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ArticleTitle Smart sustainable concrete: enhancing the strength and durability with nano silica

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Journal Name Smart Construction and Sustainable Cities

Corresponding Author FamilyName Yadav

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Given Name Jitendra Singh
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Division Department of Civil Engineering
Organization National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra
Address Kurukshetra, India
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Author FamilyName Kashyap

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Given Name Vikram Singh
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Division Department of Civil Engineering
Organization Manipal University Jaipur
Address Jaipur, India
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Author FamilyName Sancheti

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Given Name Gaurav
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Organization Manipal University Jaipur
Address Jaipur, India
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Author FamilyName Agrawal

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Given Name Utkarsh
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Organization Manipal University Jaipur
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Schedule Received 30 Jun 2023

Revised 30 Oct 2023
Accepted 8 Nov 2023

Abstract A detailed investigation was conducted to analyse the mechanical and durability features of a mixture of
binary cement concrete modified with nanomaterials. In the context of the concrete matrix, the
substitution of fractional cement content was carried out using Nano silica (NS) at concentrations of 1%,
2%, and 3%. Four distinct cementitious blends were subjected to a comprehensive match of tests, which
encompassed compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, static modulus of elasticity,
bulk density, water absorption, permeability, carbonation resistance, acid attack resistance, and rapid
chloride penetration. The compositions of the mixes were investigated through the use of various
microstructural analysis techniques, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The research revealed significant improvements in the
mechanical and durability characteristics of the material. An increment in the mechanical and durability
properties of mixtures were seen due to inclusion of marble power and Nano silica due to enhanced
pozzolanic activities of composite and its filling effect. It is worth mentioning that Nano silica has shown
the potential to mitigate the degradation caused by exposure to sulfuric acid. The SEM-EDX analysis
demonstrated a decrease in the Ca/Si ratio when compared to the reference combination, suggesting an
increase in the consumption of calcium hydroxide (CH) and the creation of a more compact calcium-
silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gel. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) findings indicate that NS has the ability to act
as an accelerator for pozzolanic processes. This is achieved by consuming calcium hydroxide (CH) and
promoting the creation of extra calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), which ultimately enhances the overall
performance of the concrete mixture.

Keywords (separated by '-') Cement concrete - Nano silica - Mechanical and durability performance

Footnote Information
 Kashyap et al. Smart Construction and
Smart Construction and Sustainable Cities _#####################_
https://doi.org/10.1007/s44268-023-00023-1 Sustainable Cities

1
RESEARCH Open Access

2 Smart sustainable concrete: enhancing

3 the strength and durability with nano silica
4 Vikram Singh Kashyap1, Gaurav Sancheti1, Jitendra Singh Yadav2* and Utkarsh Agrawal1

5 Abstract
A detailed investigation was conducted to analyse the mechanical and durability features of a mixture of binary

F
6
7 cement concrete modified with nanomaterials. In the context of the concrete matrix, the substitution of fractional

O
8 cement content was carried out using Nano silica (NS) at concentrations of 1%, 2%, and 3%. Four distinct cementi-
9 tious blends were subjected to a comprehensive match of tests, which encompassed compressive strength, flexural

O
10 strength, split tensile strength, static modulus of elasticity, bulk density, water absorption, permeability, carbona-
11 tion resistance, acid attack resistance, and rapid chloride penetration. The compositions of the mixes were inves-

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12 tigated through the use of various microstructural analysis techniques, including scanning electron microscopy
13 (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD),
14 and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The research revealed significant improvements in the mechanical
15 and durability characteristics of the material. An increment in the mechanical and durability properties of mixtures
D
16 were seen due to inclusion of marble power and Nano silica due to enhanced pozzolanic activities of composite
17 and its filling effect. It is worth mentioning that Nano silica has shown the potential to mitigate the degradation
caused by exposure to sulfuric acid. The SEM-EDX analysis demonstrated a decrease in the Ca/Si ratio when compared
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18
19 to the reference combination, suggesting an increase in the consumption of calcium hydroxide (CH) and the crea-
20 tion of a more compact calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gel. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) findings indicate that NS
21 has the ability to act as an accelerator for pozzolanic processes. This is achieved by consuming calcium hydroxide (CH)
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22 and promoting the creation of extra calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), which ultimately enhances the overall perfor-
23 mance of the concrete mixture.
24 Keywords Cement concrete, Nano silica, Mechanical and durability performance
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25 1 Introduction depletion, and environmental degradation. Cement man- 32

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26 In the modern construction landscape, ordinary Port- ufacturing, a critical component of concrete production, 33
27 land cement (OPC) has long been the material of choice contributes to carbon dioxide emissions, air and water 34
28 for constructing buildings and other public structures. pollution, and the depletion of raw materials [1]. Nota- 35
29 However, the rapid pace of urbanization has led to a bly, the production of one ton of cement releases one ton 36
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30 significant increase in concrete production, raising con- of carbon dioxide and consumes approximately 1.7 tons 37
31 cerns about its implications for climate change, resource of raw materials. While concrete is formed by combin- 38
ing water, binder, and particles, unreacted cement grains 39
post-hydration remains ineffective contributors to mate- 40
A1 *Correspondence: rial strength, resulting in challenges related to sustain- 41
Jitendra Singh Yadav
A2 ability and cost-effectiveness [2, 3]. 42
A3 jsyadav@nitkkr.ac.in
A4
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, India To address these challenges, the concept of substitut- 43
A5
2
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology ing unreacted cement particles with alternative materials 44
Kurukshetra, Kurukshetra, India
A6 with similar particle size distribution and reactivity has 45

© The Author(s) 2023. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
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46 gained traction. The reactivity of such supplementary durability, and microstructural impacts of incorporating 99
47 cementitious materials (SCMs) is influenced by factors Nano silica at varying weight percentages within concrete 100
48 such as alumina concentration, excess calcium hydroxide mixtures. By exploring these effects, this research strives 101
49 (CH), specific surface area, and particle size. The poz- to contribute to the advancement of smart and sustain- 102
50 zolanic reaction of SCMs upon hydration leads to the able construction practices, aligning with the principles 103
51 formation of a secondary C-S- gel [4, 5]. Notably, Nano of modern urban development. 104
52 silica, owing to its remarkably small particle size, holds The outcomes of this study bear significant implica- 105
53 the potential to infiltrate the microstructure of cemen- tions for both the practical construction industry and the 106
54 titious systems and enhance the density of the concrete broader context of smart and sustainable urban develop- 107
55 matrix [6]. Previous studies have indicated that incor- ment. The investigation into the mechanical and dura- 108
56 porating Nano silica can yield significant enhancements bility characteristics of concrete mixtures enriched with 109
57 in the mechanical properties of concrete. For instance, Nano silica has not only advanced our understanding of 110
58 research by Li et al. [7] demonstrated a 24% increase in material behavior but also laid the groundwork for more 111
flexural strength with the inclusion of 3% and 5% Nano sustainable and intelligent construction practices.

