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CONTENTS
Preface xvi
Chapter 1 Introduction to Behavior Modification 1

Defining Human Behavior 2 Prevention 14
Examples of Behavior 4 Sports Performance 14
Defining Behavior Modification 5 Health-Related Behaviors 14
Characteristics of Behavior Modification 6 Gerontology 15
Historical Roots of Behavior Modification 8 Professional Practice, Certification, and
Major Figures 8 Ethics 15
Early Behavior Modification Researchers 11 The Structure of This Textbook 15
Major Publications and Events 11 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior
Change 16
Areas of Application 12
Basic Principles of Behavior 16
Developmental Disabilities 12
Procedures to Establish New Behaviors 16
Mental Illness 12
Procedures to Increase Desirable Behaviors and
Education and Special Education 12
Decrease Undesirable Behaviors 16
Rehabilitation 13
Other Behavior Change Procedures 16
Community Psychology 13
Chapter Summary 17
Clinical Psychology 13
Key Terms 17
Business, Industry, and Human Services 13
Practice Test 17
Self-Management 14
Child Behavior Management 14
PART 1 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change
Chapter 2 Observing and Recording Behavior 19

Direct and Indirect Assessment 20 Continuous Recording 26
Defining the Target Behavior 21 Percentage of Opportunities 29
The Logistics of Recording 23 Product Recording 29
The Observer 23 Interval Recording 30
When and Where to Record 24 Time Sample Recording 31
Choosing a Recording Method 26 Choosing a Recording Instrument 32
vi
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CONTENTS vii
Reactivity 36 Practice Test 40

Interobserver Agreement 37 Applications 41
Chapter Summary 39 Misapplications 42
Key Terms 40
Chapter 3 Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 43

Components of a Graph 45 Alternating-Treatments Design 59
Graphing Behavioral Data 47 Changing-Criterion Design 60
Graphing Data from Different Recording Chapter Summary 61
Procedures 50 Key Terms 62
Research Designs 51 Practice Test 62
A-B Design 52 Applications 62
A-B-A-B Reversal Design 53 Misapplications 63
Multiple-Baseline Design 54
PART 2 Basic Principles
Chapter 4 Reinforcement 65
Defining Reinforcement 67 Schedules of Reinforcement 81
Positive and Negative Reinforcement 70 Fixed Ratio 82
Social versus Automatic Reinforcement 73 Variable Ratio 83
Escape and Avoidance Behaviors 73 Fixed Interval 84
Conditioned and Unconditioned Variable Interval 85
Reinforcers 75 Reinforcing Different Dimensions of Behavior 86
Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement 87
Reinforcement 76
Chapter Summary 88
Immediacy 76
Key Terms 88
Contingency 77
Practice Test 89
Motivating Operations 77
Appendix A 90
Individual Differences 80
Appendix B 90
Magnitude 81
Chapter 5 Extinction 91
Defining Extinction 92 Factors That Influence Extinction 101
Extinction Burst 95 Chapter Summary 103
Spontaneous Recovery 97 Key Terms 103
Procedural Variations of Extinction 98 Practice Test 103
A Common Misconception about Extinction 100 Appendix A 104
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 6 Punishment 105

Defining Punishment 106 Problems with Punishment 120
A Common Misconception about Emotional Reactions to Punishment 121
Punishment 108 Escape and Avoidance 121
Positive and Negative Punishment 109 Negative Reinforcement for the Use of
Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishment 121
Punishers 113 Punishment and Modeling 122
Contrasting Reinforcement and Punishment 115 Ethical Issues 122
Factors That Influence the Effectiveness Chapter Summary 123
of Punishment 117
Key Terms 123
Immediacy 117
Practice Test 123
Contingency 118
Appendix A 125
Motivating Operations 118
Individual Differences and Magnitude of the
Punisher 120
Chapter 7 Stimulus Control: Discrimination and

Generalization 127
Examples of Stimulus Control 128 The Three-Term Contingency 134
Defining Stimulus Control 129 Stimulus Control Research 135
Developing Stimulus Control: Stimulus Generalization 136
Discrimination Training 131 Examples of Generalization 138
Discrimination Training in the Laboratory 131 Chapter Summary 142
Developing Reading and Spelling with Key Terms 143
Discrimination Training 133
Practice Test 143
Stimulus Discrimination Training and
Appendix A 143
Punishment 134
Chapter 8 Respondent Conditioning 145

Examples of Respondent Conditioning 146 Factors That Influence Respondent
Defining Respondent Conditioning 146 Conditioning 155
Timing of the Neutral Stimulus and The Nature of the Unconditioned Stimulus and
Unconditioned Stimulus 149 Conditioned Stimulus 155
Higher-Order Conditioning 151 The Temporal Relationship between the Neutral
Stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus 155
Conditioned Emotional Responses 151
Contingency between the Neutral Stimulus and
Extinction of Conditioned Responses 153
Unconditioned Stimulus 156
Spontaneous Recovery 154
The Number of Pairings 156
Discrimination and Generalization of
Previous Exposure to the Conditioned
Respondent Behavior 154
Stimulus 156
CONTENTS ix
Distinguishing between Operant and Chapter Summary 160

Respondent Conditioning 157 Key Terms 161
Respondent Conditioning and Behavior Practice Test 161
Modification 160
PART 3 Procedures to Establish New Behavior
Chapter 9 Shaping 163

An Example of Shaping: Teaching a Child to How to Use Shaping 173
Talk 163 Shaping of Problem Behaviors 175
Defining Shaping 164 Chapter Summary 178
Applications of Shaping 166 Key Terms 179
Getting Mrs. F to Walk Again 166 Practice Test 179
Getting Mrs. S to Increase the Time between Applications 179
Bathroom Visits 167
Misapplications 180
Research on Shaping 169
Chapter 10 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 181

An Example of Prompting and Fading: Teaching Stimulus Fading 193
Little Leaguers to Hit the Ball 182 How to Use Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus
What Is Prompting? 183 Control 195
What Is Fading? 184 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control in
Types of Prompts 186 Autism Treatment 198
Response Prompts 187 Chapter Summary 198
Stimulus Prompts 188 Key Terms 199
Transfer of Stimulus Control 190 Practice Test 199
Prompt Fading 190 Applications 200
Prompt Delay 192 Misapplications 200
Chapter 11 Chaining 201

Examples of Behavioral Chains 202 Other Strategies for Teaching Behavioral
Analyzing Stimulus-Response Chains 215
Chains 202 Written Task Analysis 215
Task Analysis 204 Picture Prompts 215
Backward Chaining 207 Video Modeling 216
Forward Chaining 209 Self-Instructions 217
Total Task Presentation 211 How to Use Chaining Procedures 218
x CONTENTS
Chapter Summary 220 Applications 221

Key Terms 220 Misapplications 221
Practice Test 220
Chapter 12 Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 223

