specifically looking
at juvenile delinquency, white-collar crime, and organized crime. We also consider the
role of deterrence, evaluate rehabilitation programs, and look at the debate over
incapacitation. Finally, we discuss social policies and the need for fundamental changes
based on sound sociological research.

B. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to:

6.1 Explain what crime is, why crime is relative, and how something becomes a crime.
6.2 Explain why both crime and the criminal justice system are social problems and why
crime is universal.
6.3 Explain how symbols (labels) affected the lives of the Saints and the Roughnecks,
their role in police discretion, and why this makes us cautious about crime statistics.
6.4 Explain how core social values produce crime and how crime is related to the
“opportunity structure.”
6.5 Explain how power and social class are related to social inequality in the legal
system.
6.6 Explain how juvenile delinquency developed, the extent of juvenile crime, the
delinquent career, neutralization techniques, and how education is related to delinquency.
6.7 Be familiar with criminogenic cultures, lethal white-collar crime, embezzlement,
theft, and the relationship of gender and social class to white-collar crime.
6.8 Know what professional crime is and how professional criminals maintain their
secrecy and values.
6.9 Know what organized crime is and reasons for the Mafia’s success.
6.10 Explain why plea bargaining, bias, recidivism, the death penalty, and the prison
experience are part of the criminal justice system as a social problem.
6.11 Discuss retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation as goals of social
policy.
6.12 Explain the likely future of crime and criminal justice.

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C. CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. The Problem in Sociological Perspective
a. What Is Crime?
i. The essential nature of crime: The law—Crime is a violation of a
law that at one point in history may have been legal, but now is
not.
ii. The relativity of crime—Laws differ from one society to another
and so does crime, so what may be illegal can become encouraged
as a virtue.
iii. Making something criminal: A political process—Determining
which behavior is criminal is a political process; therefore, groups
in a society that have power write laws that protect them.
II. The Scope of the Problem—The criminal justice system is made up of police,
courts, jails, and prisons to deal with crime that the public believes threatens their
safety, peace, or quality of life. But the system itself perhaps fails to prevent
crime or rehabilitate offenders, and discriminates against some citizens.
a. Crime as a Social Problem
i. Why is crime a social problem?—Although crime rates have been
dropping, there are over 13,000 Americans murdered each year, up
to 200,000 Americans raped, another 350,000 robbed, 700,000
have their car stolen, and another 2 million have their homes
broken into. Both men and women have fears about their personal
safety, equating to crime being a social problem. (See Short
Assignments 1)
ii. Why is crime universal?—Each society passes laws against
behaviors that it considers a threat to its well-being, so passing a
law never eliminates a behavior, but it does identify it as illegal.

III. Looking at the Problem Theoretically

a. Symbolic Interactionism—Examine the social class bias of police
enforcement and why we must view crime statistics with caution. Among
the symbols that affect our perception and behavior are social class,
reputation, and demeanor. (See Lecture Starters 1)

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 i. The saints and the roughnecks: Social class and labeling—
Research by Chambliss (1973/2014) observed that the saints
were some of the most delinquent boys in a school. But they
were viewed as “saints headed for success” because they were
from upper-middle-class, stable white families. While the
roughnecks committed fewer criminal acts than the saints,
they were considered by teachers to be headed for “serious
trouble.” The difference in the police interrogating and
arresting these two groups were due to the styles of
interaction, the visibility of each group, and the labeling that
affected people’s perceptions of delinquent behaviors.
ii. Police discretion—Research shows that different styles of
interaction affect outcomes with the police and proves the
significance of how they viewed respect. The more a suspect
matches the police’s idea of a criminal, the more likely they
are to arrest that person.
iii. Caution about crime statistics—Social class influences the
reactions of authorities, affecting who shows up in official
statistics.
IV. Functionalism—Functionalists see crime as an adaptation to a society’s core
values. Therefore, they view property crime as inherent in societies that socialize
people of all social classes to desire material success, when the legitimate means
to achieve success are limited.
a. Crime and Society’s Core Values—Our society has to fill many
positions that require different levels of ability and diligence, but we
motivate everyone to strive for success. This provokes an intense
competition that allows some of the talented to emerge as victors, and a
strain is created for those without resources. People react to this strain
in four primary ways—innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion—usually in illegitimate ways.

b. Social class and illegitimate opportunities—Poor children usually

attend schools that are inferior, which creates barriers to success
and high dropout rates among working-class students. This opens
the door to illegitimate opportunity structures woven into urban
slums, such as robbery, burglary, drug dealing, prostitution, and
other income-producing crimes. The middle and upper classes are
also attracted to these different illegitimate opportunities but are
more likely to commit white-collar crimes such as tax evasion,
fraud, securities violations, and Ponzi schemes.

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V. Conflict Theory—This theory examines how the law comes down hardest on the
poor while providing leniency toward the wealthy.
a. Power and Social Class: Inequality in the Legal System—Conflict
theorists regard the criminal justice system not as a system, but as a
device used by the powerful to keep them in power. They use law
enforcement to control workers, mask injustice, and prevent revolt.

VI. Types of Crime

a. Juvenile Delinquency
i. The origin of juvenile delinquency: A perceptual shift—
Historically children who committed crimes were treated as adults,
but over the years, laws were passed to consider them as juveniles,
with a separate criminal justice system for those under age 18.
ii. Extent of juvenile crime—Some juveniles commit status crimes,
which is illegal behavior only for those of a specific age, such as
drinking, running away, or violating a curfew. But the public is
most concerned with more serious crimes. (See Discussion
Questions 2)
iii. The “delinquent career”—Patterns have been identified that propel
some juveniles into continued involvement in crimes, even though
59 percent of youths who are arrested never return to juvenile
court. Juveniles with a first arrest for underage drinking, running
away, or shoplifting are least likely to return to juvenile court.
Girls are less likely than boys to be rearrested. Research confirms
an extraordinary drop in juvenile crime, but a greater involvement
of juvenile girls in crime. The following are patterns of career
juveniles:
1. The return of juveniles to the court after the first arrest only
occurs in 49 percent of these youth.
2. Juveniles most likely to continue delinquent behavior are those
arrested a second time prior to the age of 16.
3. Juveniles who are charged with a violent crime are likely to
have already committed many crimes.
4. Those juveniles charged at age 13 are twice as likely to be
arrested for a later offense as those first charged at age 16.
5. Juveniles who are less likely to be rearrested are those whose
first charge was for burglary, truancy, motor vehicle theft, or
robbery.
6. Juveniles who are the least likely to be rearrested are those
whose first charge was underage drinking, running away, or
shoplifting.
7. Girls are less likely to be rearrested.
iv. Neutralizing deviance—Sociologists Sykes and Matza (1957)
concluded that juveniles used five main techniques to neutralize
their crimes to commit them with a minimum amount of guilt or

