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Children 12th Edition Santrock Test
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Book Title: Children, 12e
Author: John Santrock
Chapter Six: Cognitive Development in Infancy
Learning Goals
1. Summarize and evaluate Piaget’s theory of infant development.

2. Describe how infants learn, remember, and conceptualize.
3. Discuss infant assessment measures and the prediction of intelligence.
4. Describe the nature of language and how it develops in infancy.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is true with regard to Piaget’s theory of infant

development?
A. Piaget’s theory represents a biologically based understanding of cognition in
infants and toddlers.
B. Piaget’s theory strengthens the view that one’s genetic material is the primary
determinant of one’s cognitive abilities.
C. Piaget’s theory posits the view that biology and experience sculpt cognitive
development in children.
D. Piaget’s theory takes a purely ecological approach to understand cognitive
development in infants and children.
Answer: C
Learning Goal: 06-01
Topic: Preview
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 172
Explanation: Piaget’s theory is a general, unifying story of how biology and
experience sculpt cognitive development.
2. In the context of Piaget’s theory, _____ is the process of adjusting to new

environmental demands.
A. adaptation
B. evolution
C. involution
D. attention
Answer: A
Topic: Preview
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 172
Explanation: Adaptation involves adjusting to new environmental demands.
3. Piaget stressed that:

A. children are passive recipients of information from the environment.
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B. the sole determinant of a child's cognitive development is the culture in which he is
born.
C. children actively construct their own cognitive worlds.
D. the cognitive development of children has a purely biological basis.
Answer: C
Topic: Preview
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 172
Explanation: Piaget stressed that children actively construct their own cognitive
worlds; information is not just poured into their minds from the environment.
4. In Piaget’s theory, _____ are actions or mental representations that organize

knowledge.
A. schemes
B. engrams
C. modes
D. morphemes
Answer: A
Topic: Cognitive Processes
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 173
Explanation: In Piaget’s theory, schemes are actions or mental representations that
organize knowledge.
5. A baby’s schemes are structured by _____ that can be performed on objects, such
as sucking, looking, and grasping.
A. complex behavior
B. diverse actions
C. mental strategies
D. simple actions
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 173
Explanation: A baby’s schemes are structured by simple actions that can be performed
on objects, such as sucking, looking, and grasping.
6. In Piaget’s theory, mental schemes first develop in _____.

A. infancy
B. childhood
C. adolescence
D. adulthood
Answer: B
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 173
Explanation: In Piaget’s theory, mental schemes develop in childhood.
7. Assimilation occurs when children:

A. adjust their schemes to take new information and experiences into account.
B. develop one scheme that applies to all information and experiences they encounter.
C. prevent the incorporation of new environmental experiences and information.
D. use their existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 173
Explanation: Assimilation occurs when children use their existing schemes to deal
with new information or experiences.
8. In Piaget’s theory, _____ is defined as the tendency of children to adjust their

schemes to take new information and experiences into account.
A. assimilation
B. accommodation
C. evolution
D. externalization
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Page: 173
Explanation: Accommodation occurs when children adjust their schemes to take new
information and experiences into account.
9. _____ in Piaget’s theory is the grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a
higher-order system.
A. Clustering
B. Screening
C. Organization
D. Natural selection
Answer: C
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 173
Explanation: Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a
higher-order system or into a more smoothly functioning cognitive system is known
as organization.
10. In trying to understand the world, the child is constantly faced with
inconsistencies and counterexamples to his or her existing schemes. This phenomenon
is defined as _____.
A. disequilibrium
B. deconstruction
C. reactance
D. disruption
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 173
Explanation: In trying to understand the world, the child inevitably experiences
cognitive conflict, or disequilibrium.
11. For Piaget, an internal search for equilibrium is most likely to result in:
A. the child retaining old and dysfunctional schemes permanently.
B. the child displaying delays in learning language and social behavior.
C. the child failing to develop new schemes after a point.
D. the child experiencing renewed motivation to change and adapt.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 173
Explanation: For Piaget, an internal search for equilibrium creates motivation for
change. The child assimilates and accommodates, adjusting old schemes, developing
new schemes, and organizing and reorganizing the old and new schemes. Eventually,
the organization is fundamentally different from the old organization; it is a new way
of thinking.
12. A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of
thought to the next is known as _____.
A. vocalization
B. equilibration
C. conceptualization
D. causation
Answer: B
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 173
Explanation: Equilibration is a mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how
children shift from one stage of thought to the next.
13. Samantha, a two-week-old infant, sucks instinctively when her lips are touched or
stroked. She achieves this by:
A. moving beyond self-preoccupation.
B. coordinating schemes for vision and touch with intentionality.
C. coordinating sensation and action through reflexive behavior.
D. experimenting with new behavior.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Reflective Thinking
Blooms: Apply
Page: 174
Refer to: Fig. 6.1
Explanation: Simple reflexes represent the first sensorimotor substage, corresponding
to the first month after birth. In this substage, sensation and action are coordinated
primarily through reflexive behaviors, such as rooting and sucking.
14. Richard is a five-month old baby. His parents frequently sit by his side to cuddle
him or to speak to him in loud and affectionate tones. Richard seems to enjoy this
attention very much and makes cooing sounds in response to his parents’ warm
interactions with him. Richard’s act of cooing to obtain parental attention is a function
of the _____ substage given by Piaget.
A. secondary circular reactions
B. simple reflexes
C. internalization of schemes
D. first habits and primary circular reactions
Answer: A
Difficulty: Hard
Blooms: Apply
Page: 174
Refer to: Fig. 6.1
Explanation: In the secondary circular reactions substage, infants become more
object-oriented, moving beyond self-preoccupation; repeat actions that bring
interesting or pleasurable results.
15. Wayne’s father hung a bright yellow tennis ball over his crib and dangled it
whenever he stood by him. Within a day or two of doing this, Wayne was seen
kicking his legs in the air to reach the ball successfully. Wayne’s action is an example
of the _____ substage given by Piaget.
A. simple reflexes
B. tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity
C. coordination of secondary circular reactions
D. internalization of schemes
Answer: C
Difficulty: Hard
Blooms: Apply
Page: 174
Refer to: Fig. 6.1
Explanation: Coordination of secondary circular reactions substage involves the
coordination of vision and touch—hand-eye coordination; coordination of schemes
and intentionality.
16. In the context of Piaget's sensorimotor development, a _____ is a scheme based

