Applying VSDs with power quality

and line considerations in mind

Shipp, David D.; Vilcheck, W.S.

Feb 1, 1996 12:00 PM

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article

Each type of drive

impacts power
quality, power
factor, and
harmonic content as a function of the line (source) inductances.

AC variable speed drives (VSDs) are finding their way into all types of
industrial and commercial power system applications. Their application to the
load (motor) generally is reasonably well selected, at least within heavy
industry. However, there are many line (source) design parameters learned
in the 1950s and 1960s that are now being frequently overlooked. In this
article, which represents many years of experience in conducting power
quality investigations, we'll use this experience and combine it with recent
technology to discuss some areas of concern that frequently result in serious
performance or power quality problems. Finally, we'll provide basic design
guidelines to greatly minimize system problems, especially those problems
stemming from the intermixing of newer and older technologies.

First, let's begin with the basic theory of VSDs.

Drive theory

VSDs are modern day replacements for motor-generator (MG) sets (an AC
motor driving a DC generator, which in turn drives a DC motor and its
variable speed load) and eddy-current drives (a fixed 60-Hz motor driving a
variable speed load via a clutch). VSDs provide much better control and
efficiency and are more economical than those mechanical drives they are
replacing.

Fig. 1 is a block diagram showing their basic components (both AC and DC

drives shown). The converter section, which converts AC to DC, dominates
the interaction of the drive with its source system. The basic components
generally used in the converter module are either diodes or thyristors; the
inverter module typically uses thyristors, transistors, or GTOs (Gate Turn Off
Thyristors). Transistors have found applications in smaller sized drives with
GTOs more commonly applied in large, specialized medium voltage (2.4kV to
6.9kV) applications. This leaves conventional thyristors as the most
commonly applied, especially within the existing installed base.

Fig. 2, on page 71, shows a basic 3-phase, 6-pulse thyristor drive, which is
the most common. Note the current path for phase A current. The thyristors
shown will conduct during the positive 1/2 cycle and after a gate pulse (steep
voltage spike) has been received. As the current waveform crosses zero and
the current tries to reverse itself through the phase A thyristor, the negative
bias causes the thyristor to commutate (turn off). At this same point in time,
phase B thyristor is beginning to conduct, causing a brief but severe phase-
to-phase short circuit. This results in commutating notches in the voltage
waveform.

Fig. 3, on page 71, shows a basic waveform of source line-to-line voltage,

input current, and fundamental current over one cycle. This would apply at
the input thyristors of a drive. Note the input current and voltage waveforms
are no longer clean sinusoidal waveforms; the input current approximates a
discontinuous square wave rich in harmonic content. The steepness, width,
and area of the voltage commutating notches can result in much higher
frequency harmonic content as well as voltage spikes, both of which can
result in drive control or stability problems. The inductance of the primary
system (commutating reactance) plays a significant role in the notching,
commutation, and harmonic generation of a drive/drive system. If the ASD is
a current source inverter (no DC link capacitor), the drive is dependent on
the load inductance for proper commutation.

Types of drives

The inverter section of a drive can also impact the application. Fig. 4, on
page 74, shows a voltage source inverter (VSI) type ASD along with its
waveform, Fig. 5, on page 74, shows a current source inverter type, and Fig.
6, on page 76, shows a pulse width modulated (PWM) type. Each of these
type drives impacts power quality, power factor, and harmonic content as a
function of the line (source) inductances.

VSI drive. The VSI drive controls the DC voltage by using converter
thyristors, which in turn control the inverter output voltage. The load draws
whatever current it needs. The inverter does not use high frequency
switching.

CSI drive. The CSI drive controls the current to the motor to maintain the
required voltage and frequency with a more complex inverter section.

PWM drive. The PWM drive uses a simple diode bridge converter, which
minimizes the lower order harmonics generated and does not generate
commutation notches. However, this type of drive has a complex inverter
section that must control both the output voltage and frequency. It uses
higher frequency switching devices on the output than both VSI and CSI
drives.

Commutation notching

Commutation is the process by which one set of thyristors (or diodes) turns
OFF and the next set turns ON. It occurs when thyristors are used.