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 shame.
1. Denial of responsibility—They were pushed by forces beyond
their control.
2. Denial of injury—The acts were seen as pranks or just having a
little fun.
3. Denial of a victim—The person they hurt was not really a
victim, they were just getting even.
4. Condemnation of the condemners—They attack others to
deflect attention away from their own behavior.
5. Appeal to higher loyalties—The law pulled them one way, but
loyalty to friends was stronger.
v. Delinquent subcultures—These are groups in which criminal
activities are a normal part of every life.
vi. Education and delinquency—Sociological research shows that
those who graduate from high school are less likely to commit
crimes. Although it may be costly to educate high school students,
it costs more to society to let them drop out of school.

VII. White-Collar Crime—Crimes committed by people of respectable and high

social status in the course of their occupations.
a. Criminogenic Subcultures—Work environments that encourage and
support the commission of crimes and result in “ethical numbness,” in
which it becomes okay to violate the law to gain profits and personal
success. (See Classroom Activities 2)
b. White-Collar Crimes that Kill—Corporations calculate profit over safety
and are powerful enough to manipulate the legal system and usually
escape punishment for their crimes. Some companies are accused of serial
manslaughter but receive easy and light sentences. This type of treatment
shows large differences in the criminal justice system in comparison to
street crimes. (See Lecture Starters 3)
c. Embezzlement—Some embezzlers have financial problems, so they
borrow money through unauthorized loans to tide them over during their
financial emergency. Others do it on impulse, are greedy or do it for the
thrill of the act or to gain a more prominent place in the community. They
still consider themselves to be respectable, law-abiding citizens.
d. Employee Theft—This type of theft can come in many forms, including
employees who steal company secrets such as formulas, manufacturing
processes, or even marketing plans. It’s difficult to prove theft by an
employee who begins working for a competitor and whose knowledge is
inside his or her head.
e. Social Class and Crime—White-collar criminals enjoy a privileged
position within the criminal justice system, where their cases are more
likely to be dismissed, or they’re less likely to have to put up bail. If
convicted, they are more likely to be placed on probation than serve time
in jail, and they get shorter sentences.
f. Gender in White-Collar Crime—As women have joined the corporate

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 world, we see that there have been increased numbers of them arrested for
embezzlement.
(See Lecture Starters 2) (See Long Assignments 3)

VIII. Professional Crime

a. Crime as Work—Typically people who consider crime to be their
occupation pride themselves on their skills and successes. Unlike
amateurs, professional criminals are not troubled by their criminality.

IX. Organized Crime—Organization of criminals who are part of a larger network,

often on a national or international scale.
a. The Mafia: Origins and Characteristics—The Mafia originated in Sicily to
protect local families and communities from bandits. They collected taxes
in return for those protections. There are now several ethnic successions of
families that are linked to each other by understandings and “treaties.” The
Mafia continues to flourish and has a major business of loan-sharking,
making private and illegal loans at high rates of interest. (See Discussion
Questions 1)
i. Reasons for the Mafia’s success—Members within these organizations
live on two principles: They see themselves as family, and they have
taken vows of secrecy. Various versions of organized crime will
continue as these groups adapt to changing circumstances. Although
they have weakened in recent years, the Mafia remains successful for
the following reasons:
1. They are well organized, with full-time “experts” in different
crimes.
2. Their illegal services are in high demand.
3. They wield influence through political corruption.
4. Violence and intimidation is used to control victims and its
members.

X. The Criminal Justice System

a. Plea Bargaining—A plea bargain is when the state offers a reduced
sentence or a lesser charge in exchange for a guilty plea.
i. Following a case—In examining cases, researchers found the
following principles in the criminal justice system. (See Classroom
Activities 1)
1. The poor spend months behind bars awaiting a trial.
2. Defense attorneys encourage plea bargaining, whether or not the
individual is guilty.
3. Prosecutors use threats of longer sentences to get guilty pleas.
4. Judges dislike unnecessary trials and impose harsher sentences on
those who want trials.
5. Age, employment, and the number of previous arrests affect
sentencing.
6. The number of arrests influences a sentence regardless of the
seriousness of the charges.

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 ii. Assembly-line justice—Although the Constitution guarantees a person
accused of a crime the right to be judged by their peers and have a
speedy, public trial, in almost all cases, arrangements and bargains are
made behind the scenes to avoid trials. Judges and juries only hear
about 6 percent of criminal cases. There is an implicit understanding
that public defenders are team players who produce assembly-line
justice for the poor.

b. Bias in the Criminal Justice System—Sociologists differ in their

conclusions about the judicial system discriminating along racial–ethnic
lines. By using comparisons between arrest rates and crime victim reports,
we end up with mixed results. For some offenses, African Americans are
arrested at higher rates than what the victims report, and for other
offenses, whites are arrested at higher rates than what the victims report.
The evidence of bias for or against minorities or whites is mixed and not
conclusive. (See Long Assignments 2)

c. Recidivism
i. The revolving door of America’s prisons—Although the goal of
prisons is to rehabilitate, there are high numbers of former prisoners
who commit crimes and return to prison. Those who have been in
prison the most often have the greater chances of going back to prison.
(See Long Assignments 1)
ii. Why do our prisons fail to rehabilitate?—There are many reasons why
prisons fail to rehabilitate. One reason is that prisons are socializing
agents for criminal behavior. Another reason is that once a prisoner is
released, he or she goes back to his or her old environment with no
new skills to lead a straight life.
1. When prisoners are released, they go back to their old
environments without having new skills that would help them lead a
straight life. And they are in areas that offer even fewer legitimate
opportunities than before.