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59 112
60 silica. Similarly, Zhang et al. [8] observed a 30% and 25% The integration of Nano silica has demonstrated a 113

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61 boost in compressive strength after 3 and 7 days, respec- substantial positive impact on the mechanical proper- 114
62 tively, with the addition of 2% Nano silica. This trend was ties of concrete. The increase in flexural and compres- 115

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63 further affirmed by Palla et al. [9], who reported a 23% sive strengths observed across various studies [7–9] is a 116
64 increase in flexural strength through the incorporation of promising development that holds the potential to lead to 117

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65 2% Nano silica. more robust and resilient structures. This is particularly 118
66 Beyond strength improvements, Nano silica’s extensive significant for urban environments, where buildings and 119
67 specific surface area necessitates careful consideration of infrastructure are subjected to varying loads, stresses, 120
68 its impact on the concrete mixture’s rheological proper- and environmental conditions. Enhanced mechanical 121
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69 ties, requiring an elevated dosage of superplasticizer for strength translates to longer service life, reduced mainte- 122
70 proper workability [10]. Furthermore, the intrusion of nance requirements, and ultimately lower life-cycle costs. 123
potentially damaging chemicals into concrete through Furthermore, the improved durability properties of
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71 124
72 microporous pores and capillaries can be mitigated using concrete modified with Nano silica offer a multifaceted 125
73 Nano silica and mineral admixtures, both of which can advantage for urban construction. Concrete is often 126
74 bolster the composition’s resilience [11, 12]. Notably, exposed to aggressive external factors such as carbona- 127
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75 Nano silica’s pozzolanic properties lead to the formation tion, acid attack, and chloride penetration, which can 128
76 of finely hydrated phases like C-S-H gel, contributing to compromise its integrity over time. The ability of Nano 129
77 the densification of microstructure and the enhancement silica to enhance resistance against these deteriora- 130
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78 of mechanical characteristics. Comparative studies have tion mechanisms can significantly extend the lifespan of 131
79 even revealed Nano silica’s accelerated hydration and concrete structures, mitigating the need for premature 132
80 strengthening effects, surpassing those of silica fumes replacements and reducing resource consumption. This 133
[13, 14]. is a pivotal aspect of sustainable construction, align-
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81 134
82 The positive implications of Nano silica extend to ing with the goals of minimizing waste and optimizing 135
83 various facets of concrete performance. Its capacity to resource utilization. 136
84 enhance the connection between cement matrix and The concept of smart cities revolves around harness- 137
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85 aggregate, reduce water permeability and porosity, and ing technological advancements to optimize urban living, 138
86 improve durability has been demonstrated through mul- resource management, and environmental sustainability. 139
87 tiple investigations [15, 16]. Studies by Fallah and Nemat- In this context, the integration of smart materials, like 140
88 zadeh [17] showcase the ability of Nano silica to reduce Nano silica-modified concrete, is a notable stride towards 141
89 the porosity of concrete, thereby lowering water absorp- realizing the vision of smart cities. The enhanced prop- 142
90 tion and enhancing the material’s durability. Additionally, erties of such materials contribute to the construction 143
91 Nano silica’s ability to absorb calcium hydroxide from of resilient infrastructure that can withstand the chal- 144
92 cement hydration, as evidenced by Cheng [18], forti- lenges posed by rapid urbanization, climate change, and 145
93 fies the cement-aggregate interface and boosts durabil- increased energy demands. 146
94 ity. Furthermore, Shaban et al. [19] Nano silica has been Nano silica-modified concrete exemplifies a smart 147
95 found to enhance concrete’s resistance to acid rain and material due to its dynamic response to external stim- 148
96 mitigate the effects of long-term sulfate attack [20, 21]. uli and its capacity to adapt to changing conditions. 149
97 Given the compelling insights from prior research, the The microstructural improvements resulting from 150
98 present study aims to delve deeper into the mechanical, Nano silica’s presence align with the idea of self-healing 151

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152 materials, where the material’s inherent properties enable commercially available 43-grade ordinary Portland 180
153 it to repair small cracks and fissures over time. This self- cement (OPC) that conformed to the criteria outlined 181
154 healing capability contributes to the longevity of struc- in IS 8112:1989 [22]. Table 1 provides a comprehensive 182
155 tures and reduces the need for frequent interventions, overview of the physical properties that align with the 183
156 fostering a more sustainable approach to infrastructure standards given in the OPC IS code. Furthermore, Figs. 2 184
157 management. and 3 depict the X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning 185
158 Moreover, the reduced permeability of Nano silica- electron microscopy (SEM) spectra of the ordinary Port- 186
159 modified concrete offers a direct advantage for smart land cement (OPC) utilised in the investigation. 187
160 cities’ infrastructure. Concrete with enhanced imperme-
161 ability is less susceptible to moisture ingress, reducing 2.2 Mix proportion 188
162 the likelihood of corrosion in reinforcement steel. Corro- In this experiment, four concrete mixtures that comply 189
163 sion-related damages are a significant concern for urban with IS 10262:2009 are listed in Table 2. IS steel moulds 190
164 structures, and the implementation of materials that mit- cast concrete samples. At 27 °C, samples of concrete were 191
igate this issue is in line with the sustainability goals of covered with plastic and held in the moulds for 24 h.