Examples of Behavioral Skills Training In Situ Training 231
Procedures 224 Behavioral Skills Training and the Three-Term
Teaching Marcia to Say “No” to the Contingency 232
Professors 224 Behavioral Skills Training in Groups 233
Teaching Children to Protect Themselves from Applications of Behavioral Skills Training
Abduction 224 Procedures 234
Components of the Behavioral Skills Training How to Use Behavioral Skills Training
Procedure 225 Procedures 238
Instructions 225 Chapter Summary 240
Modeling 227 Key Terms 240
Rehearsal 229 Practice Test 240
Feedback 229 Applications 241
Enhancing Generalization after Behavioral Skills Misapplications 241
Training 230
In Situ Assessment 231
PART 4 Procedures to Increase Desirable Behavior and Decrease

Undesirable Behavior
Chapter 13 Understanding Problem Behaviors through Functional
Assessment 243
Examples of Functional Assessment 244 Direct Observation Methods 252
Jacob 244 Experimental Methods (Functional
Anna 245 Analysis) 257
Defining Functional Assessment 246 Functional Analysis Research 261
Functions of Problem Behaviors 247 Conducting a Functional Assessment 265
Social Positive Reinforcement 248 Functional Interventions 267
Social Negative Reinforcement 248 Chapter Summary 267
Automatic Positive Reinforcement 248 Key Terms 268
Automatic Negative Reinforcement 248 Practice Test 268
Functional Assessment Methods 249 Applications 269
Indirect Methods 249 Misapplications 271
CONTENTS xi
Chapter 14 Applying Extinction 273

The Case of Willy 274 Reinforcing Alternative Behaviors 287
Using Extinction to Decrease a Problem Promoting Generalization and
Behavior 276 Maintenance 287
Collecting Data to Assess Treatment Research Evaluating the Use of Extinction 288
Effects 277 Chapter Summary 292
Identifying the Reinforcer for the Problem Key Terms 292
Behavior through Functional
Practice Test 292
Assessment 277
Applications 293
Eliminating the Reinforcer after Each Instance
of the Problem Behavior 278 Misapplications 293
Taking Account of the Schedule of Appendix A 294
Reinforcement before Extinction 285 Appendix B 295
Chapter 15 Differential Reinforcement 297

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of
Behavior 298 Responding 316
Getting Mrs. Williams to Be Positive 298 Defining DRL 317
When to Use DRA 300 Variations of DRL 317
How to Use DRA 300 How are DRO and Spaced-Responding DRL
Using Differential Negative Reinforcement of Different? 318
Alternative Behaviors 304 Implementing DRL Procedures 318
Variations of DRA 306 Research Evaluating DRL Procedures 320
Research on DRA 306 Chapter Summary 322
Differential Reinforcement of Other Key Terms 323
Behavior 309 Practice Test 323
Defining DRO 310 Applications 324
Implementing DRO 311 Misapplications 325
Research Evaluating DRO Procedures 313
Chapter 16 Antecedent Control Procedures 327

Examples of Antecedent Control 328 Decreasing Response Effort for the Desirable
Getting Marianne to Study More 328 Behavior 333
Getting Cal to Eat Right 328 Removing the Discriminative Stimulus or Cues
for Undesirable Behaviors 334
Defining Antecedent Control Procedures 329
D Presenting Abolishing Operations for
Presenting the Discriminative Stimulus (S ) or
Undesirable Behaviors 336
Cues for the Desired Behavior 329
Increasing the Response Effort for Undesirable
Arranging Establishing Operations for the
Behaviors 337
Desirable Behavior 331
xii CONTENTS
Research on Antecedent Control Strategies 338 Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the
Manipulating Discriminative Undesirable Behavior 348
Stimuli 338 Functional Interventions for Problem
Manipulating Response Effort 341 Behaviors 348
Manipulating Motivating Operations 343 Chapter Summary 349
Using Antecedent Control Strategies 346 Key Terms 349
Analysis of the Three-Term Contingency for the Practice Test 349
Desirable Behavior 347 Applications 350
Misapplications 351
Chapter 17 Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost 353

Time-Out 354 Comparing Response Cost, Time-Out, and
Types of Time-Out 356 Extinction 365
Using Reinforcement with Time-Out 357 Considerations in Using Response Cost 366
Considerations in Using Time-Out 357 Research Evaluating Response Cost Procedures 368
Research Evaluating Time-Out Procedures 361 Chapter Summary 370
Response Cost 364 Key Terms 370
Defining Response Cost 365 Practice Test 370
Using Differential Reinforcement with Response Applications 371
Cost 365 Misapplications 371
Chapter 18 Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics

of Punishment 373
Application of Aversive Activities 374 Alternative Treatments 387
Overcorrection 375 Recipient Safety 387
Contingent Exercise 377 Problem Severity 387
Guided Compliance 378 Implementation Guidelines 388
Physical Restraint 379 Training and Supervision 388
Cautions in the Application of Aversive Peer Review 388
Activities 381 Accountability: Preventing Misuse and
Application of Aversive Stimulation 381 Overuse 388
Positive Punishment: Treatment of Last Chapter Summary 389
Resort 384 Key Terms 389
Considerations in Using Positive Practice Test 389
Punishment 385
Applications 390
The Ethics of Punishment 386
Misapplications 390
Informed Consent 387
CONTENTS xiii
Chapter 19 Promoting Generalization 393

Examples of Generalization Programming 393 Providing Cues in the Natural
Defining Generalization 395 Environment 404
Strategies for Promoting Generalization of Incorporating Self-Generated Mediators of
Behavior Change 395 Generalization 405
Reinforcing Occurrences of Generalization 395 Implementing Strategies to Promote
Generalization 406
Training Skills That Contact Natural
Contingencies of Reinforcement 397 Promoting Generalized Reductions in Problem
Behaviors 407
Modifying Contingencies of Reinforcement and
Punishment in the Natural Chapter Summary 409
Environment 399 Key Terms 410
Incorporating a Variety of Relevant Stimulus Practice Test 410
Situations in Training 400 Applications 410
Incorporating Common Stimuli 403 Misapplications 411
Teaching a Range of Functionally Equivalent
Responses 403
PART 5 Other Behavior Change Procedures
Chapter 20 Self-Management 413

Examples of Self-Management 414 Social Support 422
Getting Murray to Run Regularly 414 Self-Instructions and Self-Praise 423
Getting Annette to Clean Up Her Mess 414 Steps in a Self-Management Plan 424
Defining Self-Management Problems 416 Clinical Problems 427
Defining Self-Management 418 Chapter Summary 428
Types of Self-Management Strategies 418 Key Terms 428
Goal-Setting and Self-Monitoring 419 Practice Test 429
Antecedent Manipulations 419 Applications 429
Behavioral Contracting 420 Misapplications 430
Arranging Reinforcers and Punishers 421
Chapter 21 Habit Reversal Procedures 431

Examples of Habit Behaviors 432 Habit Reversal Procedures 435
Defining Habit Behaviors 432 Applications of Habit Reversal 436
Nervous Habits 433 Nervous Habits 436
Motor and Vocal Tics 433 Motor and Vocal Tics 437
Stuttering 434 Stuttering 438
xiv CONTENTS
Why Do Habit Reversal Procedures Work? 439 Practice Test 444