d. The Death Penalty

i. Race–ethnicity—Historically, the best predictor of whether a man
would be sentenced to death was knowing if the victim was white and
the accused was black. In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that
capital punishment was being applied unconstitutionally and was
discriminatory.
ii. Gender—A strong gender bias exists, since a mere 0.09 percent of
women have been executed in comparison to men. This may be due to
bias or real differences in the crimes men and women commit, and
more research is needed to find out.
iii. Geography—This makes a huge difference in a person’s chance of
being executed, since 32 states have the death penalty and 18 do not.
The highest rates of executions have been found in Texas and

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 Oklahoma.

e. The Prison Experience

i. The Zimbardo experiment—A social psychologist conducted an
experiment in the basement of Stanford University, in which he recruited
24 college students to participate in a makeshift prison as either guards or
inmates. Within hours the prisoners felt a loss of power and personal
identity and began to rebel, while the guards felt an increase in social
power and status and reacted brutally to the prisoners. The experiment was
stopped within six days, and today could not be duplicated due to strict
guidelines for research on human subjects. This experiment did illustrate
two important sociological principles:
1. A person’s sense of self was tied to the group to which he or she
belonged.
2. The way that prison is organized led the guards to see their job as
maintaining order and upholding authority.

XI. Social Policy—Two Overarching Principles—In order to have social policies that
will be effective, we need fair laws whose enforcement is evenhanded, regardless
of people’s race–ethnicity, gender, social class, or any other characteristics.
Further, since street crime is linked to poverty, the best policy would be to reduce
poverty.
a. Retribution: Paying for the Crime—The basic idea is to punish criminals
by having offenders compensate their victims for the harm they have done.
b. Deterrence: Frightening People Away from Crime—The purpose is to
make people afraid of punishment so they won’t commit crimes.
i. Two principles of deterrence—Researchers have discovered two
significant principles. First, the longer the interval between a crime
and its punishment, the less the deterrence or fear of punishment
becomes. Second, the more uncertain the penalty, the less deterrence
works. Therefore, some propose uniform sentencing given to everyone
convicted of the same crime.
ii. Irrationality: Impulse and taking chances—Critics of deterrence point
out that offenders are not always rational about committing crime, but
rather act on impulse, so punishment is not a deterrent.
iii. “Scared Straight: A program that backfired” —This program involved
delinquents going through prison tours, with the expectation that a
close-up look at the prison would scare them straight. However, the
research suggested that boys were impressed by the macho
performance of hyper masculine inmates and committed crimes to
show their peers that the talks didn’t frighten them.
iv. The need of research—The failure of “Scared Straight” doesn’t mean
that deterrence programs can’t work. However, there is a need for
sociological research to find the programs that will work.
c. Rehabilitation: Racializing Offenders—The goal is to re-socialize
offenders, to help them stop committing crimes, and become conforming
citizens. One approach is to use diversion programs that would divert

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 offenders away from the criminal justice system. This would help avoid
stigmatizing offenders and keep them out of the crime schools where they
are socialized into committing more crimes. Here are six rehabilitation
programs currently used:
1. Probation—Offenders are in the community under the supervision of a
probation officer. To improve the success of these programs, it must be
limited to convicts with the most promise, who receive follow-up
counseling from trained officers who have small caseloads.
2. Imprisonment—Confining prisoners to teach them useful skills or
educating them with high school or college courses.
3. Honor farms—Prisoners with good behavior work and live on state-
owned farms, where they are supervised.
4. Furloughs—Convicts adjust gradually to nonprison life by allowing
them freedom for limited time.
5. Parole—Releasing prisoners early as a reward for good behavior and
supervised by a parole officer. Any violations can return them to prison.
6. Halfway houses—Releasing convicts to live in supervised settings
outside of prison and reporting to parole officers.
d. Incapacitation: Removing Offenders from Society—With the perception
that nothing works, the public wants to remove offenders from circulation
by putting them in jails and prisons. However, new technology offers
other techniques, such as electronic monitoring through ankle bracelets.
i. The debate—Some sociologists are in favor of increasing a sentence
each time a person is convicted of a crime, because it has shown to
decrease crime rates. Others believe that factors such as drops in
abortion and drug use, higher employment, and less use of heroin and
crack are responsible for lower crime rates. These sociologists support
better rehabilitation programs, but the public supports more
incapacitation. (See Short Assignments 2)
ii. Extreme incapacitation: Capital punishment—Proponents believe that
death is an appropriate punishment for heinous crimes, and most
Americans favor it. Opponents do not believe that killing is ever
justified, nor does it deter others from killing. They argue that judges
are irrational in applying the death penalty and many innocent people
have been executed. States have also grown more reluctant to execute
prisoners; the number of executions has dropped.
e. Goals and Principles of Sound Social Policy—The United States has
various approaches to solve its crime problem, but the solutions are
inconsistent. Therefore, reforming the criminal justice system requires clear
goals and principles such as:
1. Laws based on broader consensus rather than on the interests or morals
of small groups.
2. Swift justice in which plea bargaining would be eliminated and
everyone would be guaranteed a speedy trial.
3. More rehabilitation programs whose goal would be to integrate first-
time, low-level offenders into the community.

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 4. Harsher penalties for violent offenders every time they are convicted of
a crime.
5. Task forces to investigate organized and white-collar crimes.
6. Prison reforms by privatizing positions in the prison, training guards
rigorously and paying them well, giving prisoners the right to continue
their education, allowing conjugal visits, and giving nonviolent
offenders the right to visit family and friends on the outside.
7. Unbiased research to determine what prevents crime and changes
lawbreakers.

XII. The Future of the Problem

a) Changes in Crime—Violent crime rates have been dropping for 20 years,
but experts disagree on the causes. As women take paid jobs, crimes by
women will continue to increase. Since white-collar crimes are mainly
undiscovered, it will be difficult to determine if it increases or decreases.
Organized crime will continue, and we can expect it to have greater
involvement in computer crimes such as identity theft.
b) The Criminal Justice System—Changes in this system will be slow since
it’s entrenched in power by the ruling elite, who tend to focus on street
crimes and overlook crimes of the powerful.
c) Need for Fundamental Change—Serious changes mean that the poor need
more open doors to legitimate ways of achieving success by providing
quality education and training people for jobs with living wages. Therefore,
to increase equality and opportunity, radical change of the social system is
needed.