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165 192
166 minimizing maintenance needs and extending infrastruc- Samples that were deformed were treated in portable 193

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167 ture lifespans. water. In addition to morphology and mineralogy, the 194
effects of NS (1%, 2%, and 3%) were investigated on the 195

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168 2 Materials and methodology compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile 196
169 2.1 Materials strength, and static modulus of elasticity of concrete after 197

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170 In this study, Nano-silica (NS) was employed as a partial 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, 56, and 90 days of curing. This research 198
171 substitute for cement, with varying concentrations of 1%, used a water-to-cement ratio of 0.40. 199
172 2%, and 3%. The Nano-silica had an average particle size
173 ranging from 20 to 30 nm. The NS powder, characterised 2.3 Test conducted 200
by a density of 2.5 g/cm3 and a specific surface area of
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174 2.3.1 Compressive strength 201
175 600 ­m2/g, displayed a discernible foggy aggregation pat- In this work, the increase of compressive strength and its 202
tern, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) sensitivity to the addition of NS were evaluated in order
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176 203
177 pattern of the NS sample, as shown in Fig. 2, exhibited a to quantify strength gain. Unlike the control mix, the 204
178 distinct peak in the angular range of 15° to 31°, suggesting results demonstrate compressive strength variation with 205
179 the amorphous nature of the material. The trials utilised NS changes (CM). IS 516-1959 tested concrete samples 206
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Fig. 1 SEM image of Nano silica

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Fig. 2 XRD spectrum of OPC cement and Nano silica

Table 1 Properties of OPC

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dimensions of 300 mm in height and 150 mm in diameter
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220

Properties Test values

from four distinct concrete mixtures and evaluated their 221
split tensile strength after 3, 7, 28, and 90 days of curing.
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222
Specific gravity 3.11 The split tensile strength was determined by averaging 223
Consistency (%) 32 the results of three STS tests conducted on samples. 224
Initial setting time (min) 60
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Final setting time (min) 270

2.3.4 Static modulus of elasticity 225
Soundness (mm) 1.5
The static modulus of elasticity (SMOE) of concrete is a 226
Mortar compressive strength (Mpa)
design parameter that governs the deformation of struc- 227
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3 days 26
tural components. To reduce deformation and swaying, 228
7 days 37
bridges and massive structures are constructed using 229
28 days 48
high-modulus concrete. ASTM C469-02 [25] set the 230
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modulus of elasticity, and 150 mm x 300 mm cylinders 231

were used to determine the SOME for each concrete 232
207 measuring 100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm at 140 kg/sq. mixture. 233
208 cm/min to determine compressive strength after the req-
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209 uisite number of hydration days. 2.3.5 Bulk density test 234

IS:6441(Part-1) [26] calculated the bulk density of all 235
210 2.3.2 Flexural strength concrete specimens based on the mass per unit volume 236
211 The flexural test was conducted in accord- of 100 mm cube-shaped examples. To achieve consist- 237
212 ance with IS 516-1959 [23] with four-point load- ent weight, specimens were oven-dried for 24 h at 100 238
213 ing at 180 kg/min on a simple beam with samples of degrees Celsius. They were weighed upon cooling to 239
214 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm prismatic beams after 3, 7, room temperature. 240
215 28, 56, and 90 days of water cure.
2.3.6 Water absorption test 241
216 2.3.3 Split tensile strength The water absorption test was conducted in accord- 242
217 According to IS: 5816-1999 [24], split tensile strength ance with ASTMC642-06 [27]. The 150 mm cubes of 243
218 (STS) tests were conducted at 1.2 N/(mm2/min). This oven-dried concrete were submerged in water for 24 h. 244
219 study created cylinder-shaped concrete samples with The initial and ultimate weights of the specimens were 245

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Fig. 3 SEM image of OPC cement PR
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Table 2 Mix proportion
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Mix ID Mix Series Notes Binder (kg/m3) Fine aggregates Coarse

(kg/m3) aggregates
Cement Nano Silica (kg/m3)
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C100 NS0-C100 Control Mix 395 0 676.3 1204.6

C99 NS1-C99 Nano Silica replacement 371.3 3.95 676.3 1204.6
C98 NS2-C98 351.55 3.95 676.3 1204.6
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C97 NS3-C97 331.8 3.95 676.3 1204.6

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246 recorded, and water absorption was computed using 2.3.8 Carbonation test 261
247 established test procedures. Using CPC-18 and RILEM standard procedures, the 262
carbonation of concrete mixtures was evaluated. At 263
60–70 degrees Celsius, 100 mm cubes of control and 264
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248 2.3.7 Din permeability test varied combination proportions were oven-dried for 265
249 Pore size, distribution, and microstructure influence 48 h. After coating its longitudinal surfaces with epoxy 266
250 the water permeability of concrete mixtures. Indirectly, paint, the sample was stored in a CO2 container with a 267
251 the volumetric fraction of voids that contribute to per- controlled environment. In the chamber, the CO2 con- 268
252 meability assesses the porosity of concrete. Diverse centration was 5%, the temperature was 27° C, and the 269
253 compositions of water-cured concrete specimens were relative humidity was 65% [29, 30]. Each specimen was 270
254 examined for water permeability in accordance with sampled three times at 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 days for 271
255 DIN 1048 (Part-5) [28]. 150 mm cube specimen’s oven- carbonation analysis. For testing, samples were sliced 272
256 dried for 3 days at 55 degrees Celsius. The specimens in half lengthwise and sprayed with a phenolphthalein 273
257 were evaluated for 3 days at 0.5 N/mm2 pressure. On pH indicator. To create the indicator, 1% phenolphtha- 274
258 a compressive testing machine, all specimens of vari- lein was dissolved in 70% ethyl alcohol. This indicator 275
259 ous compositions were split in half to assess water is colorless if the pH is less than 9.2, and purple-red if 276
260 penetration. the pH is more than 9.2. Thus, the average depth and 277

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278 coefficient of carbonation were calculated for each con- a Nova Nano FE-SEM 450 (FEI) with an EDAX detector 325
279 crete mix composition. was matched to the SEM image. 326

280 2.3.9 Acid attack test 2.4.3 X‑ray diffraction (XRD) 327

281 According to ASTM C267: 2012, the control mix and a In this investigation, copper radiation (Cuk) was 328

282 number of other concrete mixes were subjected to acid employed as the X-ray source for the XRD apparatus at 329

283 testing. Before the acid tests, the 100 mm concrete cubes 1.54 m and 40 kV/40 mA. Throughout the experiment, 330

284 were weighed and tested to determine their compressive scanning was performed at 2°/min with a step width of 331

285 strength after 28 days of curing. Each mixture was sub- 0.02° and an angle range of 3°-90°. Panalytical X-ray PRO 332

286 merged in fifteen sulfuric acid cubes. The acid solutions reflectometer was used for XRD analysis. 333

287 were changed every 2 weeks. After 28, 56, and 90 days,
288 the compressive strength of samples was measured and 2.4.4 Thermogravimetric analysis 334

289 weighed. Derivative Thermogravimetry (TG)/(DTG) was used 335

to evaluate the temperature-induced change in sample

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336
weight. TGA reports concrete mix pozzolanic compo- 337
2.3.10 Rapid chloride penetration test

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290
nent hydration products. During heating, dehydration, 338
291 A rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT) was conducted
degradation, and oxidation of hydration products induce 339
292 on six cells. Methods AASHTO T 277 and ASTM C1202

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concrete mixture weight variations. Using a Shimadzu- 340
293 [31] for chlorination of concrete mixtures. Before this
60H TG/DTG device, 25–30 mg of concrete mix sample 341
294 test, cylindrical concrete mixtures of 100 mm in diameter
was heated to 900 °C at a rate of 10 °C per minute.