Other Treatment Procedures for Habit Applications 445
Disorders 442 Misapplications 445
Chapter Summary 444
Key Terms 444
Chapter 22 The Token Economy 447

Rehabilitating Sammy 447 Staff Training and Management 456
Defining a Token Economy 449 Practical Considerations 456
Implementing a Token Economy 449 Applications of a Token
Defining the Target Behaviors 449 Economy 457
Identifying the Items to Use as Tokens 451 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Token
Economy 464
Identifying Backup Reinforcers 451
Chapter Summary 464
Deciding on the Appropriate Schedule of
Reinforcement 453 Key Terms 465
Establishing the Token Exchange Rate 454 Practice Test 465
Establishing the Time and Place for Exchanging Applications 465
Tokens 454 Misapplications 466
Deciding Whether to Use Response Cost 455
Chapter 23 Behavioral Contracts 469

Examples of Behavioral Contracting 470 Negotiating a Behavioral Contract 477
Getting Steve to Complete His Why Do Behavioral Contracts Influence
Dissertation 470 Behavior? 478
Helping Dan and His Parents Get Along Applications of Behavioral Contracts 479
Better 471 Chapter Summary 483
Defining the Behavioral Contract 472 Key Terms 483
Components of a Behavioral Contract 473 Practice Test 483
Types of Behavioral Contracts 475 Applications 484
One-Party Contracts 475 Misapplications 484
Two-Party Contracts 476
Chapter 24 Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 487

Examples of Fear and Anxiety Reduction 488 Procedures to Reduce Fear and Anxiety 492
Overcoming Trisha’s Fear of Public Relaxation Training 492
Speaking 488 Systematic Desensitization 498
Overcoming Allison’s Fear of Spiders 488 In Vivo Desensitization 499
Defining Fear and Anxiety Problems 490
CONTENTS xv
Advantages and Disadvantages of Systematic Key Terms 506

and In Vivo Desensitization 503 Practice Test 506
Other Treatments for Fears 504 Applications 506
Clinical Problems 505 Misapplications 507
Chapter Summary 505
Chapter 25 Cognitive Behavior Modification 509

Examples of Cognitive Behavior Cognitive Coping Skills Training 520
Modification 510 Acceptance-Based Therapies 522
Helping Deon Control His Anger 510 Clinical Problems 523
Helping Claire Pay Attention in Class 511 Chapter Summary 523
Defining Cognitive Behavior Modification 513 Key Terms 523
Defining Cognitive Behavior 513 Practice Test 524
Functions of Cognitive Behavior 514 Applications 524
Cognitive Behavior Modification Misapplications 525
Procedures 515
Cognitive Restructuring 515
Glossary 527
References 539
Name Index 557
Subject Index 563
Quizzes Q1
PREFACE
I am gratified that the first five editions of Behavior Modification: Principles and
Procedures received positive reviews from students and professors. The sixth
edition has kept the positive features of the first five editions, has been revised to
address the suggestions of reviewers, and has been updated to reflect the latest
research in behavior modification.
The goal of this sixth edition (as with the earlier editions) is to describe basic
principles of behavior so that the student learns how environmental events influ-
ence human behavior and to describe behavior modification procedures so that
the student learns the strategies by which human behavior may be changed. The
text is divided into 25 relatively short chapters, each of which covers a manageable
amount of information (for example, one principle or procedure). This text can be
used in a standard one-semester course in behavior modification, applied behavior
analysis, behavior management, or behavior change.
The material in the text is discussed at an introductory level so that it may be under-
stood by students with no prior knowledge of the subject. This text is intended for under-
graduate students or beginning graduate students. It would also be valuable for
individuals working in human services, education, or rehabilitation who must use behav-
ior modification procedures to manage the behavior of the individuals in their care.
I have made a concerted effort in this text to be gender neutral. When dis-
cussing case examples, I include males and females about equally as often.
Features of the Text Continued from the First

Five Editions
The following features of the text are intended to help the reader learn easily.
Organization of the Text Following a general introduction to the field in

Chapter 1, Chapters 2 and 3 present information on behavior recording,
graphing, and measuring change. This information will be utilized in each
subsequent chapter. Next, Chapters 4–8 focus on the basic principles of operant
and respondent behavior. The application of these principles forms the subject of
the remaining 17 chapters. Procedures to establish new behaviors are described in
Chapters 9–12, and procedures to increase desirable behaviors and decrease
undesirable behaviors are considered in Chapters 13–19. Finally, Chapters 20–25
present a survey of other important behavior modification procedures.
Principles and Procedures The various procedures for changing behavior are
based on the fundamental principles of behavior established in experimental
research over the last 80 years. In the belief that the student will better understand
the procedures after first learning the fundamental principles, the principles
xvi
PREFACE xvii
underlying operant and respondent behavior are reviewed in Chapters 4–8; the
application of the principles in the behavior modification procedures is described
in Chapters 9–25.
Examples from Everyday Life Each chapter uses a variety of real-life examples—
some relevant to college students, some chosen from the author’s clinical experience—
to bring the principles and procedures to life.
Examples from Research In addition, both classic studies and the most up-
to-date research on behavior modification principles and procedures are integrated
into the text.
Quizzes Accompany Each Chapter Three fill-in-the-blank quizzes with 10

questions are provided for each of the 25 chapters. The quizzes provide students
with further exercises for self-assessment of their knowledge of the chapters’ con-
tent. The quizzes are on perforated pages, which can be easily torn out so that
the instructor can have students hand the quizzes in as homework assignments or
have students take the quizzes in class.
Practice Tests Practice tests at the end of each chapter have short-answer essay
questions, complete with page numbers where the answers can be found.
Application Exercises At the end of each chapter where procedures are taught
(Chapters 2, 3, and 9–25), several application exercises are provided. In each exer-
cise, a real-life case is described and then the student is asked to apply the proce-
dure described in the chapter. These exercises give students an opportunity to
think about how the procedures are applied in real life.
Misapplication Exercises The application exercises are followed by misapplica-

tion exercises. In each one, a case example is provided, and the procedure from
the chapter is applied to the case in an incorrect or inappropriate manner. The
student is asked to analyze the case example and to describe what is wrong with
the application of the procedure in that case. These misapplication exercises
require the student to think critically about the application of the procedure.
Answers to Applications and Misapplications are in the Instructors Manual, mak-
ing them valuable tools for instructors as they assess their students’ abilities to
apply the information provided in the chapter.
Step-by-Step Approach In each chapter in which a particular behavior modifi-

cation procedure is taught, the implementation of the procedure is outlined in a
step-by-step fashion, for ease of comprehension.
Summary Boxes Periodically throughout the text, information from a chapter is

summarized in a box that has been set off from the text. These boxes are intended
to help the student organize the material in the chapter.
Chapter Summaries Chapter summaries provide information that is consistent

with the opening questions in each chapter.
xviii PREFACE
Examples for Self-Assessment In the early chapters on basic principles