on the attempt to reproduce an event that initially occurred by chance.
A. secondary circular reaction
B. simple reflex
C. tertiary circular reaction
D. primary circular reaction
Answer: D
Topic: The Sensorimotor Stage
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 175
Explanation: Primary circular reaction is a scheme based on the attempt to reproduce
an event that initially occurred by chance.
17. Ruella and Raymond are amazed at the range of new things their six month old
daughter seems to be learning every day. Recently, while playing with a toy, Anna,
their daughter, tossed it out of the crib. Immediately, Ruella picked it up and placed it
in Anna’s hand and talked to her for a bit. Ever since this incident, Anna keeps
throwing her toys out of the crib expecting one of her parents to give her toy back to
her and to cuddle her a bit. From the scenario, we can say that Anna is in the
sensorimotor substage of _____.
A. internalization of schemes
B. tertiary circular reactions
C. coordination of secondary circular reactions
D. secondary circular reactions
Answer: D
Difficulty: Hard
Blooms: Apply
Page: 175
Explanation: Secondary circular reactions is the third sensorimotor substage, which
develops between 4 and 8 months of age. In this substage, the infant becomes more
object-oriented, moving beyond preoccupation with the self. In this stage, an infant
may repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results.
18. On Dora’s first birthday, one her aunts brought a set of lego basic bricks that she
absolutely loves. Dora spends hours building, breaking, and rebuilding towers from
the blocks and smiles widely whenever she discovers something new she can do with
them. Dora’s preoccupation with manipulating the building blocks in different ways
reflects a function of the sensorimotor substage of _____.
A. secondary circular reactions
B. tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity
C. first habits and primary circular reactions
D. simple reflexes
Answer: B
Difficulty: Hard
Blooms: Apply
Page: 175
Explanation: Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity is Piaget’s fifth
sensorimotor substage, which develops between 12 and 18 months of age. In this
substage, infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many
things that they can make happen to objects.
19. According to Piaget, which of the following is true about the life of a newborn?
A. There is no differentiation between the self and the world.
B. The ability to use primitive symbols is completely developed in newborns.
C. Newborns understand that objects have a separate and permanent existence.
D. The newborn is aware of the existence of its mother when she disappears.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 176
Explanation: According to Piaget, infants cannot differentiate between the self and
world; for infants, objects have no separate, permanent existence.
20. _____ is defined as the understanding that objects continue to exist even when
they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
A. Concept formation
B. Object orientation
C. Deferred imitation
D. Object permanence
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 176
Explanation: Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist
even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
21. Which of the following situations testifies that the infant has developed a sense of
object permanence?
A. If the infant assumes that an object that is out of sight does not exist
B. If the infant shows no reaction when an interesting object is taken away
C. If the infant searches for an interesting object when it disappears
D. If the infant tries to grab an interesting object with his whole hand
Answer: C
Difficulty: Hard
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Page: 176
Explanation: The principal way that object permanence is studied is by watching an
infant’s reaction when an interesting object disappears. If infants search for the object,
it is assumed that they believe it continues to exist.
22. Which of the following mistakes is common in infants who are in the coordination
of secondary circular reactions substage?
A. Type I error
B. A-not-B error
C. Equilibration
D. Type II error
Answer: B
Topic: Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 176
Explanation: A-not-B error occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the
familiar hiding place (A) rather than the new hiding place (B) as they progress into
the fourth substage in Piaget’s sensorimotor stage.
23. Which of the following is an example of an A-not-B error?