In a full 6-pulse converter, the thyristors operate in pairs to convert AC to DC

by switching the load current among the six thyristor pairs six times per AC
cycle. During this process, the current begins to transfer from one phase to
the next, creating a momentary phase-to-phase short circuit. Source
inductive reactance prevents instantaneous transfer (commutation) resulting
in a commutating notch. The duration of this short circuit is a function of the
total system inductance and the DC output current. Referring to Fig. 3 again,
we see a typical AC input to a 6-pulse full thyristor converter. Fig. 7, on page
76, shows just the phase-to-phase input voltage with line notches identified.
It also defines notch width and depth. The notch depth and area will differ
depending where in the system they are measured. Let's refer to Fig. 8, on
page 76, for a better understanding. Here, the notch depth at Point A will be
100%. At point B, it is calculated by using the following equation:

Notch depth (%) = [([L.sub.1] + [L.sub.2])/([L.sub.1] + [L.sub.2] +

[L.sub.3])] x 100 (eq. 1)

Since a line notch is a sudden change in voltage, resistor/capacitor (snubber)

networks will begin to discharge/charge during commutation notches. Where
multiple drives are applied on a common bus, the composite commutation
notching can overwork these snubber circuits and, in severe cases, cause
them to fail catastrophically. These networks are applied to absorb transient
voltages occurring across the thyristors due to high-speed electronic
switching. If these networks are out of tolerance or nonfunctional, a transient
voltage overshoot may occur, with a high incidence of thyristor fuse blowing
and/or drive component failures. Also, other sensitive equipment fed from
the common system can exhibit power quality/control problems. IEEE 597-
1983, Standard Practice and Requirements for General Purpose Thyristor DC
Drives states that "the repetitive peak deviations of the fundamental line
voltage from the instantaneous value of the line voltage may not exceed
25% of the crest working line voltage." This gives a practical upper limit.

These line notches are also rich in high frequency harmonics and are
propagated throughout the power system. Sensitive electronic equipment,
such as computers, programmable logic controllers (PLCs), and
instrumentation are especially sensitive to the high frequency content due to
line notching. For this reason, it's always a good idea to keep these sensitive-
type loads electrically isolated from these drives.
Line notching can also cause thyristor misfiring. This can happen when notch
width exceeds gate pulse width or with excessive notch depth. Per IEEE 519-
1992, Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electrical Power Systems, ASDs should be selected/designed to operate with
notch widths of 250 microseconds and a depth of 70% of rated peak line
current or less.

Table 1, on page 74, excerpted from IEEE 519-1992, defines commutation

notching limits for low voltage systems. For those systems having notching
out of limits, you should add commutating reactance ([L.sub.1] '[L.sub.2]
'[L.sub.3] as shown in Fig. 8); this is the most practical solution. Generally,
this is best accomplished by making the sum of [L.sub.2] plus [L.sub.3]
greater than [L.sub.1]. The addition of a series commutating reactor in the
drive itself or a drive isolation transformer easily serves this purpose.

Another benefit of adding commutating reactance is that the current

harmonics generated can be significantly reduced. However, a dilemma can
occur when the addition of inductance to decrease notch depth results in too
large of a notch area. Reducing [L.sub.1] (larger stepdown transformer) or
the addition of power factor capacitors at Point C in Fig. 8 may be
alternatives; however, they affect other system design parameters such as
short circuit levels and harmonics.

Electrical noise

Higher frequency harmonics caused by commutation notching, thyristor-

induced transients, high frequency (radiated or conducted) components
caused by high frequency switching in the inverter section (primarily CSI
drives), inadequate or improper signal grounding, static discharge from
insulation to ground (common mode noise), as well as use of walkie-talkies
in close proximity to drives have all been known to cause drive malfunctions.

The higher frequency sources and thyristor-induced transients are sometimes

called crosstalk or electrical noise. If this electrical noise is coupled into
controls or signal paths (such as thyristor gate leads), thyristor misfiring,
unstable speed control, erratic behavior and/or control board failures can and
will occur. This is especially a concern where multiple drives are fed from a
common bus without individual commutating reactors or isolation
transformers applied. The application of newer digital ASDs to existing analog
drive systems may result in similar problems.