(Chapters 4–7), there are tables with examples of the principle discussed within that
chapter. Later in the chapter (or in a subsequent chapter), the student is directed to
return to a specific table and, using the new information being presented in the chap-
ter, to analyze specific aspects of the examples provided in that table.
Self-Assessment Questions At intervals throughout the text, students are pre-

sented with self-assessment questions. To answer these questions, students will
need to utilize the information already presented in the chapter. These questions
will help students assess their understanding of the material. In most cases,
answers are presented in the text immediately following the question.
Figures Most of the chapters include figures from the research literature to illustrate
important principles or procedures. Students must use information from earlier chap-
ters on behavior recording, graphing, and measuring change to analyze the graphs.
Glossary At the end of the text is a glossary of the important behavior modifica-
tion terms used in the text. Each term is followed by a succinct and precise
definition.
Improved Test Bank The test bank includes multiple-choice questions, fill-
in-the-blank questions, true-false questions, and short-answer essay questions.
For Further Reading Each of the chapters includes a For Further Reading box.
In this feature, interesting articles that are relevant to the content of the chapter
are identified and briefly described. Citations for these articles have also been
provided. These articles are from JABA (or JEAB), so they can be easily accessed
online by students. Instructors can assign these articles for extra credit or as reading
assignments for when more advanced students use the textbook.
List of Key Terms After each Chapter Summary section, there is a list of the
new terms that were used in the chapter. The list of key terms shows the page
number on which each term was introduced. Although these terms are all found
in the Glossary at the end of the text, having the new terms, and their page num-
bers, listed at the end of each chapter will allow the student to have an easy refer-
ence to the terms when reading the chapter or when studying for a test or quiz.
New Features in the Sixth Edition

Highlighting There is new highlighting of important information in each chap-
ter to draw the students’ attention to the information. In addition, in-text questions
are highlighted with a ? icon. Finally, more text boxes are provided highlighting
important information.
Motivating Operations The term motivating operation was introduced in the

last edition. In this edition, more detail is provided on the two types of motivating
operations (EOs and AOs) in Chapters 4 and 6 to help students better understand
PREFACE xix
the concept applied to reinforcement and punishment. A table in Chapter 6

provides a succinct summary.
Functional Relationships Provided more detail on how functional relationships

between environmental variables and behavior are assessed. Emphasized how func-
tional relationships are established in each type of research design (Chapter 3) and
how functional analysis procedures identify functional relationships (Chapter 13).
Functional Analysis Provided more information on functional analysis in

Chapter 13. Clarified the distinction between functional assessment and functional
analysis and clinical applications of the functional analysis methodology.
Behavior Recording Added a figure highlighting the difference between inter-

val recording and time sample recording (Chapter 2). Discussed the use of tech-
nology for behavior recording including information on behavior recording apps
for smartphones and tablets, accelerometers and GPS-enabled devices for record-
ing exercise and physical activity, and web-based programs for recording and self-
management (Chapters 2 and 23).
Professional Practice, Certification, and Ethics Discussed professional prac-

tice, certification, and ethics in Chapter 1. Provided information on Board
Certified Behavior Analysts as the practicing professional who uses the behavior
modification procedures presented in this text. Discussed ethical principles in
Chapters 1 and 6.
Getting Buy In Discussed the importance of working with care givers to get buy
in for the procedures they are asked to carry out. Emphasized the importance of
treatment acceptability for promoting buy in and the importance of buy in for
enhancing treatment fidelity.
Time Out Added more information on the effective use of time out. Added a
textbox discussing procedures for increasing compliance with time out.
Generalization Added discussion of another strategy for promoting generaliza-

tion; providing cues for the behavior in the natural environment
Other New Features

■ Added more self-assessment questions in the text
■ Updated the definition of behavior modification (Chapter 1)
■ Added brief discussion of behaviorism (Chapter 1)
■ Highlighted that the AB design is not a true research design (Chapter 3)
■ Introduced the terms evoke and abate in the discussion of EOs and AOs
(Chapter 4) and evoke in the discussion of stimulus control (Chapter 7)
■ Moved discussion of instructions before the discussion of modeling in
behavioral skills training (Chapter 12)
■ Clarified the two functions of feedback (Chapter 12)
■ Distinguished between preference assessment and reinforcer assessment
(Chapter 15)
xx PREFACE
■
Added a brief discussion of the competing responses framework (Chapter 16)
■
Added a brief discussion of team decision making (Chapter 16)
■ Provided discussion of the use of physical restraint as an emergency proce-
dure (Chapter 18)
■ Discussed the use of social media for social support (Chapter 20)
■ Added information on novel uses of habit reversal (Chapter 21)
■ Added a more succinct definition of a token economy (Chapter 22)
■ Added a text box describing three essential components of relaxation proce-
dures (Chapter 24)
■ Added text box introducing behavioral activation treatment for depression
(Chapter 24)
■ Added numerous new references throughout the text
■ Introduced and defined a number of new terms in the text and added them
to the glossary
Accompanying This Text

Online Instructor’s Manual The instructor’s manual contains a variety of
resources to aid instructors in preparing and presenting text material in a manner
that meets their personal preferences and course needs. It presents chapter-
by-chapter suggestions and resources to enhance and facilitate learning.
®
Online PowerPoint Slides These vibrant Microsoft PowerPoint® lecture
slides for each chapter assist you with your lecture by providing concept coverage
using content directly from the textbook.
Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero Cognero is a flexible

online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content as
well as create multiple test versions in an instant. You can deliver tests from your
school’s learning management system, your classroom, or wherever you want!
Acknowledgments
I want to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on this
manuscript and the first five editions: Judith Rauenzahb, Kutztown University of
Pennsylvania; Paul Ginnetty, St. Joseph’s College, Patchogue; Veda Charlton,
University of Central Arkansas; Robert W. Allan, Lafayette College; Viviette
Allen, Fayetteville State University; Cynthia Anderson, West Virginia University;
Jennifer Austin, Florida State University; Charles Blose, MacMurry College;
Kristine Brady, California School of Professional Psychology; James Carr, Western
Michigan University; Carl Cheney, Utah State University; Darlene Crone-Todd,
Delta State University; Paula Davis, Southern Illinois University; Richard N. Feil,
Mansfield University; Deirdre Beebe Fitzgerald, Eastern Connecticut State Uni-
versity; Stephan Flanagan, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill;
Roger Harnish, Rochester Institute of Technology; Gerald Harris, The University
PREFACE xxi
of Houston; Robert Heffer, Texas A&M University; Stephen W. Holborn, Univer-

sity of Manitoba; Dorothea Lerman, Louisiana State University; Tom Lombardo,
University of Mississippi; John Malouff, Nova Southern Eastern University;
Guenn Martin, Cumberland University; Kay McIntyre, University of Missouri–
St. Louis; Ronald Miller, Brigham Young University—Hawaii; Robert W.
Montgomery, Georgia State University; Charles S. Peyser, University of the South;
Brady Phelps, South Dakota State University; Joseph J. Plaud, University of North
Dakota; Robyn Rogers, Southwest Texas State University; Johannes Rojahn, George
Mason University; Paul Romanowich, Mesa College; Alison Thomas Cottingham,
Rider University; J. Kevin Thompson, University of Southern Florida; Bruce Thyer,
University of Georgia; James T. Todd, Eastern Michigan University; Sharon Van
Leer, Delaware State University; Timothy Vollmer, University of Florida; Robert
W. Wildblood, Northern Virginia Community College; Kenneth N. Wildman,
Ohio Northern University; Douglas Woods, University of Wisconsin–-Milwaukee;
and Todd Zakrajsek, Southern Oregon State College. I especially want to thank
Marianne Taflinger, senior editor at Wadsworth, for her guidance and support
throughout the initial development of the text.
For the Behavior Modification Student

