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Statistics For Psychology 6Th Edition Aron Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF
Statistics For Psychology 6Th Edition Aron Solutions Manual Full Chapter PDF
Distribution of differences between means. The main difference in procedure between a t test for
independent means and a t test for a single sample is that the comparison distribution is now a
distribution of differences between means of samples. This distribution can be thought of as arising in
two steps: (a) each population of individuals produces a distribution of means, and then (b) a new
distribution is created, which consists of differences between pairs of means selected from these two
distributions.
Mean and shape of the distribution of means. The distribution of differences between means has a
mean of 0 and will be a t distribution with degrees of freedom equal to the total degrees of freedom
contributed by each sample.
Standard deviation of the distribution of means (and the pooled estimate of the population variance). You
figure the standard deviation of the distribution of means in several steps. (a) You use each sample to
estimate the population variance. (b) Since the populations are assumed to have the same variance, you
figure a pooled estimate as a weighted average. (c) You divide the pooled estimate by each sampleʹs
number of scores to determine the variances of their associated distribution of means. (d) You add these
two variances to get the variance of the distribution of differences between means. And (e) you take the
square root.
Assumptions. The t test for independent means assumes the populations are normal and have
equal variances. However, it is robust to moderate violations of these assumptions. The t test for
independent means also assumes that all scores are independent (between and within groups). When this
latter assumption is violated, an alternative testing procedure must be used.
Effect size and power. Effect size (d) for a t test for independent means is the difference between the
means divided by the pooled estimate of the population standard deviation. For a given number of
participants, power is greatest when sample sizes of the two groups are equal. Advanced topic: If sample
sizes are unequal, you use the harmonic mean of the two sample sizes when looking up power.
Controversy: The problem of too many t tests. When many significance tests are conducted in the
same study, such as a series of t tests comparing two groups on various measures, the possibility that any
one of the comparisons may be significant by chance is greater than .05 (or whatever level is being used to
test each comparison). There is controversy about just how to adjust for this problem, though all agree
that results should be interpreted cautiously.
How the procedures of this chapter are reported in research articles. Like the other t tests, research
articles typically describe t tests for independent means either (a) in the text, using a standard format,
such as ʺt (29) = 3.41, p < .01,ʺ or (b) in a table listing a series of results in which the t score itself may be
omitted and only an asterisk is used to indicate which comparisons are significant.
Box 8‐1. Monte Carlo methods: When mathematics becomes just an experiment and statistics depend on a
game of chance. Monte Carlo studies are procedures in which a large number of random numbers are
generated to test some mathematical or statistical question—such as the robustness of a statistical test
under various conditions of violating its assumptions. This box describes the history and some
applications of these procedures.
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1994 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Page 197
List of Transparencies
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Lecture 8.1: Introduction to the t Test for Independent Means
Materials
Lecture outline
Transparencies 7.10, 7.18, and 8.1 through 8.7
I. Review/Last Assignment
II. Between‐Subject Designs
III. Estimating Population Variance (S2pooled)
IV. Distribution of Differences Between Means
V. The Hypothesis Test
VI. Review This Class
I. Review/Last Assignment
A. Idea of descriptive and inferential statistics.
B. Review t test for a single sample: Show TRANSPARENCY 7.10.
C. Review t test for dependent means: Show TRANSPARENCY 7.18.
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III. Estimating Population Variance (S2pooled)
A. This is part of Step 2 of the hypothesis testing process.
B. You assume that both populations have the same variance.
C. Thus, you can estimate the variance from each sample.
D. You then average the two estimates.
E. However, if the Ns are different, the larger sample provides a
more accurate estimate.
F. Thus, you use a weighted average, giving emphasis in proportion
to the degrees of freedom each sample contributes.
G. This weighted estimate is called the pooled estimate.
H. Show and discuss TRANSPARENCY 8.1 (up to/including pooled
estimate calculation).
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1994 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Page 200
V. The Hypothesis Test
A. Show and discuss remainder of TRANSPARENCY 8.2, noting
slight changes from previous t test procedures, and emphasizing
how much is the same.
B. Skills training example: Show and discuss TRANSPARENCIES
8.4, 8.5, and 8.6.
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1994 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Page 201
Lecture 8.2: Applying the t Test for Independent Means
Materials
Lecture outline
Transparencies 8.1 through 8.3, and 8.7 through 8.12
I. Review/Last Assignment
II. Assumptions
III. Effect Size and Power
IV. Review This Class
I. Review/Last Assignment
A. Idea of descriptive and inferential statistics.
B. Basic logic of the t test for independent means: Show
TRANSPARENCIES 8.3 and 8.7.