D. LECTURE SUGGESTIONS
i. Lecture Starters:
1. Ask students to describe television shows that deal with crime. What types of crimes
are committed? Who are the criminals? Who are the victims? What are the reasons for
the crimes? Ask them to describe the sex, age, race–ethnicity, and social class of both
the perpetrators and the victims. How does the legal system play a role? What general
impressions do the shows give of the crime problems? Start a discussion about the
research findings presented in the text. (L.O.6.3) (See Chapter Outline III.a)

2. There has been an increase in crimes committed by women. Ask students to discuss
why there has been an increase in these crimes. What are the types of crimes? Is
women’s punishment the same as men’s? Are they aware of any woman being
convicted and executed for her crime? Does social class play a role in women
committing crimes today? (L.O.6.7) (See Chapter Outline VII.f)

3. In regard to white-collar crimes, the instructor can begin by showing students two
photos, one of a Ford Pinto that you would find in a commercial, and a second one of a
Pinto blown up in flames. This can begin the discussion about the Ford Pinto incident of
people being burned alive because the company did not want to do a recall. This would
visually explain how corporations decide the fate of a large number of people based on

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 profit and not safety. (L.O.6.7) (See Chapter Outline VII.b)

ii. Classroom Activities:

1. With the help of someone in the criminal justice/justice studies department at your
institution or someone involved in the criminal justice system in your community, invite
an ex-convict to class. Have this person describe his or her personal history, crime
committed, arrest and conviction, experiences in prison, and reasons he or she feels that
this offense will not be repeated. Students could then write a brief paper in which they
describe the type of crime the person committed, an explanation of the person’s behavior
from a theoretical perspective, the type of sentence the person received, and what the
person learned from the experience. (L.O.6.10) (See Chapter Outline X.a.i)

2. Prior to the class, have students compile some information on recent white-collar
crimes from news sources. The class can discuss white-collar versus street crimes,
including how they are handled through the judicial system. Students can also discuss
why the public seems more concerned with street crimes than white-collar crimes.
(L.O.6.7) (See Chapter Outline VII.a)

iii. Discussion Questions:

1. The discussion of the Mafia or organized crime is an interesting one. Have students
prepare ahead of time for this discussion by bringing in information about a group they
researched ahead of time. They can share patterns of those groups with their classmates.
Information should include where the organization is located, member recruitment, types
of crimes committed, and any other pertinent information. A general discussion can
consist of why organized crime is still evident today. (L.O.6.9) (See Chapter Outline
IX.a)

2. Some believe that juveniles should not be tried as adults, while others feel that they are
responsible for the crimes that they commit and should be tried for violent offenses.
Divide your students into groups of two to four to discuss why they think there are more
juveniles in the legal system. Do they have friends who have been arrested? Why did they
or others pursue a life of crime? What are their suggestions in regard to eliminating or
reducing juvenile delinquency? (L.O.6.6) (See Chapter Outline VI.a.ii)

E. SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS
Short Assignments:
1. Students can better relate to statistics on crime if they examine them “close to home.”
Ask them to examine the Uniform Crime Reports or other sources on the Internet that
show the frequency and type of crimes committed in their home communities (or a
community nearby). The local police department may be willing to provide a computer
printout of types of crimes, block by block, within various precincts. Students can report
their findings in the form of a chart of graph. Accompanying the figure should be a
citation of where they got their information, an explanation for the patterns revealed in
the figure, their own experiences with crime, how they felt after the crime occurred, and
what is being done in their city or community to help prevent crime (Neighborhood
Watch groups, etc.). (L.O.6.1I) (See Chapter Outline II.a.i)

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 2. Given the nation’s “war on crime,” there continues to be a great deal of attention paid
to punishment, including speculation about the deterrent value of the death penalty.
Have your students take one side of the debate, either for or against the death penalty,
and argue for the position that they take. This can be a three- to four-page position paper
for either one side or the other. Or it can become a classroom presentation for a group
project, or individual students could create PowerPoint or poster presentations to show
their evidence. (L.O.6.11) (See Chapter Outline XI.d.i)

Long Assignments:
1. Students could go on a field trip to a correctional facility or local juvenile facility.
Students should write field notes about their observations, describing the surroundings in
detail and recording their reactions while in the institution. One possible focus might be
their observation of verbal and nonverbal symbols and behaviors that reflect the
relationships between correctional officers and prisoners. If possible, allow students to
interview a correctional officer or prisoner and write a report based on their views or their
experience in recidivism, and what in their views are the causes and solutions. The final
report could include a comparison between the two views or just each view alone.
(L.O.6.10) (See Chapter Outline X.c.i)

2. Students can conduct a content analysis of crimes reported in online newspapers from
several cities throughout the United States. The students should choose from a variety of
cities, both geographically and in terms of size. They should also look at several issues of
the same publication, mainly focusing on bias in the criminal justice system by race, sex,
or social class. They can use a coding device to record the type of crime, the social
characteristics of the person(s) who committed the crime, and how the crime was
resolved. To compare with these journalistic reports, students can then look up crime
statistics for the cities they chose (Uniform Crime Reports) and explain if they found gaps
between the groups. (L.O.6.10) (See Chapter Outline X.b)

3. Women have been more prominent in the commission of crimes in the past few
decades. Speculating about the reasons for this and what it implies poses an interesting
topic for a research paper. A good source of information is Ngaire Naffine’s book,
Female Crime: The Construction of Women in Criminology (Boston: Allen and Irwin,
1987), which provides a feminist critique of the sociological analysis of women and
crime. Naffine argues that male sociologists have been studying male criminals and
assuming that everything they learn applies to female crime also. This is an excellent
opportunity to emphasize the importance of perspectives in sociology and for students to
find research on the types of crimes women commit today. Are women criminals found
in white-collar occupations, or mainly street crimes? Any recent changes in the types of
crimes? (L.O.6.7) (See Chapter Outline VII.f)

F. ANNOTATED SUGGESTED FILMS/TV SHOWS

Against the Grain: Deviance, 30 min. (Insight Media, 2008). In this program, sociologists
question whether deviant behavior can absolutely be defined. The program looks at

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 differing views of sexuality and violent crime. The moral, religious, and psychological
factors that may influence deviance are also explored.