To get the most out of this text and out of your behavior modification course, you
are encouraged to consider the following recommendations.
1. Read the assigned chapters before the class meeting at which the chapter is
to be discussed. You will benefit more from the class if you have first read
the material.
2. Answer each of the self-assessment questions in the chapter to see if you
understand the material just covered.
3. Answer the practice test questions at the end of each chapter. If you can answer
each question, you know that you understand the material in the chapter.
4. Complete the end-of-chapter quizzes to assess your knowledge of the chap-
ter content.
5. Complete the application and misapplication exercises at the end of the
procedure chapters. In that way, you will understand the material in the
chapter well enough to apply it or to identify how it is applied incorrectly.
6. The best way to study for a test is to test yourself. After reading and reread-
ing the chapter and your class notes, test yourself in the following ways.
■ Look at key terms in the chapter and see if you can define them without
looking at the definitions in the text.
■ Look at each practice test question at the end of the chapter and see if
you can give the correct answer without looking up the answer in the
text or in your notes.
■ Come up with novel examples of each principle or procedure in the chapter.
■ Make flash cards with a term or question on one side and the definition of
the term or the answer to the question on the other side. While studying,
xxii PREFACE
look at the term (or question) on one side of the card and then read the
definition (or answer) on the other. As you study, you will find that you
need to turn the cards over less and less often. Once you can supply the
answer or definition on the back of the card without looking, you’ll know
that you understand the material. Electronic flash cards are available at
the publisher’s website that accompanies the book.
■ Always study in a location that is reasonably free from distractions or
interruptions.
■ Always begin studying for a test at least a few days in advance. Give your-
self more days to study as more chapters are included on the test.
The following websites provide a range of valuable information about different aspects of behavior modification or applied behavior
analysis.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3703 Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3711 Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
http://www.abainternational.org The Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.apbahome.net/ Association of Professional Behavior Analysts
http://www.apa.org/about/division/div25.aspx/ APA Division 25 (Behavior Analysis)
http://www.abct.org Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy
http://fabaworld.org Florida Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.calaba.org/ California Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.txaba.org/ Texas Association for Behavior Analysis
http://www.babat.org/ Berkshire Association for Behavior Analysis and Therapy
http://www.baojournal.com/ The Behavior Analyst Online
www.autismspeaks.org Autism Speaks
http://www.behavior.org Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies
http://www.bfskinner.org/ B.F. Skinner Foundation
http://www.bacb.com/ Behavior Analyst Certification Board
Raymond G. Miltenberger
1
Introduction to Behavior
Modification
■ How is human behavior defined?
■ What are the defining features of behavior modification?
■ What are the historical roots of behavior modification?
■ In what ways has behavior modification improved people’s lives?
I n this textbook you will learn about behavior modification, the principles and
procedures used to understand and change human behavior. Behavior modifi-
cation procedures come in many forms. Consider the following examples.
Ted and Jane were having some difficulties in their marriage because of fre-
quent arguments. Their marriage counselor arranged a behavioral contract with
them in which they agreed to do several nice things for each other every day. As
a result of this contract, their positive interactions increased and their negative
interactions (arguments) decreased.
1
2 CHAPTER 1
Karen pulled her hair incessantly; as a result, she created a bald spot on the
top of her head. Although she was embarrassed by the bald spot, which measured
1 inch in diameter, she continued to pull her hair. Her psychologist implemented
a treatment in which Karen was to engage in a competing activity with her hands
(e.g., needlepoint) each time she started to pull her hair or had the urge to pull.
Over time, the hair-pulling stopped and her hair grew back in.
Francisco was gaining a lot of weight and decided to do something about it. He
joined a weight loss group. At each group meeting, Francisco deposited a sum of
money, set a goal for daily exercise, and earned points for meeting his exercise goals
each week. If he earned a specified number of points, he got his deposit back. If he
did not earn enough points, he lost part of his deposit money. Francisco began to
exercise regularly and lost weight as a result of his participation in the group.
The residents of Cincinnati were making thousands of unnecessary directory
assistance calls per day. These calls were clogging up the phone lines and costing
the phone company money. The company instituted a charge for each directory
assistance call, and the number of calls decreased dramatically.
You will notice that each of these examples focuses on some aspect of
human behavior and describes ways to change the behavior. Because behavior
modification focuses on behavior and behavior change, it is appropriate to begin
with a discussion of behavior.
Defining Human Behavior