C. Noisy environment example: Show TRANSPARENCIES 8.1 and
8.2.
D. NEW love‐birth order example: Show and discuss
TRANSPARENCIES 8.8 and 8.9.
II. Assumptions
A. Populations must be normal.
1. Monte Carlo studies indicate test is robust to moderate violations,
especially with large Ns (each group greater than 30).
2. But it is definitely a problem when populations are skewed in opposite
directions.
B. Populations must have the same variance (which is assumed for
the pooled estimate).
1. Monte Carlo studies indicate test is robust to moderate violations.
2. But it is definitely a problem when sample variances are 4:1 (or a greater
discrepancy).
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1994 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Page 202
C. All scores are independent (between and within groups).
1. Example: people who see the same therapist will have scores more closely
linked than people who see different therapists (all of which provide the
same treatment).
2. If scores are not independent, then the incorrect df is used, and a more
stringent significance level is applied (which increases Type II errors).
3. Other testing procedures should be used (e.g., multi‐level modeling) when
this assumption is violated.
D. Especially problematic to use this test when more than one
assumption is violated.
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1994 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Page 203
TRANSPARENCY 8.1
Degrees of freedom:
df total = df1 + df 2 = 4 + 3 = 7
Pooled estimate of the population variance:
df1 df 2 4 3
2
S pooled = ( S12 ) + ( S 22 ) = (2.50) + (4.67) = 1.43 + 2.00 = 3.43
df total df total 7 7
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TRANSPARENCY 8.2
n Restate question as a research hypothesis and a null hypothesis about the populations.
Research hypothesis: Those tested under quiet conditions will score better (that is,
Population 1 will have a higher mean). (μ1 > μ2)
Null hypothesis: Those tested under quiet conditions will not score better. (μ1 ≤ μ2)
p Determine the cutoff sample score on the comparison distribution at which the null
hypothesis should be rejected.
Score at Step 4 (t = 3.23) is more extreme than cutoff at Step 3 (t = 1.895). Therefore, reject
null hypothesis; the research hypothesis is supported. People tested under quiet conditions
perform better compared with those tested under noisy conditions.
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1994 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Page 205
TRANSPARENCY 8.3
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TRANSPARENCY 8.4
n Restate question as a research hypothesis and a null hypothesis about the populations.
Population 1: Individuals who could not hold a job, who then participate in the
special job skills program.
Population 2: Individuals who could not hold a job, who then participate in an
ordinary job skills program.
p Determine the cutoff sample score on the comparison distribution at which the null
hypothesis should be rejected.
Score at Step 4 (t = 2.73) is more extreme than cutoff at Step 3 (t = 2.179). Therefore, reject
null hypothesis; the research hypothesis is supported. The new special job skills program is
more effective than the ordinary job skills program.
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1994 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Page 207
TRANSPARENCY 8.5
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TRANSPARENCY 8.6
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TRANSPARENCY 8.7
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TRANSPARENCY 8.8
First‐born and later‐born students responded to the question, ʺDo you tend to fall in
love hard?ʺ
First‐borns Later‐borns
N M S 2 N M S2
42 4.21 4.27 57 4.93 3.25
Degrees of freedom:
df total = df1 + df 2 = 41 + 56 = 97
S difference = S difference
2
= 0.15 = 0.39
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1994 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Page 211
TRANSPARENCY 8.9
First‐born and later‐born students responded to the question, ʺDo you tend to fall in love hard?ʺ
n Restate question as a research hypothesis and a null hypothesis about the populations.
Research hypothesis: The two populations have different means. (μ1 ≠ μ2)
Null hypothesis: The two populations have the same mean. (μ1 = μ2)
p Determine the cutoff sample score on the comparison distribution at which the null
hypothesis should be rejected.
Score at Step 4 (t = –1.85) is not more extreme than cutoff at Step 3 (t = ±1.986). Therefore, do
not reject null hypothesis; the result is inconclusive.
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1994 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Page 212
TRANSPARENCY 8.10
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TRANSPARENCY 8.11
Harmonic Mean
Formula:
(2)( N 1 )( N 2 )
Harmonic Mean =
N1 + N 2
Examples:
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1994 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Page 214
TRANSPARENCY 8.12
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L’arrivée à Panama présente un aspect assez agréable, à cause
de la puissante végétation répandue sur toute la côte et sur les îles
détachées qui ferment la rade du côté de l’ouest. Le terrain est
fortement ondulé ; la ville, construite sur un promontoire, avec ses
vieux murs en ruine, escaladés par des arbustes d’un vert éclatant, a
une apparence pittoresque, et pendant que la Junon s’avançait
lentement pour laisser tomber l’ancre aussi près que possible de la
plage, nous accusions les récits de nos prédécesseurs, qui
représentent Panama comme un lieu désolé et insupportable.