Solutions could consist of adding commutating reactance, isolation

transformers, and carefully solving grounding installation problems. Where
digital and analog drives are intermixed, adding metal oxide varistors (MOVs)
and/or changing out thyristors so that they are more compatible with each
other are additional considerations.

Harmonics
In converting AC power to DC power in a DC drive application, the converter
effectively breaks or chops the AC current waveform by only allowing the
current to flow during a portion of the cycle. The example given previously in
Fig. 2 for a 3-phase, 6-pulse converter shows a square AC current waveform.
The distorted waveform can be separated into components using Fourier
analysis techniques, which will not be discussed here. However, DC drives
are typically operated with the thyristors phased back, and the 5th harmonic
current may be as high as 30%.

Harmonics produced by line-commutated converters are related to the pulse

number of the device. This is expressed mathematically by the following
equation.

h = (n x p) [+ or -] 1 (eq. 2) where h = the harmonic order, n = any integer

p = pulse number of converter

For example, for a 6-pulse converter, the harmonics present will be 5th, 7th,
11th, 13th, 17th, 19th, etc. Fig. 9, on page 79, shows typical characteristic
harmonic magnitudes, both numerically and graphically, of the most common
pulse-number static power converters. However, inaccuracies in thyristor
firing, differences in thyristor characteristics, and system unbalances would
cause the production of other "noncharacteristic" harmonic orders such as
3rd, 4th, and 6th.

Six- and 12-pulse converters are the most widely used. Three-pulse devices
are used in small power applications, such as extruders, while 18-pulse
devices, are used in much larger applications. The choice of pulse number is
a matter of economics versus harmonic control.

Larger AC drives, 100 hp and greater, typically use thyristor converters to

control bus voltage or line current to maintain desired speed. Unlike the
diodes used in DC drive converters that provide constant DC bus voltage,
controlling the switching of a thyristor with respect to the incoming voltage
waveform determines the bus voltage output. The disadvantage of the
thyristor converter is a greater AC current distortion during slower motor
speeds. Fifth harmonic current distortions greater than 50% have been
recorded at AC drive installations. The increase of harmonic current distortion
is a function of the type of AC drive and its speed.

Whether drives are AC or DC, a common means of reducing harmonics

generation while in the design process is by phase-multiplication or harmonic
cancellation. For example, if another converter were supplied by a voltage 30
[degrees] out of phase, the 5th, 7th, 17th, 19, etc. harmonic components
would be 180 [degrees] out of phase with those of the first converter. Thus,
if two equally loaded and identical drives were supplied by identical delta-
delta and delta-wye transformers respectively, the overall harmonic
production would resemble a 12-pulse device (greatly reduced 5th and 7th
harmonics). Of course, the less identical the drives supplied by phase-shifted
voltages, the less cancellation would occur.

However, significant harmonic cancellation can occur within a specific process

or throughout a plant by the judicious choice of transformer winding
connections. Fig. 10, on page 80, shows a 24-pulse application and Table 2,
on page 74, excerpted from IEEE 519-1992, lists the recommended harmonic
voltage distortion levels for various voltage ranges. Even though the limits
are for the utility point of common coupling (PCC), these values can be used
as a design guide in controlling harmonics within an industrial facility. If
economics preclude phase multiplication techniques, larger sized harmonic
filters or multiple single-tuned filters can be installed to reduce harmonic
magnitudes to acceptable levels.

Power factor

Operating variable frequency AC drives with thyristor converters at slow

speeds generally results in poor power factor. If the number of AC drives is
small compared with overall plant load, then the total power factor at the
utility metering point may not be cause for concern. However, large systems
of variable frequency drives would require reactive compensation. One
characteristic of PWM-type ASDs is a good power factor (due to diode front
end). Where lots of smaller drives are applied with expected low-speed
operation, PWM-type drives will significantly improve power factor and could
reduce the cost of harmonic filtered capacitor banks.

The practice of installing and switching a capacitor with a motor is not

recommended with AC drives. If the supply transformer and capacitor create
a resonance frequency that is the same as a harmonic produced by the drive,
high harmonic voltage and current magnitudes can occur at the capacitor,
which may cause fuse melting or component failure.