Human behavior is the subject matter of behavior modification. Behavior is what
people do and say. The characteristics that define behavior are as follows.
■ Behavior involves a person’s actions (what people do or say); it is described
with action verbs. Behavior is not a static characteristic of the person. If you say
that a person is angry, you have not identified the person’s behavior; you have sim-
ply labeled the person. If you identify what the person says or does when angry,
then you have identified behavior. For example, “Jennifer screamed at her
mother, ran upstairs, and slammed the door to her room.” This is a description of
behavior that might be labeled as anger.
■ Behaviors have dimensions that can be measured. You can measure the
frequency of a behavior; that is, you can count the number of times a behavior
occurs (e.g., Shane bit his fingernails 12 times in the class period). You can mea-
sure the duration of a behavior, or the time from when an instance of the behav-
ior starts until it stops (e.g., Rita jogged for 25 minutes). You can measure the
intensity of a behavior or the physical force involved in the behavior (e.g., Garth
bench pressed 220 pounds). You can measure the speed of behavior, or the
latency from some event to the start of a behavior. Frequency, duration, intensity,
and latency are all dimensions of a behavior. A dimension is a measurable aspect
of the behavior.
■ Behaviors can be observed, described, and recorded by others or by the per-
son engaging in the behavior. Because a behavior is an action, its occurrence can
be observed. People can see the behavior (or detect it through one of the senses)
when it occurs. Because it is observable, the person who sees the behavior can
INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 3
describe it and record its occurrence. (See Chapter 2 for a description of methods
for recording behavior.)
■ Behaviors have an impact on the environment, including the physical or
the social environment (other people and ourselves). Because a behavior is an
action that involves movement through space and time (Johnston & Pennypacker,
1981), the occurrence of a behavior has some effect on the environment in which
it occurs. Sometimes the effect on the environment is obvious. You turn the light
switch, and the light goes on (an effect on the physical environment). You raise
your hand in class, and your professor calls on you (an effect on other people).
You recite a phone number from a web site, and you are more likely to remember
it and to dial the correct number (an effect on yourself). Sometimes the effect of a
behavior on the environment is not obvious. Sometimes it has an effect only on
the person who engages in the behavior. However, all human behavior operates
on the physical or social environment in some way, regardless of whether we are
aware of its impact.
■ Behavior is lawful; that is, its occurrence is systematically influenced by
environmental events. Basic behavioral principles describe the functional relation-
ships between our behavior and environmental events. These principles describe
how our behavior is influenced by, or occurs as a function of, environmental
events (see Chapters 4–8). These basic behavioral principles are the building
blocks of behavior modification procedures. Once you understand the
environmental events that cause behaviors to occur, you can change the events
in the environment to alter behavior. Consider the graph in Figure 1-1, which
FIGURE 1-1 This graph, adapted from a study by Durand and Carr (1992), shows the influence of teacher atten-
tion on the disruptive behavior (defined as pushing away task materials; loud screaming, whining,
or crying; and hitting or knocking over objects) of a young boy (Paul) in a special education class-
room. The graph shows that disruptive behavior does not occur when Paul receives frequent
teacher attention (High ATT). However, when Paul receives teacher attention infrequently (Low
ATT), he engages in disruptive behavior about 50% of the time. This graph shows the functional
relationship between the teacher’s attention and Paul’s disruptive behavior (From Durand, V. M., &
Carr, E. G. [1992]. An analysis of maintenance following functional communication training. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 777–794. Copyright © 1992 University of Kansas Press.
Reprinted by permission of the author.)
4 CHAPTER 1
shows the disruptive behavior of a child with autism in the classroom. When the
child receives high levels of attention from the teacher, his disruptive behavior
rarely occurs. When the child receives low levels of attention from the teacher,
his disruptive behavior occurs more frequently. We conclude that the disruptive
behavior is functionally related to the level of teacher attention.
■ Behaviors may be overt or covert. Most often, behavior modification proce-
dures are used to understand and change overt behaviors. An overt behavior is an
action that can be observed and recorded by a person other than the one engaging
in the behavior. However, some behaviors are covert. Covert behaviors, also
called private events (Skinner, 1974), are not observable by others. For example,
thinking is a covert behavior; it cannot be observed and recorded by another per-
son. Thinking can be observed only by the person engaging in the behavior. The
field of behavior modification focuses primarily on overt or observable behaviors,
as does this textbook. However, Chapters 8, 24, and 25 discuss covert behaviors
and behavior modification procedures applied to them.
Characteristics of Behavior
Behavior is what people do and say.
Behaviors have dimensions that can be measured.
Behaviors can be observed, described, and recorded.
Behaviors have an impact on the environment.
Behavior is lawful.
Behaviors may be overt and covert.
Examples of Behavior
Now let’s illustrate the defining characteristics of behavior with some examples.
The following examples include both common behaviors and problematic beha-
viors for which behavior modification procedures might be used.
Martha sits at her computer and types an e-mail to her parents.
This is behavior because pressing the keys on the keyboard while typing is an
action, has physical dimensions (frequency of pressing keys, duration of typing), is
observable and measurable, has an impact on the environment (produces letters
on the screen), and is lawful (occurs because of previous learning that pressing
the keys produces letters on the screen).
Mandy lies in her crib and cries loudly. Her mother then picks her up and feeds
her.
This behavior has all five of the characteristics described in the previous
example (an action that has measurable dimensions, is observable by others, pro-
duces an effect on the environment, and is lawful). One difference is that the
effect of crying is on the social environment; her mother responds to her crying
by picking her up and feeding her. Each time it has occurred in the past, crying
has resulted in her mother feeding her, so the crying continues to occur when
Mandy is hungry. There is a functional relationship between the crying and the
mother’s behavior of feeding her.
Jerry’s paper for his behavior modification class is a week late. Jerry gives the
paper to his professor and lies, saying that it is late because he had to go home
to see his sick grandmother. The professor then accepts the paper without any
penalty. Jerry also missed his history test. He tells his history professor he missed
the test because of his sick grandmother. The professor lets him take the test a
week late.
Jerry’s behavior—lying about his visit to his sick grandmother—has all five
characteristics of a behavior. It is an action (something he said) that occurred
twice (frequency), was observed by his professors, and resulted in an effect on his
social environment (his professors let him take a test late and hand in a paper late
with no penalty); it is lawful because there is a functional relationship between
the behavior (lying) and the outcome (getting away with late papers or tests).
Samantha is a 6-year-old with an intellectual disability who attends special edu-
cation classes. When the teacher is helping other students and not paying atten-
tion to Samantha, Samantha cries and bangs her head on the table or floor.
Whenever Samantha bangs her head, the teacher stops what she is doing and
picks Samantha up and comforts her. She tells Samantha to calm down, assures
her that everything is all right, gives her a hug, and often lets Samantha sit on
her lap.
?
Identify each of the five characteristics of Samantha’s behavior.
Samantha’s head banging is a behavior. It is an action that she repeats a num-
ber of times each day. The teacher could observe and record the number of
occurrences each day. The head banging produces an effect on the social environ-
ment: The teacher provides attention each time the behavior occurs. Finally, the
behavior is lawful; it continues to occur because there is a functional relationship
between the head-banging behavior and the outcome of teacher attention.
Defining Behavior Modification

Behavior modification is the applied science and professional practice concerned
with analyzing and modifying human behavior.
■ Analyzing means identifying the functional relationship between environ-
mental events and a particular behavior to understand the reasons for the behavior
or to determine why a person behaved as he or she did.
■ Modifying means developing and implementing procedures to help people
change their behavior. It involves altering environmental events so as to influence
behavior. Behavior modification procedures are developed by professionals (e.g.,
board certified behavior analysts) and used to change socially significant behaviors,
with the goal of improving some aspect of a person’s life. Following are some
characteristics that define behavior modification (Gambrill, 1977; Kazdin, 1994).
6 CHAPTER 1
Characteristics of Behavior Modification