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342
295 were saturating and dehydrating in a vacuum desiccator.
296 Silicon was placed to the margins of the concrete sample
2.4.5 FTIR spectroscopy 343
297 to prevent the escape of chemical solutions. Positive ter-
FT-IR spectroscopy evaluated structural changes in spec- 344
298 minal connects to sodium hydroxide, negative terminal
imens (Bruker ALPHA spectrophotometer). The speci-
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345
299 to sodium chloride solution. Electrodes made of stainless
mens were mixed with KBr for FT-IR analysis in the total 346
steel provided the specimens with 60 V dc. Every 30 min,
300
attenuated reflection mode between 500 and 4000 ­cm−1.
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347
301 the 6-h current was measured in coulombs. Using total
302 charge, the chloride penetration resistance of concrete
3 Results and discussion 348
303 mixtures was calculated.
3.1 Compressive strength 349
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In Fig. 4, the compressive strengths of C-97, C-98, and 350

304 2.4 Morphology and mineralogy C-99 were greater than those of the control mix at all 351
305 The whole concrete matrix was subjected to SEM, EDS, ages of curing. C-100 is the weakest while C-98 is the 352
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306 XRD, TGA/DTG, and FTIR microanalysis. After the strongest. NS replacement at higher concentrations 353
307 mechanical test, a tiny sample was obtained for microa- enhanced the compressive strength of young adults at 354
308 nalysis from the region of the fracture. The material 1, 3, and 7 days. After 14, 28, 56, and 90 days of curing, 355
was crushed and sieved using a 90-m IS sieve. To pre-
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309
310 vent hydration, acetone was administered immediately.
311 Microanalysis needed 48 h of 60 °C oven-drying.
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312 2.4.1 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

313 After 28 days of hydration, Nova-Nano FE-SEM 450
314 micrographs characterised concrete mixtures. These
315 SEM images investigated CSH, CH, aggregated NS par-
316 ticles, AFm phase, ITZ, Ettringite, pores, and micro
317 spaces. CSH, CH, agglomerated NS particles, AFm phase,
318 ITZ, Ettringite, pores, and micro voids were analysed
319 in 5000 × SEM images containing varied NS and MD
320 percentages.

321 2.4.2 Energy dispersive x‑ray analysis (EDX)

322 To identify the chemical composition of each specimen,
a qualitative EDS analysis using line-scan and elemental Fig. 4 Compressive strength development with varying substitution
323
of NS (1, 2, 3%)
324 mapping scan methods (for Si, Ca, O, S, Al, and Fe) on

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356 the rise in compressive strength slowed. Thus, the major-

357 ity of the NS hydration response occurs during the first
358 week after curing. NS encourages Portlandite Ca(OH)2
359 consumption during the first 1–7 days of cure, when high
360 hydration rates are achieved [32]. After curing, hydra-
361 tion products cover the unhydrated cement particle
362 and fill the pores [33]. The use of 3% NS may reduce the
363 increase in compressive strength. The hydration proce-
364 dure leached extra NS when the particle size of the NS
365 was greater than that of the released lime. The greater
366 surface area of NS draws water, hence inhibiting cement
367 hydration and C-S-H gel formation. This phase utilises
368 NS as a nanofiller, not as a hydration agent. Despite poz-
zolanic processes, the filling effect improves strength in

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369
Fig. 5 Flexural strength development with varying substitution of NS
370 later phases. Thus, increasing NS in the mixture reduces (1, 2, 3%)

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371 the amount of water available for hydration [34]. Strength
372 is increased by NS-accelerated secondary nucleation

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373 of CSH gel and cement particle hydration. NS particles
374 provide a greater surface area for portlandite Ca(OH)2
reactivity during secondary nucleation, hence accelerat-

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375
376 ing gelation and enhancing compressive strength. Sec-
377 ondary nucleation boosts concrete strength in the dense
378 C-S-H gel microstructure. When NS is high, uniformity
demands a substantial amount of SP. Numerous bubbles
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379
380 in the mixture may reduce its compressive strength. To
reinforce the mixture, solidify it longer and more thor-
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381
382 oughly. The nanofiller effect and pozzolanic reaction
383 reduce the crystal diameters of calcium hydroxide, hence
384 improving the ITZ [35]. NS interacts more distorted and
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385 elongated Ca atoms and decreases their concentration in

386 the concrete matrix [36], hence accelerating C3S degra-
387 dation and cement hydration (Fig. 4). Fig. 6 Split tensile strength development with varying substitution
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of NS (1, 2, 3%)

388 3.2 Flexural strength

389 As shown in Fig. 5, NS and OPC cements impact the flex-
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390 ural strength of binary mix concrete. In terms of flexural pore size in concrete without altering volume. Strong 408
391 strength, C-97, C-98, and C-99 surpassed the reference aggregation propensity of NS impacts the freshness and 409
392 blend. As shown in Fig. 5, the flexural strength of C-98 hardness of the concrete mixture. Inefficient NS disper- 410
393 and C-99 improved the greatest and decreased the least sion while mixing diminishes the strength. 411
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394 after curing. Three and seven days after hydration, blends
395 containing NS exhibited greater flexural strength than 3.3 Split tensile strength 412
396 the control blend. Due to high NS hydration, additional The Split Tensile Strength test (STS) is an essential 413
397 portlandite Ca(OH)2 was used in the early curing days method used to evaluate various aspects of concrete 414
398 (ages 1–7). Hydration products encapsulate and cover structures, including shear design, crack propagation, 415
399 the unhydrated cement particle’s pores, preventing water and the effectiveness of reinforcing bar anchorage. The 416
400 from entering. This is the reason why strength enhance- experimental design of our investigation is illustrated in 417
401 ments over 2% NS replacement have been eliminated. NS Fig. 6. It is worth mentioning that C-98 had the greatest 418
402 fills up the ITZ’s minute fissures. As seen in Fig. 5, the STS (sulphate resistance) values following both 28 and 419
403 flexural strength of NS (3% concrete samples) increased 90 days of the curing process, beating the reference mix 420
404 during early curing but decreased with age. A high NS by 11% and 8% correspondingly. In addition, it can be 421
405 component in a concrete mixture causes excessive self- observed from Fig. 6 that both C-98 and C-99 exhibited 422
406 desiccation and cracking, which may be mitigated to greater STS values in comparison to the conventional 423
407 some extent by adjusting the SP dose. NS lowers void mix. The observed improvement in Short-Term Strength 424