A safer application, from a harmonic viewpoint, is to install the properly rated

shunt capacitor with a series tuning reactor at the high voltage circuit as
shown in Fig. 11, on page 80.

Grounding

There are two areas of grounding concerns for drives or drives systems:
power system grounding and signal/equipment grounding.

Power system grounding. The majority of the smaller hp drives are applied at
480V. Most of these 480V systems have a solidly grounded, wye-connected
source transformer. In many cases, the solid grounding is an NEC
requirement, whether or not ASDs are applied. Consider that if a ground fault
occurs internal to the drive itself, the very high magnitude ground fault
current available on a solidly grounded system could cause catastrophic
failure. If this is a concern, you should use a drive isolation transformer to
derive a new ground system for the drive. This type of transformer also adds
commutating reactance (reduces harmonics; commutating notching, etc.) as
well as a special ground shield between the primary and secondary windings.
This shield also gives extra isolation for noise.

Larger dedicated drives or drive systems traditionally are supplied by an

ungrounded power system (that includes isolation transformers to individual
drives). These are actually capacitively grounded through the ground
insulation (cables, transformers, drives, etc.). This tradition has been the
industry practice based on the perception that an ungrounded system
provides maximum service continuity and that a phase-to-ground fault
causes very little ground fault current flow. (There may also be some internal
drive reasons.) Here, we are assuming, and accepting, the 173% voltage on
the unfaulted phases, a true perception providing only solid ground faults
occur.

But most ground faults begin as arcing faults that can result in 600% to
700% (or greater) voltage buildup with respect to ground. If allowed to
persist, system-wide insulation failure can occur (multiple failures on a
common bus), with snubber circuits, MOVs to ground, etc., all seriously
overstressed. Also, significantly increased insulation deterioration over time
can result.

The solution is to apply high resistance grounding (almost ungrounded). This

eliminates the transient overvoltages from occurring while still providing the
service continuity perceived to be provided by an ungrounded system.
However, the system must be engineered specific to a given installation. This
is especially true for isolation transformers with single drives. High resistance
grounding has been successfully applied for these purposes over the last 20
years in many other industries. The most notable are drive systems within
the paper industry. It's just now gaining acceptance by some drive
manufacturers. Special note: High resistance grounding is not practical for
most systems over 5kV.

Signal/equipment grounding. Signal and equipment grounding are probably

the most misunderstood aspects of grounding. The equipment grounding
function is a mandated (NEC green wire) requirement for equipment and
personnel safety. The signal ground is necessary to prevent unwanted
avenues of electrical noise from being fed into the drive control system.
Problems can exist when installing the power system ground, the equipment
grounding conductor (green wire), and the signal ground.

Historically, drive systems, distributed control systems, and large computer

facilities have specified isolated grounds; this is not only unsafe, but it
violates the NEC on at least two counts (Secs. 250-26 and 250-81). In many
instances, it does not solve signal grounding requirements as expected. The
long insulated ground conductor to the isolated ground mat frequently acts
as an "antenna," feeding noise directly into the signal boards. The correct
method is to use a "single point ground."

The following standards give detailed examples and methods on how to

install the equipment grounding conductor, the single-point ground, and the
signal ground into one common, safe, and clean signal system.

* IEEE 142-1991, Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and

Commercial Power Systems (the Green Book).

* IEEE 1100-1992, Recommended Practice for Power and Grounding

Sensitive Electronic Equipment (the Emerald Book).

* Federal Information Processing Standards Publication 94, Guideline on

Electrical Power for ADP Installations (FIPS 94).

Power quality

Power quality is a term used to combine all the system disturbances that
affect the performance of drives, computers, and other sensitive electronic
equipment. There are three major divisions: Harmonics, grounding, and
sags/swells/transients. We've discussed the first two; now onto the last
division.

There are certain normal conditions that occur periodically (usually in the
utility system external to the facilities) that can have adverse effects on
ASDs. The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) technical brief "Power
Quality Considerations for Adjustable Speed Drives," explains one common
adverse condition.