■ Focus on behavior. Behavior modification procedures are designed to
change behavior, not a personal characteristic or trait. Therefore, behavior modifi-
cation de-emphasizes labeling. For example, behavior modification is not used to
change autism (a label); rather, behavior modification is used to change problem
behaviors exhibited by children with autism.
Behavioral excesses and deficits are targets for change with behavior modifica-
tion procedures. In behavior modification, the behavior to be modified is called
the target behavior. A behavioral excess is an undesirable target behavior the per-
son wants to decrease in frequency, duration, or intensity. Smoking is an example
of a behavioral excess. A behavioral deficit is a desirable target behavior the per-
son wants to increase in frequency, duration, or intensity. Exercise and studying
are possible examples of behavioral deficits.
■ Guided by the theory and philosophy of behaviorism. The guiding theoreti-
cal framework behind behavior modification is behaviorism. Initially developed
by B. F. Skinner (1953a, 1974), behaviorism’s core tenets are that behavior is law-
ful and controlled by environmental events occurring in close temporal relation to
the behavior (see also Baum, 1994; Chiesa, 1994).
■ Procedures based on behavioral principles. Behavior modification is the
application of basic principles originally derived from experimental research with
laboratory animals (Skinner, 1938). The scientific study of behavior is called the
experimental analysis of behavior, or behavior analysis (Skinner, 1953b, 1966).
The scientific study of human behavior to help people change behavior in mean-
ingful ways is called applied behavior analysis (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968,
1987). Behavior modification procedures are based on research in applied behav-
ior analysis that has been conducted for more than 50 years (Ullmann & Krasner,
1965; Ulrich, Stachnik, & Mabry, 1966).
■ Emphasis on current environmental events. Behavior modification involves
assessing and modifying the current environmental events that are functionally
related to the behavior. Human behavior is controlled by events in the immedi-
ate environment, and the goal of behavior modification is to identify those
events. Once these controlling variables have been identified, they are altered
to modify the behavior. Successful behavior modification procedures alter the
functional relationships between the behavior and the controlling variables in
the environment to produce a desired change in the behavior. Sometimes
labels are mistakenly identified as the causes of behavior. For example, a person
might say that a child with autism engages in problem behaviors (such as
screaming, hitting himself, refusal to follow instructions) because the child is
autistic. In other words, the person is suggesting that autism causes the child to
engage in the behavior. However, autism is simply a label that describes the pat-
tern of behaviors the child engages in. The label cannot be the cause of the
behavior because the label does not exist as a physical entity or event. The
causes of the behavior must be found in the environment (including the biology
of the child).
Behavior Modification and Applied Behavior Analysis

Behavior modification (as described in this textbook) and applied behavior analysis are two terms used to
identify virtually identical fields. Although research on the application of behavioral principles to help peo-
ple change their behavior (behavior modification) had been published since the late 1950s, the term
applied behavior analysis was introduced in 1968 in the first issue of the Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis with the publication of Baer, Wolf, and Risley’s article defining applied behavior analysis. In
their article, Baer et al. (1968) identified a number of characteristics of applied behavior analysis includ-
ing: (a) a focus on socially important behavior; (b) demonstration of functional relationships between envi-
ronmental events and behavior; (c) clear description of procedures; (d) connection to basic behavioral
principles; and (e) production of meaningful, generalizable, and long-lasting changes in behavior. These
defining features of applied behavior analysis also characterize the contemporary field of behavior modi-
fication as described in this textbook.
■ Precise description of behavior modification procedures (Baer et al., 1968).

Behavior modification procedures involve specific changes in environmental events
that are functionally related to the behavior. For the procedures to be effective
each time they are used, the specific changes in environmental events must
occur each time. By describing procedures precisely, researchers and other profes-
sionals make it more likely that the procedures will be used correctly each time.
■ Treatment implemented by people in everyday life (Kazdin, 1994). Behavior
modification procedures are developed by professionals (Board Certified Behavior
Analysts, Board Certified Assistant Behavior Analysts, or other professionals such as
Licensed Psychologists specifically trained in behavior modification). However,
behavior modification procedures often are implemented by people such as teachers,
parents, job supervisors, or others to help people change their behavior. People who
implement behavior modification procedures should do so only after sufficient train-
ing. Precise descriptions of procedures and professional supervision make it more
likely that parents, teachers, and others will implement procedures correctly.
■ Measurement of behavior change. One of the hallmarks of behavior modifica-
tion is its emphasis on measuring the behavior before and after intervention to doc-
ument the behavior change resulting from the behavior modification procedures. In
addition, ongoing assessment of the behavior is done well beyond the point of inter-
vention to determine whether the behavior change is maintained in the long run. If
a supervisor is using behavior modification procedures to increase work productivity
(to increase the number of units assembled each day), he or she would record the
workers’ behavior for a period before implementing the procedures. The supervisor
would then implement the behavior modification procedures and continue to
record the behavior. This recording would establish whether the number of units
assembled increased. If the workers’ behavior changed after the supervisor’s interven-
tion, he or she would continue to record the behavior for a further period. Such
long-term observation would demonstrate whether the workers continued to assem-
ble units at the increased rate or whether further intervention was necessary.
■ De-emphasis on past events as causes of behavior. As stated earlier, behavior
modification places emphasis on recent environmental events as the causes of
behavior. However, knowledge of the past also provides useful information about
8 CHAPTER 1
environmental events related to the current behavior. For example, previous learn-
ing experiences have been shown to influence current behavior. Therefore, under-
standing these learning experiences can be valuable in analyzing current behavior
and choosing behavior modification procedures. Although information on past
events is useful, knowledge of current controlling variables is most relevant to
developing effective behavior modification interventions because those variables,
unlike past events, can still be changed.
■ Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behavior. Although some
fields of psychology, such as Freudian psychoanalytic approaches, might be inter-
ested in hypothesized underlying causes of behavior, such as an unresolved
Oedipus complex, behavior modification rejects such hypothetical explanations of
behavior. Skinner (1974) has called such explanations “explanatory fictions”
because they can never be proved or disproved, and thus are unscientific. These
supposed underlying causes can never be measured or manipulated to demon-
strate a functional relationship to the behavior they are intended to explain.
Characteristics of Behavior Modification

Focus on behavior
Guided by the theory and philosophy of behaviorism
Based on behavioral principles
Emphasis on current environmental events
Precise description of procedures
Implemented by people in everyday life
Measurement of behavior change
De-emphasis on past events as causes of behavior
Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behavior
Historical Roots of Behavior Modification

A number of historical events contributed to the development of behavior modifi-
cation. Let’s briefly consider some important figures, publications, and organiza-
tions in the field.
Major Figures
Following are some of the major figures who were instrumental in developing the
scientific principles on which behavior modification is based (Figure 1-2)
(Michael, 1993a).
Ivan P. Pavlov (1849–1936) Pavlov conducted experiments that uncovered the

basic processes of respondent conditioning (see Chapter 8). He demonstrated that
a reflex (salivation in response to food) could be conditioned to a neutral stimulus.
In his experiments, Pavlov presented the neutral stimulus (the sound of a
metronome) at the same time that he presented food to a dog. Later, the dog
FIGURE 1-2 Four major figures who were instrumental in developing the scientific principles on which behavior
modification is based. Clockwise from top left: Ivan P. Pavlov, Edward L. Thorndike, B. F. Skinner,
John B. Watson. (Photo credits: SOV; Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for
the History of Pychology-The University of Akron; Courtesy of the B. F. Skinner Foundation; Archives
of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Pychology-The University of Akron.)
salivated in response to the sound of the metronome alone. Pavlov called this a
conditioned reflex (Pavlov, 1927).
Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) Thorndike’s major contribution was the

description of the law of effect. The law of effect states that a behavior that pro-
duces a favorable effect on the environment is more likely to be repeated in the
future. In Thorndike’s famous experiment, he put a cat in a cage and set food
outside the cage where the cat could see it. To open the cage door, the cat had to
hit a lever with its paw. Thorndike showed that the cat learned to hit the lever and
open the cage door. Each time it was put into the cage, the cat hit the lever more
10 CHAPTER 1
Skinner's
basic research Skinner, SEAB Behavior
on principles Skinner, Science and Research and
of behavior Walden Two Human Behavior JEAB Therapy
1930s 1948 1953 1958 1963
1938 1950 1957 1961 1966
Skinner, Keller and Skinner, Holland and AABT