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425 (STS) can be ascribed to the substitution of cement with

426 nano-silica (NS), resulting in enhancements in both poz-
427 zolanic activity and specific surface area. Consequently,
428 this phenomenon promoted the generation of a higher
429 quantity of calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gel and a
430 more compact microstructure, thereby leading to a sub-
431 stantial improvement in initial strength.
432 Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that when NS
433 was employed as a replacement for cement in mixes with
434 concentrations surpassing 2%, a reduction in split tensile
435 strength was found. This phenomenon can be elucidated
436 by the observation that, during the process of hydration,
437 the leaching of silica from nano-silica particles exceeds
that of free lime. The leaching of excessive silica leads to

F
438
a decrease in split tensile strength in mixtures containing Fig. 7 Static modulus of elasticity development with varying
439
substitution of NS (1, 2, 3%)

O
440 NS concentrations exceeding 2%. This is due to the tran-
441 sition of NS particles from actively participating in the

O
442 hydration process to primarily acting as fillers.
443 However, it is worth noting that the inclusion of nano-
silica (NS) in concrete significantly enhances both fric-

PR
444
445 tion and split tensile strength. This is primarily attributed
446 to the increased contact area and enhanced interlocking
447 mechanisms within the dense concrete matrix. The afore-
mentioned phenomenon is also intensified through the
D
448
449 interplay between the cement paste and the aggregate at
the boundary where they meet, commonly referred to as
TE

450
451 the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ). The inclusion of
452 nanosilica (NS) in the interfacial transition zone (ITZ)
453 demonstrates a notable homogenization effect, resulting
EC

454 in a discernible enhancement in split tensile strength, as

455 evidenced by the obtained outcomes.
456 In brief, the results of the study are consistent with cur- Fig. 8 Bulk density of concrete mixes
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457 rent scholarly investigations, indicating that the substitu-

458 tion of cement with NS can considerably augment split
459 tensile strength, particularly when NS is incorporated interactions occurring between the nanoparticles of the 477
within ideal concentration thresholds. The enhancement
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460
nanosilica (NS) and the cementitious matrix. The com- 478
461 in mechanical performance of the concrete mixture can patibility between NS and the matrix can be influenced 479
462 be attributed to the interplay of various elements, includ- by various specific features, including particle size, sur- 480
463 ing pozzolanic activity, microstructure densification, and face area, and chemical composition. These factors can 481
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464 optimised interactions within the interfacial transition contribute to a localised accelerating effect. 482
465 zone (ITZ). These aspects collectively contribute to the
466 observed increase. 3.5 Bulk density test 483
The data shown in Fig. 8 illustrates the fluctuations in 484
467 3.4 Static modulus of elasticity bulk densities among the concrete mixtures under inves- 485
468 The static modulus of elasticity (SMOE) test on hardened tigation at various curing time intervals. Significantly, the 486
469 concrete after 28 and 90 days of hydration is shown in concrete mixtures that incorporated nano-silica dem- 487
470 Fig. 7. C-97 lowered SOME by 2%, whereas C-98 raised it onstrated elevated bulk densities in comparison to the 488
471 by 11% and 7.5% relative to the standard blend. C-98 and control mixture. Specifically, concrete mixture C98 had 489
472 C-99 have a higher SMOE than the standard mixture. NS a noteworthy maximum bulk density of 6.1 kg/m3. The 490
473 concentrations up to 2% improve matrix density, hard- observed augmentation in bulk density can be attributed 491
474 ness, and SMOE. Agglomeration of NS particles reduces to the incorporation of 2% nano-silica. The enhanced 492
475 SMOE and creates voids that weaken the matrix. The bulk density of concrete can be attributed to the capac- 493
476 observed alterations may potentially be ascribed to the ity of nano-silica to occupy voids within the concrete 494

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495 matrix, so effectively filling cavities. Furthermore, the

496 use of nano-silica as a catalyst in cementitious processes
497 assumes a crucial function in facilitating the production
498 of hydration products and serving as a central point for
499 their creation, finally resulting in enhanced bulk density,
500 as elaborated in the study cited as reference [37].
501 A thorough analysis of the scanning electron micro-
502 scope (SEM) micrographs presented in Fig. 8 reveals the
503 significant impact of nano-silica on the densification of
504 concrete specimens, as compared to the control mix-
505 ture. The compactness of the material is a result of the
506 accelerated pozzolanic process promoted by nano-silica.
507 This process lowers the occurrence of voids, leading to
an increase in bulk density. It is noteworthy that, as time

F
508
509 progresses, there is a tendency for the bulk density of Fig. 9 Mass and Water absorption of concrete mixes

O
510 both the control mix and the other concrete mixtures to
511 converge. The observed disparity in bulk density was sig-

O
512 nificant, exhibiting a 64% deviation following a 3-day cur-
513 ing period, which then decreased to 12.9% over a span of this pattern, leading to an augmentation in water absorp- 546

90 days. The observed phenomena can be ascribed to the tion within the concrete mixtures. 547

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514
515 expedited hydration process triggered by the pozzolanic The observed phenomena can be ascribed to the dis- 548

516 effect of nano-silica in the initial phases of the curing tinct influence of nano-silica concentration on the pore 549

517 process. As the duration of the curing process advances, structure inside the cement matrix. When the concen- 550

there is a notable increase in density, indicating the ongo- tration of nano-silica reaches a specific threshold, it 551
D
518
519 ing formation and growth of hydration products. has been observed to improve the pore structure of the 552

The observed rise in bulk density in concrete mixtures cement matrix, resulting in a reduction in water absorp- 553
TE

520
521 including nano-silica can be attributed to various inter- tion. The incorporation of nano-silica powder plays a 554