Since the internal DC link capacitor is essentially connected alternately across

each of the three phases, drives of this type can be extremely sensitive to
overvoltages on the AC power side. One event of particular concern is
capacitor switching on the utility system. As an arc is drawn switching the
capacitor bank, it excites an LC ring wave at the natural frequency of the
inductance of the system and the bank capacitance. These utility-generated
voltage switching transients result in a surge of current into the DC link
capacitor at a relatively low frequency (300-800 Hz). This current surge
charges the DC link capacitor and causes an overvoltage to occur (through
Ohm's law). The overvoltage (not necessarily magnified) exceeds the voltage
tolerance thresholds associated with the overvoltage protection, properly
tripping the ASD out of service. This is called nuisance tripping because the
situation can occur day after day, often at the same time of the day. Several
methods are available to resolve such tripping, some of which are simple and
some costly.
The use of a harmonic filter to reduce overvoltages (a relatively expensive
alternative) is very effective in protecting drives from component failure but
may not completely eliminate nuisance tripping of small drives.

In at least two other instances known by the authors, simply switching utility
company 69kV circuit breakers several miles away resulted in a relatively
high frequency ring wave that caused internal drive under/over voltage
tripping. The built-in protective functions from the drive manufacturer were
not rms sensing but peak sensing. Thus, the protection sensed an
instantaneous under/over voltage condition, assumed it was an rms condition
and erroneously tripped the ASD off-line.

The most effective (and relatively inexpensive) way to eliminate nuisance

tripping of small drives is to isolate them from the power system by adding
commutating reactance in the primary of the drive. Sometimes, the addition
of an appropriate UL 1449 Transient Voltage Surge Suppressor (TVSS) is also
warranted.

Summary

While we've discussed most of the issues of power quality and line
considerations in the application of ASDs, the following guidelines can help
ensure assuring trouble-free ASD reliability.

* Select the ASD primarily based on application. A common error is to buy

strictly on price, without proper application considerations.

* Address the issue of applying the correct commutating reactance. Note that
commutating notch depth, area, electrical noise, harmonic generation, and
response to switching transient ring waves are all influenced.

* Review and evaluate each vendor's drive for surge protection (snubbers,
transient overshoot); harmonic signature (of particular concern are the
higher order voltage harmonics such as 20th through 50th; this is especially
a concern for CSI drives); peak deviations greater than or equal to 125% of
crest working voltage (inverter output also); and internal "power system
protection" [peak sensing or rms? If peak sensing (or DC link), any time
delay?].

* Address electrical noise, especially for numerous drives on a common bus.

If you have a noisy electrical environment, use isolation transformers in lieu
of just commutating reactors. Also, keep other sensitive electronic equipment
electrically isolated if possible. Exercise care when intermixing new digital
drives with analog drives.

* Where a significant portion of the load is comprised of ASDs, perform a

power factor and harmonic study. Try not to switch power factor capacitors
with individual drives. Installation must meet IEEE 519 requirements at the
utility point of common coupling. Consider using a 12-pulse or 18-pulse type
for large drives. Use phase cancellation where practical by intermixing delta-
delta and delta-wye transformers (stepdown or isolation). Selecting all PWM-
type drives will improve power factor but may aggravate harmonic condition.

* Address the following grounding issues: Always apply the NEC "equipment
grounding conductor" (green wire) since the use of conduit for this function
will tend to be "noisy;" use high resistance grounding where practical; and
use a single-point signal ground design.

* Conduct an in-depth power quality investigation if your facility has a history

of unexplained nuisance tripping or drive failures. The new drive system
should be designed and applied to function reliably in its environment. Note
that some of the solutions may be independent of the drive itself.

Evaluate the manufacturer's system for internal protection. Cheaper designs

having no commutating reactors, minimal snubber circuits, no input MOVs,
and extremely sensitive peak sensing under and overvoltage protection
should be ruled out. If external switching transients (ring waves, etc.) are
present and adding commutating reactance is not practical, consider active
power line conditioners, "sine-wave" trackers (a new type of TVSS that
"tracks the sine wave"), and/or MOVs. You also can have the utility identify
and resolve the source of any switching transients in their system.

David D. Shipp, P.E. and W.S. Vilcheck David D. Shipp, P.E., is Senior
Consulting Engineer, and W. S. Vilcheck is Electrical Engineer at
Westinghouse Electric Corp., Oakdale, Pa.