The Second City: Inside the World’s Largest Jail, 60 min. (Films for the Humanities and
Sciences). This presentation focuses on the Los Angeles County Jail, where over 200,000
inmates are processed every year—700 on an average night. The culture of the jail is
examined, along with the various problems encountered behind the walls, including
institutionalized racism, brutality, and recidivism.

Beyond Conviction, 97 min. (Insight Media, 2006). Restorative justice is a new approach
to criminal justice. In this program, victims of violent crimes or their family members
meet face-to-face with their perpetrators. These groups are followed as they participate in
Pennsylvania’s Victim–Offender Mediation.

Death Row Kids, 27 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2005). This program
was filmed prior to the March 2005 Supreme Court ruling barring execution for underage
offenses. The story of confused, frightened young people awaiting the death penalty is
told.

American History X, 119 min. (DVD, 1998). This racially charged masterpiece evokes
fear and disgust from almost every person who watches it, most notably at its famously
gruesome curb-stomping scene. This movie perfectly explores the racial aspect of prison,
and opens viewers up to this heinous and occult world.

G. ANNOTATED SUGGESTED BOOK/JOURNAL ARTICLES

1. Why Should Law Enforcement Use Social Media to Promote Crime Prevention?
International Association of Chief of Police (December 2012), Bureau of Justice
Assistance, US Department of Justice. Citizens who are engaged and empowered to be
responsible for their communities are valuable assets to the work of any police
department. As the popularity of social media rises, these tools provide opportunities for
law enforcement agencies to proactively reach out and connect with citizens and promote
crime prevention in their communities.
http://www.iacpsocialmedia.org/Portals/1/documents/Fact%20Sheets/Crime%20Preventi
on%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf

2. Technology-enabled Crime, Policing and Security, by Marvin I. Saraping and Mihaela

Vorvoreanu, Journal of Technology Studies (2005, Vol. 32). As criminals compete with
security and policing officials for technological advantage, the result is relatively
confusing and therefore unmanageable threats to society. New, adaptive, and ordinary
crimes emerge over time to create technology crime waves, the magnitude of which can
theoretically be measured, compared, and predicted.
http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JOTS/v32/v32n1/mcquade.html

3. Mistrial: An Inside Look at How the Criminal Justice System Works and Sometimes
Doesn’t, by Mark Geragos and Pat Harris (April 2013). From the rise of the Internet and
the 24-hour news cycle to the television ratings bonanza of the O.J. Simpson trial, a

13
Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education
 perfect storm of media coverage has given the public an unprecedented look inside the
courtroom, kicking off popular courtroom shows and TV legal commentary that further
illuminate how the criminal justice system operates. Or has it? Mark Geragos and Pat
Harris debunk the myths of judges as Solomon-like figures, jurors as impartial arbiters of
the truth, and prosecutors as super-ethical heroes.

4. Understanding “Criminogenic” Corporate Culture: What White-Collar Crime

Researchers Can Learn from Studies of the Adolescent Employment–Crime Relationship,
by Robert Apel and Raymond Paternoster, The Criminology of White-Collar Crime
(2009, p.15–33). This explanation purports to account for why college-educated,
relatively affluent, and seemingly conventional persons can commit crimes when they are
employed in white-collar occupations. The vexing paradox of “why good people do dirty
work” can be resolved by positing that some organizations turn a blind eye to ethical and
legal infractions if it benefits the firm, thereby creating a culture of rule breaking, which
is learned just as any other business practice is learned.

5. How Does Community Context Matter? Social Mechanisms and the Explanation of
Crime Rates, by R.J. Sampson, The Explanation of Crime: Context, Mechanisms and
Development (2006, p.31–60, New York: Cambridge University Press). The idea of
“community” is at once compelling and frustrating. Indeed, few would disagree that at
some fundamental level a community’s social context matters for crime. Yet the concept
is sufficiently vague that it risks becoming meaningless—if community context is all
things to all people then it is simply a metaphor with no real explanatory power. What is
a community? Neighborhood? Even if we can agree on the unit of analysis, what exactly
about the community is doing the explaining? Do communities act? What is the
mechanism at work?

H. ANNOTATED SUGGESTED WEB SITES

1. http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/organizedcrime
Today, organized crime comes at us from every corner of the globe. The FBI works to
cripple these national and transnational syndicates with every capability and tool they’ve
got: undercover operations; confidential sources; surveillance; intelligence analysis and
sharing; forensic accounting; multi-agency investigations; and the power of racketeering
statutes that help them take down entire enterprises. They also work closely with
international partners in some cases, swapping personnel to build cases and disrupt
groups with global ties.

2. http://www.nij.gov/nij/topics/crime/welcome.htm
The National Institute of Justice Web site of the US Department of Justice is dedicated to
improving knowledge and understanding of crime and justice issues through science. NIJ
provides objective and independent knowledge and tools to reduce crime and promote
justice, particularly at the state and local levels.

3. http://www.prisonexp.org/
The official Web site of the Stanford Prison Experiment of 1971.

14
Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education
4. http://www.nw3c.org/
The National White-Collar Crime Center’s training sections provide instruction in all
areas of economic and cyber crime investigation and prosecution.

5. http://www.justice.gov/criminal/ocgs/
The Criminal Division’s Organized Crime and Gang Section (OCGS) is a specialized
group of prosecutors charged with developing and implementing strategies to disrupt and
dismantle the most significant regional, national, and international gangs and organized
crime groups.