522 related mechanisms, such as cavity filling, catalytic pro- crucial role in the formation of agglomerates, which in 555

523 motion of hydration product formation, and quicker turn contribute to the introduction of porosity within 556
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524 pozzolanic processes. The aforementioned mechanisms the cement matrix. When the porosity structure is opti- 557

525 play a collective role in enhancing the compactness and mised, it functions as an effective barrier to prevent 558

526 density of the concrete matrix, particularly during the water absorption, hence reducing the permeability of the 559
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527 initial stages of the curing process. This phenomenon lays concrete. 560

528 the groundwork for the observable convergence in den-

529 sity as the duration of curing increases. 3.7 Din permeability test 561
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The permeability of concrete mixtures is notably influ- 562

enced by the infiltration of water, as illustrated in Fig. 10. 563
530 3.6 Water absorption test Significantly, the observed pattern in permeability has a 564
531 Figure 9 illustrates the % change in weight as a represen- strong correlation with the water absorption characteris- 565
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532 tation of the water absorption characteristics after sub- tics. In comparison to the control mixture, the incorpo- 566
533 jecting the samples to a 24-h immersion in water, as well ration of nano-silica in isolation results in a significant 567
534 as the control combination. Interestingly, the inclusion of decrease in permeability. Nano-silica at concentrations of 568
535 nano-silica powder results in a decrease in water absorp- 1% and 2% elicits significant reductions in permeability, 569
536 tion. As an example, the incorporation of 1% nano-silica amounting to 28% and 50% respectively. The decrease in 570
537 leads to a reduction in water absorption from 3.45% to permeability is most noticeable in the concrete mixture 571
538 1.9%. The aforementioned reduction is also intensified with 2% nano-silica, as seen by a permeability measure- 572
539 when greater amounts of nano-silica are present. It is ment of 6 mm, in comparison to the 14 mm observed in 573
540 worth noting that the incorporation of 2% nano-silica in the control mixture. 574
541 concrete results in the lowest level of water absorption. Remarkably, in accordance with the water absorption 575
542 On the other hand, the control combination exhibits a experiment, the incorporation of nano-silica over the 576
543 decrease in water absorption, dropping from 3.45% to threshold of 2% tends to reintroduce heightened per- 577
544 1.82%. Nevertheless, it is important to highlight that the meability. The observed modifications can be ascribed 578
545 inclusion of nano-silica beyond 2% results in a reversal of to the complex behaviour of silica nanoparticles within 579

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Fig. 10 Depth of water penetration Fig. 11 Carbonation depth of concrete mixes after 30, 60, 90

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and 120 days of curing

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580 the concrete matrix. The nanoparticles have a signifi- carbonation depth of C98 decreases, calcite production 614
581 cant impact in impeding the presence of voids, gaps, decreases. With 2% Nano silica, changes in pore struc- 615
582
583
584
585
and capillary pores that are inherent to the matrix. The
nanoparticles effectively close these minuscule apertures,
hence lowering the dimensions and number of channels
via which water infiltration can occur. The combination
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ture, densification, and hydration products may diminish
carbonation depth.

3.9 Acid attack test

616
617

618
D
586 of pore-blocking and clogging mechanisms results in Due to their alkalinity, concrete mixtures are acid- 619
587 a notable decrease in the permeability of the concrete prone. Figure 12. All concrete mixtures with varying 620
TE

588 mixtures. constituents vary in density and compressive strength. 621

589 In brief, the regulation of permeability through water With Nano silica, concrete mixtures are less prone to 622
590 infiltration exhibits a strong resemblance to the patterns acidity. Increased Nano silica powder concentrations 623
EC

591 found in the water absorption test. The use of nano-silica, make concrete mixtures more resistant to acid, lower- 624
592 specifically at a specific concentration, enhances the con- ing weight change and compressive strength compared 625
593 crete’s ability to resist water infiltration by utilising nan- to the control mix. Compared to the control mix, the 626
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594 oparticles to efficiently block potential paths for water concrete mix containing 2% Nano silica had an 11% 627
595 within the matrix. weight change and 32% compressive strength change 628
after 90 days of acid curing. The acid resistance of 629
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596 3.8 Carbonation test

597 Carbonation reduces the alkalinity of the pore solution,
598 which may cause concrete degradation. After 30, 60, 90,
599 and 120 days, carbonation penetration depth is measured
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600 (Fig. 11). The carbonation depth of the control mixture

601 was 9 mm after 30 days, 10 mm after 14 days, and 20 mm
602 after 120 days. Compared to the control combination,
603 Nano silica powder diminishes the depth of carbona-
604 tion. The carbonation of samples with 3% Nano silica
605 was more robust. The C98 mix had a minimum value of
606 13 mm after 120 days, 33% less than the control mix. The
607 first 30 days of the carbonation test revealed no signifi-
608 cant differences between concrete mixes with and with-
609 out Nano silica. As ­CO2 exposure rises, the carbonation
610 levels of various compounds change. Carbonation is a
611 process of slow diffusion that improves with time. Cal-
Fig. 12 Change in weight and compressive strength of concrete
612 cium carbonate from hydration products precipitates
mixes after exposure to acid attack
AQ1
613 as calcite during carbonation (Shah et al. 2018). As the

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630 concrete mixes with Nano silica concentrations over 3.10 Rapid chloride penetration test 652
631 2% is diminished. The acid degrades the cement gel After 28 days of curing, all concrete mixtures were 653
632 binder in the matrix of the concrete, altering its density RCPT-tested. Figure 13 displays all mixing outcomes 654
633 and strength. From calcium hydroxide, it commonly coulombically. ASTM C1202-10 guidelines govern data 655
634 yields calcium sulphate. Calcium sulphate and calcium interpretation. Figure 13 depicts RCPT experiments 656
635 aluminates are responsible for the formation of sec- revealing that all concrete mixtures had moderate chlo- 657
636 ondary ettringite. The separation of secondary ettrin- ride permeabilities, with charges flowing between 1000 658
637 gite into silica gel by physical forces. Ions of chloride and 2000 coulombs. The C98 and C99 concrete mixtures 659
638 stimulate calcium hydroxide leaching. In every manner, have a passing charge value that is less than 1000, indi- 660
639 these ions influence the C-SH layer. Chemical absorp- cating very low chloride permeability. In comparison to 661
640 tion takes place on the outer layer, between layers, or the control combination, the Nano pore-filling silica and 662
641 with C-S-H linked to the matrix. Following acid, sul- pozzolanic actions lower chloride permeability in all 663
642 phide, and chloride exposure, decalcification, porous samples. NS components boost concrete’s pore struc- 664
C-S-H, and calcium hydroxide leaching degrade con- ture and density. Thus, replacing cement with nano-silica