The Behavior Schoenfeld, Verbal Behavior Skinner, The
of Organisms Principles of Analysis of
Psychology Behavior
Ferster and
Skinner,
Schedules of
Reinforcement
FIGURE 1-3 This timeline shows the major events in the development of behavior modification. Starting in the
1930s with Skinner’s basic research on the principles of behavior, the timeline includes major
books, journals, and professional organizations. SEAB, Society for the Experimental Analysis of
Behavior; JEAB, Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior; AABT, Association for Advance-
ment of Behavior Therapy; JABA, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis.
quickly because that behavior—hitting the lever—produced a favorable effect on

the environment: It allowed the cat to reach the food (Thorndike, 1911).
John B. Watson (1878–1958) In the article “Psychology as the Behaviorist
Views It,” published in 1913, Watson asserted that observable behavior was the
proper subject matter of psychology, and that all behavior was controlled by envi-
ronmental events. In particular, Watson described a stimulus–response psychology
in which environmental events (stimuli) elicited responses. Watson started the
movement in psychology called behaviorism (Watson, 1913, 1924).
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) Skinner expanded the field of behaviorism origi-
nally described by Watson. Skinner explained the distinction between respondent
conditioning (the conditioned reflexes described by Pavlov and Watson) and oper-
ant conditioning, in which the consequence of behavior controls the future occur-
rence of the behavior (as in Thorndike’s law of effect). Skinner’s research
elaborated the basic principles of operant behavior (see Chapters 4–7). In
addition to his laboratory research demonstrating basic behavioral principles,
Skinner wrote a number of books in which he applied the principles of behavior
analysis to human behavior. Skinner’s work is the foundation of behavior
modification (Skinner, 1938, 1953a).
Journal of Journal of
Skinner, Ayllon and Behavior Therapy Organizational
Technology Azrin, The and Experimental Behavior
of Teaching Token Economy Psychiatry Management Continued
research and
Skinner, publications
Behavior About Behavior in behavior
JABA Therapy Behaviorism Modification modification
1980s–
1968 1970 1974 1977 2000s
1969 1971 1975 1978
Skinner, Skinner, Progress in The Behavior Emphasis on

Contingencies Beyond Freedom Behavior Analyst Functional
of Reinforcement: and Dignity Modification Analysis
A Theoretical
© Cengage Learning®
Analysis Association for
Behavior Analysis National
Certification
in Behavior
Analysis
Early Behavior Modification Researchers

After Skinner laid out the principles of operant conditioning, researchers contin-
ued to study operant behavior in the laboratory (Catania, 1968; Honig, 1966). In
addition, in the 1950s, researchers began demonstrating behavioral principles and
evaluating behavior modification procedures with people. These early researchers
studied the behavior of children (Azrin & Lindsley, 1956; Baer, 1960; Bijou,
1957), adults (Goldiamond, 1965; Verplanck, 1955; Wolpe, 1958), patients with
mental illness (Ayllon & Azrin, 1964; Ayllon & Michael, 1959), and individuals
with intellectual disabilities (Ferster, 1961; Fuller, 1949; Wolf, Risley, & Mees,
1964). Since the beginning of behavior modification research with humans in
the 1950s, thousands of studies have established the effectiveness of behavior mod-
ification principles and procedures.
Major Publications and Events

A number of books heavily influenced the development of the behavior modifica-
tion field. In addition, scientific journals were developed to publish research in
behavior analysis and behavior modification, and professional organizations were
started to support research and professional activity in behavior analysis and behav-
ior modification. These books, journals, and organizations are listed in the time-
line in Figure 1-3. (For a more complete description of these publications and
organizations, see Cooper, Heron, and Heward [1987; 2007] and Michael
[1993a].)
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Behavior Modification: Principles and

Procedures 6th Edition

Chapter 1 Introduction to Behavior Modification 1

PART 1 Measurement of Behavior and Behavior Change

Chapter 2 Observing and Recording Behavior 19

Reactivity 36 Practice Test 40

Chapter 3 Graphing Behavior and Measuring Change 43

PART 2 Basic Principles

Chapter 6 Punishment 105

Chapter 7 Stimulus Control: Discrimination and

Chapter 8 Respondent Conditioning 145

Distinguishing between Operant and Chapter Summary 160

PART 3 Procedures to Establish New Behavior

Chapter 9 Shaping 163

Chapter 10 Prompting and Transfer of Stimulus Control 181

Chapter 11 Chaining 201

Chapter Summary 220 Applications 221

Chapter 12 Behavioral Skills Training Procedures 223

PART 4 Procedures to Increase Desirable Behavior and Decrease

Chapter 14 Applying Extinction 273

Chapter 15 Differential Reinforcement 297

Chapter 16 Antecedent Control Procedures 327

Chapter 17 Using Punishment: Time-Out and Response Cost 353

Chapter 18 Positive Punishment Procedures and the Ethics

Chapter 19 Promoting Generalization 393

PART 5 Other Behavior Change Procedures

Chapter 20 Self-Management 413

Chapter 21 Habit Reversal Procedures 431

Why Do Habit Reversal Procedures Work? 439 Practice Test 444

Chapter 22 The Token Economy 447

Chapter 23 Behavioral Contracts 469

Chapter 24 Fear and Anxiety Reduction Procedures 487

Advantages and Disadvantages of Systematic Key Terms 506

Chapter 25 Cognitive Behavior Modification 509

Features of the Text Continued from the First

Organization of the Text Following a general introduction to the field in

Quizzes Accompany Each Chapter Three fill-in-the-blank quizzes with 10

Misapplication Exercises The application exercises are followed by misapplica-

Step-by-Step Approach In each chapter in which a particular behavior modifi-

Summary Boxes Periodically throughout the text, information from a chapter is

Chapter Summaries Chapter summaries provide information that is consistent

Examples for Self-Assessment In the early chapters on basic principles

Self-Assessment Questions At intervals throughout the text, students are pre-

New Features in the Sixth Edition

Motivating Operations The term motivating operation was introduced in the

the concept applied to reinforcement and punishment. A table in Chapter 6

Functional Relationships Provided more detail on how functional relationships

Functional Analysis Provided more information on functional analysis in

Behavior Recording Added a figure highlighting the difference between inter-

Professional Practice, Certification, and Ethics Discussed professional prac-

Generalization Added discussion of another strategy for promoting generaliza-

Other New Features

Accompanying This Text

Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero Cognero is a flexible

of Houston; Robert Heffer, Texas A&M University; Stephen W. Holborn, Univer-

For the Behavior Modification Student

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1938-3703 Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

Defining Human Behavior

Defining Behavior Modification

Characteristics of Behavior Modification

Behavior Modification and Applied Behavior Analysis

■ Precise description of behavior modification procedures (Baer et al., 1968).

Characteristics of Behavior Modification