15
Copyright © 2018, 2014 by Pearson Education
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 J. C. Hoadley

I was able to get from our landlord and purchasers of our tools the
necessary extension of time, and made the engine for him. It and the
loom were each a complete success. Mr. Waters told me long after
that he never observed a single variation from exact uniformity of
motion, without which his loom would have had to be abandoned.
I had one day the pleasure of meeting there the president of the
Lancaster mills, the only other great industry of Clinton, who had
come over expressly to examine the running of our engine. Before
he left he said to me that the engine certainly presented a
remarkable advance in steam engineering.
I saw there one thing that interested me greatly. That was, the
method of painting wire cloth. This was carried on in a large tower
high enough to enable a twenty-yard length of the “cloth” to be
suspended in it. This was taken through a tub of paint, and drawn
slowly upward between three successive pairs of rollers, the last pair
of india-rubber, held firmly together. By these the paint was
squeezed into every corner, both sides were thoroughly painted, and
the surplus paint removed, so that every mesh was clear, a uniform
perfection unattainable by hand painting, and two boys would paint
in ten minutes as much as a painter could paint in a day. I think this
was an invention by Mr. Waters.
With the completion of the engine for the Clinton Wire Cloth
Company, the manufacture of the high-speed engine was closed for
three years, from the spring of 1873 to the spring of 1876.
This long rest proved to be most valuable. Looking back upon it, I
have always been impressed with its importance at that very time to
the development of the high-speed system.
The design of the engine needed to be revised, and this revision
involved study, to which time and leisure were essential.
I had also an order from Elliott Brothers of London, to prepare a
new and enlarged edition of the pamphlet descriptive of the Richards
Indicator. I determined to make this a comprehensive book,
embracing new information required by the steam engineer, so far as
I knew it. This was published simultaneously in London and New
York in the summer of 1874.
 I was enabled also to turn to account the report of the experiments
of M. Regnault, which I had been at so much trouble to get, and with
the help of English authorities to prepare and embody in this book
Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam, which the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers honored me by adopting as its
standard.
I felt warranted in giving to this edition an amended title, as
follows: “A treatise on the Richards Steam Engine Indicator, and the
Development and Application of Force in the Steam Engine.”
This also was a job requiring much time and undivided application.
It is needless to say that without this long and entire rest from
business neither of these tasks could have been undertaken.
I found in the Astor Library a remarkable old book, entitled “Canon
triangulorum,” published at Frankfurt in 1612, containing a Table of
Natural Trigonometrical Functions, computed for every minute of arc,
and extended to the fifteenth place of decimals. The column of
versed sines enabled me to prepare tables exhibiting the rates of
acceleration and retardation of the motion of a piston controlled by a
crank, neglecting the effect of the angular vibration of the
connecting-rod. This effect was afterwards shown separately. For my
treatment of this subject, I must refer the reader to the book itself.
A little incident in connection with this work, which made a deep
impression on my mind, and has since afforded me some food for
reflection, seems worth relating. The printing was done in London,
and I did not see the proof, so I had to take especial pains with the
copy, having no opportunity to revise it. I was living in Harlem, and at
one time having no suitable envelope for mailing, and none being
obtainable there, I took a Third Avenue horse-car for an eight-mile
ride down to the New York post office, intending to get some
envelopes at a stationery store on Beekman Street, and mail the
portion of the copy which I then had ready at the general post office.
I had hardly taken my seat when Mr. Allen got into the car. He was
living in Mott Haven, and I had not seen him for a long time. Besides
ourselves the car was nearly if not quite empty. He came and sat
down by me, and I opened my copy and read to him something in
which I knew he would be interested. He said to me, in his gentle
way, “You would not express it exactly that way, would you?” On the
instant it flashed on my mind that I had made a stupid blunder, and I
replied, “I guess I wouldn’t,” and, thanking him for calling my
attention to it, I left the car, and returned home and corrected it. I
have quite forgotten what the point was, and if I remembered it, I
would not tell. But I have often asked myself who sent Mr. Allen
there, saving me from publishing a mortifying blunder. I expect some
sweet spirit will tell me before long.

The Prototype of the Modern High-speed Engine, Fly-wheel Side.

The Prototype of the Modern High-speed Engine, Crank Side.

 As soon as this book was off my hands, I devoted myself to the
revision and standardizing of the engine.
As made up to that time, it was not reversible, and the valves
could not be handled. It could not therefore be used in rolling-mills,
the field to which I felt already that it was especially adapted.
Moreover, every engine should be capable of being backed in
starting, as otherwise whenever it had stopped with the piston at a
point later than the latest point of cut-off, or say in the last half of the
stroke, which it would do half the time, it would need to be pulled
around by hand to a position in which one of the admission ports
would be open. This in a large engine, or one connected with
extensive lines of shafting, would be a serious matter, so much so
that in some engines little starting cylinders are required.

Longitudinal Section of Cylinder and Valves.

Cross-section of Cylinder and Valves.
 Elevation and Plan of Valve Connections.

I had also determined to use the equilibrium admission valves with

adjustable pressure plates, according to the drawings sent to me by
Mr. Allen in 1863, and to abandon the separate steam chest, and put
the exhaust valves on the opposite side of the cylinder.
Then the engine needed to be standardized, so as to cover the
field with the fewest number of sizes, symmetrically distributed. The
existing practice with all makers of engines had been to let the
purchaser dictate the size and speed of the engine he wanted, a
practice which resulted in a lot of patterns and drawings not adapted
to other people’s requirements, and not properly distributed. For an
organized manufacturing business, this habit must be entirely broken
up.
Mr. Allen had in his shop in Mott Haven an unoccupied second
story, in which I had stored our patterns and drawings and drawing
implements. Here I established my quarters, and spent my working
hours until this second job was finished.
 The two perspective views of opposite sides of the engine, show
these changes as they appear externally, and the remaining views
show some constructive details.
These latter show the exhaust valves transferred to the front side
of the engine, and located so as to drain the cylinder, and the
admission valves set at different elevations, to accommodate the
differential connection, the abandonment of the separate steam-
chest, and this chest with the exhaust chambers cast with the
cylinder, with openings over the valves; the levers by which the
differential movements are given to the admission valves; and the
single-link rod, and the gab by which this rod is unhooked, with the
method of moving the admission valves by hand.
In place of the levers on the steam rock shaft, I at that time drew
cast-iron disks, which being polished and vibrating in place I thought
very handsome. They gave me lots of trouble, till I learned enough to
get rid of them, the story of which I will tell by and by. The front view
shows the admission valve stems balanced by being extended
through at the back end, a feature which helped the governor action
when high steam pressures were employed, but which was
abandoned as unnecessary after I abandoned the disks on the
rocker shaft.
 First Arrangement of Exhaust Valves.