F
643 665
644 crete mixture. In two ways, silica nanoparticles provide increases the chloride resistance capacity of concrete and 666

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645 acid resistance to concrete mixtures. Small particles of lowers the amount of free chloride ions in the pore sys- 667
646 varied sizes and morphologies compress concrete by tem. Since unbound chloride ions promote corrosion of 668

O
647 reducing the porosity. Permeability of acidic solutions steel reinforcement, eliminating them would increase the 669
648 through the matrix diminishes. Hydration products durability of concrete. Due to the fact that 3% nano-silica 670
such as C-S-H gel structures prevent the breakdown of causes agglomeration and big pores, chloride ions may

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649 671
650 calcium hydroxide and concrete mix. It is resistant to infiltrate concrete mixes more deeply, hence increasing 672
651 pH. RCPT values. 673

3.11 Cost analysis
D
674
The cost of the concrete was determined by multiplying 675
the number of constituents in the concrete mix design by
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676
their respective rates. The cost of the concrete mix design 677
was then determined. Fifty kilograms bag of cement is 678
estimated to cost Rs. 360 (based on current market val- 679
EC

ues), while the 1 kg of nano silica is priced at Rs. 1200. 680

The cost estimate does not include labour; it just accounts 681
for materials. Table 3 describes all the calculations of the 682
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cost of the materials and concrete for NS0-C100 and 683

NS2-C98 mix. When compared to OPC concrete, con- 684
crete incorporated with Nano silica is expensive and 685
but it lowers the usage of cement which may reduce the
CO

686
immersion of carbon dioxide. On comparing the overall 687
performance of Nano silica concrete is much better than 688

Fig. 13 Rapid Chloride Permeability (Coulombs)

ordinary concrete. 689
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Table 3 Cost analysis of NS0-C100 and NS2-C98 mix

Constituent Cost (in Rupees)a NS0-C100 NS2-C98
3
Quantity (kg/m ) Estimated Cost (in Quantity (kg/m3) Estimated
Rupees) Cost (in
Rupees)

Cement 360/ bag 395 2844 351.55 2531

Nano Silica 1200/kg - - 3.95 4740
Fine Aggregate 1400/m3 676.3 556 676.3 556
Coarse Aggregate 2400/m3 1204.6 1021 1204.6 1021
Total Cost 4421 8848
a
As per the prevailing market rate

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690 4 Morphology and mineralogy size. In concrete mixes with a larger cement-NS substi- 709
691 4.1 SEM analysis tution, micropores were discovered. These micropores 710
692 Mechanical test results are validated by qualitative may weaken the material. The ITZ microstructure of the 711
693 microanalysis. Although microanalysis only provides control mixture reveals an irregular CSH gel structure, 712
694 qualitative data, it can shed light on the mechanical and an unevenly porous surface, large portlandite (CH) crys- 713
695 durability test results. As shown in Fig. 14, the micro- tals, and needle-like Aft crystals. Less voids were found 714
696 structure of the ITZ of concrete containing NS revealed in NS integrated concrete than in the control mix. These 715
697 a thick and homogeneous space between the bulk paste voids were caused by water-filled regions near the aggre- 716
698 and aggregate surface. The ITZ microstructure and sur- gate surface. ITZs of samples containing NS had a denser 717
699 rounding area did not contain any portlandite (CH) microstructure and fewer micro fractures, particularly 718
700 crystals of significant size. The ITZ and bulk paste lack C98, which had a greater influence on porosity reduction 719
701 distinct borders. The additional C-S-H gel formed by the and strength gain than the control mix. 720
702 chemical reaction of NS with CH during hydration is
seen in Fig. 14a and c. When NS was replaced, this gel 4.2 EDS analysis

F
703 721
704 filled the crystal voids in the concrete matrix. The fig- In addition to the morphological study utilising SEM 722

O
705 ures demonstrate this. SEM photos show a minute CH images, a qualitative EDS analysis was performed 723
706 crystal particle embedded in the concrete matrix [36]. using a line-scan and elemental mapping scan tech- 724

O
707 The NS pozzolanic reaction consumes CH and pro- nique (for Si, Ca, O, S, AL, Mg, and Fe) to determine 725
708 duces more CSH gel. Denser matrix lowers CH crystal the chemical composition of the concrete specimen. 726

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Fig. 14 a SEM Image of C-100. b SEM Image of NS1-C-98. c SEM Image of NS2-C-98. d SEM Image of NS3-C-99

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727 For this examination, the morphological investigation

728 employed SEM images. The relative weight percent
729 and atomic weight percent ratios for Ca/Si, Ca/Al, and
730 Si/Al concrete compositions are shown in Table 4. The
731 mixture has more Si than Al, indicating that the quartz
732 particles will have a more difficulty in dissolving dur-
733 ing hydration. As seen in Table 3, NS amounts altered
734 the Ca/Al and Si/Al ratios. The EDX spectrum shown
735 in Fig. 15 revealed adequate amounts of iron and silica.
736 Guaranteed to improve in strength. Increased Ca/Si
737 ratios weaken materials’ mechanical properties.

4.3 XRD analysis

F
738
739 Figure 16 displays XRD spectra of concrete mixtures Fig. 15 EDS analysis of C-98

O
740 including NS. After 28 days of hydration, the XRD
741 spectra were analysed to identify the different min-
4.4 TGA/DTG analysis 767

O
742 eralogical phases. XRD patterns were dominated by
portlandite (CH), calcite (C), and calcium-silicate TGA and DTG curves may demonstrate the stability of 768
743
a mix of fire-resistant concrete at high temperatures. 769

PR
744 compounds (C2S and C3S) as shown in Fig. 16. As a
result of the hydration of C3S, crystalline C2S and C3S Figure 17 shows the TG and DTG values for selected 770
745
peaks were found. Since C3S was adequately hydrated. samples of the current compositions. When heated, all 771
746
Mechanical characteristics imply that strength has samples respond identically. Three temperature ranges 772
747
increased. XRD spectra of samples containing 2% NS are shown by the TG curves: 30–450 degrees Celsius, 773
D
748
revealed reduced calcium hydroxide precipitation 450–700 degrees Celsius, and 700–800 degrees Cel- 774
749
compared to the control mixture. This demonstrates sius. As the temperature increases, the first two por- 775
TE