Nous fûmes un peu surpris de trouver cette magnifique rade
presque déserte ; deux navires de guerre, l’un américain, l’autre
anglais, et un paquebot de la ligne de San-Francisco, tous trois
mouillés près des îles, étaient nos seuls compagnons.
Après un long voyage en canot à vapeur (car les grands navires
ne peuvent approcher à moins de trois milles) et un débarquement
assez laborieux sur les épaules de nos canotiers, nous avons mis
pied à terre. Là, notre désillusion devint complète : vilaines rues,
vilaines maisons, mauvaise odeur, point d’animation, tout un quartier
brûlé, laissant voir des intérieurs jonchés de briques et de ferrailles
tordues. Voilà ce qu’aux rayons d’un soleil vertical nous laissa voir
cette ville, dont le nom retentissant est plus connu que celui de bien
des capitales.
Un examen plus complet ne détruisit pas la fâcheuse impression
produite par le premier. Panama semble une ville qui se meurt. Tout
ce qui a été construit sérieusement et solidement, remparts, églises,
maisons privées, est en ruine. J’en excepte les habitations de
quelques négociants et le Grand-Hôtel, édifice confortable, où
semble concentré tout ce qui reste d’existence dans ce lieu si
célèbre et si peu vivant aujourd’hui. La salle du rez-de-chaussée du
Grand-Hôtel, installée comme un bar des États-Unis, est, aux heures
brûlantes de la journée, le rendez-vous des gens d’affaires ainsi que
des désœuvrés ; les uns et les autres y absorbent sans discontinuer
d’excellents cock-tails glacés, et parfois avec une telle persévérance
qu’ils ont toutes les peines du monde à regagner leurs domiciles
respectifs. Mais ici cela est passé dans les usages, et il n’est pas de
bon goût d’y prêter la moindre attention.
N’ayant rien de mieux à faire que d’attendre patiemment le
départ de l’Acapulco, partant dans trois jours pour New-York, je me
mis en quête de renseignements sur ce pays, peu intéressant par
lui-même, mais auquel sa situation géographique donne une
importance considérable.
Le Panama que nous avions sous les yeux, malgré son air de
vétusté, n’est pas le vieux Panama fondé au temps de la conquête.
Celui-là était à douze kilomètres de la ville actuelle. Il fut brûlé et
pillé, il y a plus de deux siècles, par une bande de flibustiers,
commandés par un Anglais nommé Morgan. Le procédé qu’ils
employèrent pour se rendre maîtres de la ville est des plus simples ;
ayant débarqué sur la côte de l’Atlantique, au nombre d’environ cent
trente, ils traversèrent l’isthme et s’en vinrent camper sur les
hauteurs, où ils allumèrent un grand nombre de feux. Les habitants,
croyant avoir affaire à toute une armée, s’enfuirent, laissant la ville à
la merci de ces gredins.
Une dame espagnole fort riche possédait alors une vaste
propriété qui s’élevait à l’endroit où est maintenant la place Santa-
Anna ; une grande partie des fuyards alla se réfugier chez elle ; on
leur donna asile, et ils se mirent en demeure de rebâtir leurs
habitations au lieu où ils se trouvaient.
Ainsi fut fondé le nouveau Panama, dont l’emplacement se
trouva, d’ailleurs, bien mieux choisi et plus facile à mettre à l’abri de
toute surprise. Ce qui reste des anciennes constructions prouve que
la ville était autrefois très prospère. Tout le trafic de la partie
occidentale des deux Amériques passait alors à Panama.
L’établissement du chemin de fer de New-York à San-Francisco et la
création de la ligne anglaise de vapeurs qui, par l’Atlantique et le
détroit de Magellan, dessert les côtes du Chili et du Pérou, ont
enlevé à Panama la plus grande partie de son commerce.
Il y a bien une compagnie américaine, la Pacific Mail, qui fait le
service de New-York à San-Francisco par l’Isthme, mais cette
compagnie, liée intimement à celle du chemin de fer de l’Isthme
(Panama Railroad Company, également américaine), a pris ses
mesures de façon que marchandises et voyageurs passent presque
sans s’arrêter de bateau en chemin de fer et de chemin de fer en
bateau, de sorte que Panama est un peu comme la maison d’un
garde-barrière placée au bout d’un tunnel. Elle a le plaisir de voir
passer le train.