The first two figures show the valves in section and the adjustable
pressure plate and mode of its adjustment. The closeness of the
piston to the head may be observed. I never allowed more than one-
eighth inch clearance, and never had a piston touch the head. This
was because the connecting-rod maintained a constant length, the
wear of the boxes being taken up in the same direction.
These illustrations show the exhaust valves after alteration made
several years later in Philadelphia. As first designed by me, these
are shown in the foregoing sectional views. As will be seen, the
exhaust valves lay with their backs towards the cylinder, worked
under the pressure of the steam in the cylinder, made four openings
for release and exhausted through the cover.
I consented to the change in Philadelphia because this
arrangement involved too much waste room, but the change was not
satisfactory after all. I had become possessed with the idea that the
engine running at high speed needed 50 per cent. more room for
exhausting than for admission. This was not the case. I have always
regretted that I did not retain this design, and content myself with
reducing the exhaust area.
 The lightness of the piston in this view will be observed. This was
a special design for adapting the engine to be run at 200 revolutions,
giving 1200 feet piston travel per minute. The stuffing-box was a
freak which was abandoned.
The next figures show the valve-stem guides, rocking-levers,
coupling-rods and gab, which latter when thrown over unhooks the
link-rod, as is done on steamboat engines.
The following figures show the construction of the main bearing
with adjustments on opposite sides, by which the shaft is kept in
exact line, and shows also the solid support of the shaft quite out to
the hub of the crank. This view contains one error. The cap is not
made a binder. I relied on the strength of the thick continuous web of
the bed under the boxes in addition to the depth of the bed. But we
once had a bed break right here under enormous strain, and since
then the caps have been made binders. It will be observed that the
wedges are drawn upward to tighten the boxes. It is not necessary to
explain why.
Main Bearing.
 Front View of Wiper
Section on the Line a-b
Center Line of Shaft

Eccentric and Crosshead Pin Crank-pin Lubricator.

Lubricator.

The above left-hand cut shows the automatic lubricator of the

eccentric and the cross-head pin. The stud A, on the eccentric strap
and on the strap of the connecting-rod, carries a curved blade, a,
which at the beginning of each forward stroke rises to take the drop
of oil from the stem of the sight-feed lubricator. This is set on an arm
fixed on the cap of the main-bearing and on a bridge between the
upper guide-bars. The drop is made sure to come to this central
point by a wire B filling the brass tube, grooved on opposite sides
and terminating in a point.
The automatic lubrication of the crank-pin presented a still more
serious problem. It was solved by the construction shown, in the right
hand view, which will be understood without further description. It will
be seen that here the oil tube is inclined, and the drop follows it to a
point on its lower side. Both these lubricators proved absolutely
reliable. The last one is equally applicable on double-crank engines.
Fly-wheels.
Made
Dimensions when Practicable
of to Serve also
Cylinders. Travel Indicated Powers. as Belt-Drums.
Revolutions of Piston Without With
of Crank in Feet Conden- Conden- Weight
Bore. Stroke. per Minute. per Minute. sation. sation. Diameter. of Rim. V

Horse Horse
Inches. Inches. Powers. Powers. Feet. Inches. Lbs.
6 12 350 700 25 3 350
7 12 350 700 35 3 6 400
8 16 280 746 45 60 4 650
9 16 280 746 60 75 4 6 700
10 20 230 766 75 100 5 1300
11.5 20 230 766 100 125 5 6 1450
13 24 200 800 130 160 6 6 2100
14.5 24 200 800 160 200 7 2350
16 30 165 825 200 260 8 4000
18 30 165 825 250 330 9 4000
20 36 140 840 320 400 10 6000
22 36 140 840 400 500 11 6000
24 42 125 875 480 620 12
26 42 125 875 560 730 13
28 48 112.5 900 670 870 16
 32 48 112.5 900 870 1140
36 48 112.5 900 1100 1430
40 48 112.5 900 1360 1750
44 48 112.5 900 1600 2100

The powers are those given by an initial pressure of 85 lbs. on the square inch, cut
one quarter of the stroke. For the best economy steam should not be cut off earli
unless a higher pressure is carried. At the latest point of cut off, the powers de
double those given in the above Table. The engines can be worked under
pressures, with corresponding increase of power.

After considerable study I finally adopted the above table of

standard sizes and speeds, covering the ground from 25 horse-
power up with nineteen sizes.
As the bed could not be reversed, I needed both a right-hand and
a left-hand bed for each size. I avoided half of this expense in
patterns by planning two diameters of cylinders with the same
stroke, and making one bed answer for both.
Until I found something else to do, I employed myself in preparing
complete drawings for three or four smaller sizes of engines; a work
which afterwards proved exceedingly useful.
 CHAPTER XXI

Production of an Original Surface Plate.

will introduce here a description of the method of

producing an original surface plate.
The production of mechanically true planes by the
method of scraping was first suggested by Mr.
Whitworth, and was brought to perfection in his works.
Having had and having improved the opportunity there
to study this system, and having employed it largely in the
manufacture of high-speed engines, it seems to me that an account
of it should find a place in these reminiscences, especially as the
importance of mechanical truth is coming to be more and more
realized in this country. I will therefore describe the process of
producing an original standard surface plate.
The first point, of course, is the design. The square form, 30
inches square, has been found most suitable. I could not, however,
use this form myself, a long surface plate being required for the
guide-bars and steam-chest joints of my engine.
The plate must be incapable of deflection. To insure this it is ribbed
on the under side with ribs seven inches deep, and is supported at
three points, equidistant from each other and from the center, so that
its equal support cannot vary, whatever may be the surface on which
it stands. It is provided on two opposite sides with handles, by which
it can be lifted and rotated. The arrangement of the ribs and feet is
here shown.
It must be cast of hard and close-grained iron, which will possess
the most durable qualities, in a baked mold without a cope, so that
the gas shall escape most freely. As cast, the plate should be one
inch thick. About three eighths of an inch is planed off, removing all
dirt, and leaving a perfectly sound surface, with a thickness of about
five eighths of an inch. Three of these plates are made. After these
have been planed, their edges squared and steel handles put in they
are delivered to the fitter.

Surface Plate for Producing a True Plane.