750
that NS consumes more calcium hydroxide (CH) and tions lose weight gradually, but the third section loses 776
751
generates more C-S-H gel in the system [38], hence weight rapidly. For example, the weight loss for first 777
752
enhancing the mechanical qualities of the concrete two portion of N0-C100, N1-C99, N2-C98 and N3-C97 778
EC

753
mixture. The XRD experiment demonstrated that 2% was 7.1%, 5.2%, 8%, and 9.5%, respectively. Whereas for 779
754
NS addition used more CH than NS replacement at last portion i.e. 700–800 °C, the weight loss was 2.4%, 780
755
3%. Therefore, NS at 2% is more efficient. The cement 0.8%, 2.5%, and 1%, respectively. The causes of the first 781
756
region’s weight loss are multifaceted. Typically, three
RR

782
757 composition of the concrete may also be to blame. Fig-
ure 16 shows the C-S-H peak at 28° in the XRD pattern mechanisms cause it. Adsorbed water evaporates up 783
758
(c). C-SH reached its peak after 28 days of hydration, to 150 °C, but beyond that, chemically linked water 784
759
confirming the mechanical tests. N.S. 2 percent had of hydration products and dehydration of C-S-H and 785
CO

760
a greater C-S-H peak intensity. The concrete samples ettringite induce weight loss up to 450 °C. Calcium 786
761
included unhydrated cement minerals such as ettring- hydroxide dehydration causes region two’s weight loss. 787
762
The molecule of hydrated calcium carbonate decar- 788
763 ite, alite, belite, aluminate, and ferrite, as illustrated in
boxylates between 700 and 800 degrees Celsius, result- 789
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764 Fig. 16a, c (Ali 2021). As shown in Fig. 16 quartz peak

intensity rises with NS replacement rate, which sup- ing in a fast change in weight. The change in weight 790
765
ports the mechanical strength improvement. of this area indicates CO2 outflow during decarbona- 791
766
tion. DTG curves exhibit equal three-peak alterations. 792

Table 4 Relative weight% and atomic% ratio for Ca/Si, Ca/Al and Si/Al
Mix Weight % Atomic %
Ca/Si Ca/Al Si/Al Ca/Si Ca/Al Si/Al

NS0-C100 3.05 10.65 3.49 2.14 7.16 3.35

NS1-C99 1.74 11.52 6.60 1.22 7.77 6.36
NS2-C98 2.41 16.27 6.75 1.69 10.98 6.50
NS3-C97 2.85 13.52 4.75 2.00 9.09 4.55

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O
O
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Fig. 16 XRD spectrum of C-100, C-97, C-98 and C-99 after 28 days curing period
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Fig. 17 DTG/TGA curves after 28 days of curing

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793 At 80 degrees Celsius, water evaporates, and at 480 4.5 FTIR spectroscopy 806
794 degrees Celsius, C-H and ettringite dehydrate. CaCO3 Si-O asymmetric stretching bonds at 1000 cm-1 pro- 807
795 decarboxylation creates the third peak at 740 degrees duce hydrocarbons such as C-S-H. (Fig. 18). IR spec- 808
796 Celsius. According to TGA/DTG curves, concrete tra have three primary regions. With a wavelength 809
797 mixtures disintegrate beyond 500 °C. The DTG curve of 850–1200 cm-1, the first zone is extended. Due to 810
798 (Fig. 17) demonstrates that substituting nano-silica for stretching band asymmetries, the broad and weak 811
799 cement lowers weight loss and stabilises the mixture. bonds in the second zone have a frequency of 750– 812
800 All concrete compositions lose volume when cooled. 800 cm-1. The bending of Si-O-Si bonds makes the 813
801 At higher temperatures, nano-silica lowers calcium third zone 500 cm-1 in width. All samples of concrete 814
802 carbonate concentration and weight loss. As previously exhibit the majority of bands, including 1636 cm-1 and 815
803 stated, increased nanosilica concentrations result in 3400–3650 cm-1. These bands are created by the bend- 816
804 agglomeration, an increase in pore size, a high carbon- ing and vibrations of the H-O-H bond. These bands are 817
805 ate content, and significant weight loss. caused by C3S and C2S hydration products absorbed 818

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Fig. 18 FTIR spectra of concrete mixes with nano-silica replacement with cement

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819 by concrete mixtures. As curing time and free water 2023 870
820 diminish, a complex C-S-H gel develops, resulting in a 871
821 drop in band intensity. After 90 days, these bands are
822 less severe than after 28 days. These bands are dimin-
823 ished more by nano silica samples than by the control
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847 Acknowledgements
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848 The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding provided by Manipal
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parameters of hardened concrete on partially replacing cement by dried 908

849 University Jaipur under Seed Grant scheme no. EF/2017-18/QE04-14, available
waste marble powder slurry. Constr Build Mater 198:553–569. https://​doi.​ 909
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852 with the Civil Engineering Department, Manipal University Jaipur for providing
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853 the necessary materials and support for all of the material testing facilities.
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854 Authors’ contributions
tion on properties of hardened cement paste as compared with silica 915
855 All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material prepara-
fume. Constr Build Mater 21:539–545. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​conbu​ 916
856 tion, data collection and analysis were performed by Vikram Kashyap and
ildmat.​2005.​09.​001 917
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857 Gaurav Sancheti. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Jitendra
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858 Singh Yadav and all authors commented on previous versions of the manu-
(2022) Developing a sustainable concrete incorporating bentonite clay 919
859 script. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
and silica fume: mechanical and durability performance. J Clean Prod 920
337:130315 921
860 Funding
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861 The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received dur-
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862 ing the preparation of this manuscript.
nanosilica and microsilica. Constr Build Mater 102:706–713. https://​doi.​ 924
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863 Availability of data and materials
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864 No data is associated with this manuscript.
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866 Competing interests high-strength concrete containing macro-polymeric and polypropylene 931
867 The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. fibers with nano-silica and silica fume. Constr Build Mater 132:170–187. 932
868 https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​conbu​ildmat.​2016.​11.​100 933
18. Cheng Y (2019) Experimental study on nano-SiO 2 improving concrete 934
869 Received: 30 June 2023 Revised: 30 October 2023 Accepted: 8 November durability of bridge deck pavement in cold regions. 2019. 935

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