 I will first describe the tool used in scraping. Originally this was a
hooked tool, and the scraping was done by a drawing motion. Two of
these tools were employed, one for the roughing work, in which the
hook projected downward about three quarters of an inch, and the
other for fine scraping. In the latter the hook projected downward
only about one quarter of an inch, and absolute freedom from
vibration was aimed at. These tools were used for a number of
years, but afterwards a radical change was made. The modern
method is to employ a single straight tool, like a carpenter’s chisel,
about an inch and a quarter wide and an eighth of an inch thick, with
a square end. This end is slightly curved, and its corners are
rounded to avoid scratching the plate. The scraping is done by a
pushing motion.
This tool has been found preferable on all accounts. Projections
needing to be removed are in front of the tool, instead of being
covered by it. The tool is perfectly rigid, and can be inclined to the
surface at any desired angle. The cutting edge is a square angle,
and being well supported keeps sharp for a considerably longer time
than when it is an acute angle, and when ground or honed two
edges are formed. Moreover, the pushing motion is preferred.
Two of the plates only are first brought together. For disclosing the
high points, one of these is covered with a raddle made of finely
sifted red lead and oil. This is made quite stiff, and all of it that can
be removed by the palm of the hand is rubbed off, leaving only a
very thin uniform film on the surface. Any dust having been carefully
removed from both surfaces by a soft brush, one of these plates is
inverted on the other, and at one corner each plate is marked in the
edge with a prick-punch. The upper plate is then rubbed about on
the lower one for, say, half a minute. When lifted off, the high
portions of the surfaces are shown on one plate by the raddle put on,
and on the other by that rubbed off. The workman then gives to
these parts of the surfaces a general scraping, giving to his tool a
long sweep, say from four to six inches. This is repeated two or three
times, the stroke being shortened each time, and the upper plate
being placed in a position at right angles with its last one, which can
be determined by the prick-punch marks. This change of position is
necessary to avoid a cross-wind or spiral form. The scraping should
now extend over the entire surfaces, and these should have a
general uniform bearing on each other, with the points of contact
uniformly distributed and equally distinct. The work should be
continued in the same way until all these requirements are fulfilled.
Now appears the use of the third plate. The two surfaces thus
formed are sure to be, one of them convex and the other concave, in
some corresponding degree. The workman now numbers the plates,
by numbers stamped in the edges, these being marked Nos. 1 and
2, and the third plate No. 3. No. 2 is now set aside, and No. 3 is
scraped to fit No. 1. It is thus made a duplicate of No. 2. Next, No. 1
is set aside and Nos. 2 and 3 are brought together. Supposing these
to be convex, they will bear together at the middle point, on which
the upper plate will rock, and the degree of their convexity will thus
be shown. The workman then in the same manner scrapes these
plates equally to the best of his judgment, until their entire surfaces
are brought together, with equal distribution of the points of contact.
These two surfaces will now again be, one convex and the other
concave, though in a much less degree. The next step is to apply
No. 1, which is concave, to either No. 2 or No. 3, and scrape it to fit.
It is then applied to the other, of which it has now been made a
duplicate, and the same process is repeated, until the three plates
can be interchanged in any way, and will have a uniform general
bearing on each other, with equal distribution and distinctness of the
points of contact. We have thus, in a general way, produced three
demonstrated true planes, but the surfaces are yet far from the
desired approximation to absolute truth.
Now follows the fine scraping, which is not attempted until general
truth has thus been established. The object of this is to multiply the
points of contact and perfect their equal distribution and prominence.
For this operation no raddle is used, but the surfaces are rubbed
together dry. When the plates are separated, the points of contact
shine like stars. Here skill and care are pre-eminently required. The
scraping takes off only a dust. If too strong depressions may be
made deeper than before, and requiring the reduction of the entire
surface. The superiority of the modern tool is now especially shown.
By lowering the angle of the tool, the workman presents the slightly
curved edge to the surface in a position as nearly parallel with it as
he desires. Interchanges similar to the former ones are now
repeated, until the bright points are brought as close together as is
desired, with uniform distribution and distinctness. The tedious
operation is now finished, and these bright points remain as
witnesses.
The three plates were necessary to the production of one. They
have also a permanent use. They are indispensable to the
preservation of the true plane, which it has cost so much patient
labor to produce. The date of their completion is stamped on their
edges. Then plates 1 and 2 are put away in the store-room, their
surfaces carefully protected from rust or injury, which last is best
avoided by inverting one on the other, and No. 3 is put into use. A
prominent use is for the production of smaller plates or straight-
edges adapted to special purposes. After a while, perhaps in a little
while, this plate loses its truth by unequal wear. Indeed, speaking
with absolute truth, it may be said that the first time this plate is used
it is ruined. But by taking pains to use different parts of its surface as
equally as possible, it may be kept in fair condition for some time. It
can at any time be restored to its original condition by scraping it to
No. 2, taking the same pains to turn it one quarter way around at
every rub. In the course of time No. 2 will itself become worn
unequally, when its truth can be restored by rubbing it on No. 1.
Finally the three plates can all be restored to their original condition
by rubbing them together interchangeably as at first. Thus the true
plane can be absolutely perpetuated.
The importance of this work can only be realized when we
consider that the true plane affords the only means by which true
cylindrical work also can be either produced or verified. It is thus
seen to be fundamental to all mechanical truth.
 CHAPTER XXII

Efforts to Resume the Manufacture. I Exhibit the Engine to Mr. Holley. Contract
with Mr. Phillips. Sale of Engine to Mr. Peters.

n the years ’74 and ’75 I was filled with eagerness to

get the engine on its legs again, and tried a number of
schemes in vain. One morning I read in the paper that
Alexander L. Holley had just returned from Europe,
where he had been making a tour of the steel-making
establishments, studying both the Bessemer and the
open hearth or Siemens-Martin processes, on a scheme of
interchanging improvements in manufacture between American and
foreign licensees under both these systems.
It occurred to me that Mr. Holley might be the very man I wanted. If
he could be got to recommend the engine to the steel-makers, they
might take it up for their own use. I had not applied the engine in
rolling-mill work, but felt sure that it would prove especially adapted
to that service. So I called on Mr. Holley at his home in Brooklyn. I
had never before met him, but I found that he knew something about
the engine from its exhibition in Paris, and from his brother-in-law,
Frederick J. Slade, then an officer of the New Jersey Steel Company,
and who was one of the engine’s warm admirers. I have already
mentioned Mr. Slade and the help he gave me while in Paris in
solving the problem of piston acceleration.
Alexander Lyman Holley