A. Dora had a fall while climbing a chair and complained to her mother that the chair
is “bad” and began hitting it.
B. Dennis cannot comprehend that a ball made out of his clay modelling set can also
be used to make a box or a tower.
C. Devon’s mother taught him to say “Dad” and he now uses the term to refer to any
male he comes across irrespective of age or familiarity.
D. Daniel always looks below the bed when he cannot find his toy because that was
the first place where his father had hidden his toy.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Hard
Blooms: Apply
Page: 176
Explanation: A-not-B error occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the
familiar hiding place (A) rather than the new hiding place (B) as they progress into
the fourth substage in Piaget’s sensorimotor stage.
24. Research by Renée Baillargeon found that infants as young as 3 to 4 months

expect objects to be _____.
A. substantial
B. temporary
C. intangible
D. transient
Answer: A
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 178
Explanation: Research by Renée Baillargeon documents that infants as young as 3 to
4 months expect objects to be substantial and permanent.
25. Which of the following states that infants are born with domain-specific innate
knowledge systems?
A. The epigenetic approach
B. The constructivist approach
C. The generalized knowledge approach
D. The core knowledge approach
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 178
Explanation: The core knowledge approach states that infants are born with domain-
specific innate knowledge systems.
26. Which of the following is a critique of the core knowledge approach?

A. Infants come into the world with knowledge systems for space, number sense,
object permanence, and language.
B. Infants come into the world with "soft biases to perceive and attend to different
aspects of the environment, and to learn about the world in particular ways.”
C. Infants have an innate sense of the world when they are born that is independent of
environmental experiences.
D. The core domains provide a foundation from which infants manifest their
genetically hardwired manner of understanding the world and develop more mature
cognitive functioning and learning.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Hard
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Page: 178
Page:179
Explanation: In criticizing the core knowledge approach, British developmental
psychologist Mark Johnston says that infants likely come into the world with “soft
biases to perceive and attend to different aspects of the environment, and to learn
about the world in particular ways.”
27. The focusing of mental resources on select information that improves cognitive
processing on many tasks is defined as _____.
A. sensation
B. attention
C. perception
D. transduction
Answer: B
Topic: Attention
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 180
Explanation: Attention is the focusing of mental resources on select information that
improves cognitive processing on many tasks.
28. _____ allows infants to learn about and remember characteristics of a stimulus as
it becomes familiar.
A. Investigative process
B. Orienting attention
C. Sustained attention
D. Divided attention
Answer: C
Topic: Attention
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 180
Explanation: Sustained attention allows infants to learn about and remember
characteristics of a stimulus as it becomes familiar.
29. _____ is defined as the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated
presentations of the stimulus.
A. Orientation
B. Investigation
C. Habituation
D. Imitation
Answer: C
Topic: Attention
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 181
Explanation: Habituation is the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated
presentations of the stimulus.
30. _____ is defined as the increase in responsiveness after a change in stimulation.

A. Dishabituation
B. Generalization
C. Inhibition
D. Introspection
Answer: A
Topic: Attention
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 181
Explanation: Dishabituation is the increase in responsiveness after a change in
stimulation.
31. Infants’ attention to objects is strongly governed by the _____ and habituation.
A. obscurity of the object
B. frequency of interactions with the object
C. familiarity with the object
D. novelty of the object
Answer: D
Topic: Attention
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 181
Explanation: Infants’ attention is strongly governed by novelty and habituation.
32. Research on habituation has shown that:

A. continual stimulation over extended periods of time using the same object is the
best way to elicit a child’s attention.
B. the extent to which infants can see, hear, smell, taste, and experience touch cannot
be empirically studied.
C. it is important for parents to do novel things and to repeat them often until the
infant stops responding.
D. habituation is inadequate as a variable to study an infant’s maturity and well-being.
Answer: C
Topic: Attention
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 181
Explanation: In parent-infant interaction, it is important for parents to do novel things
and to repeat them often until the infant stops responding. The parent stops or changes
behaviors when the infant redirects his or her attention.
33. _____ occurs when individuals focus on the same object or event and are able to
track each other’s behavior; one individual directs another’s attention, and reciprocal
interaction is present.
A. Orienting attention
B. Joint attention
C. Investigative attention
D. Covert attention
Answer: B
Topic: Attention
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 181
Explanation: Joint attention occurs when individuals focus on the same object or
event and are able to track each other’s behavior; one individual directs another’s
attention, and reciprocal interaction is present.
34. Which of the following is a prerequisite condition for joint attention to occur?
A. Reciprocal interaction
B. Multiple caregivers
C. Infant’s ability to use abstract thought
D. Infant’s ability to use two-word utterances
Answer: A
Topic: Attention
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Page: 181
Explanation: Joint attention requires (1) an ability to track another’s behavior, such as
following someone’s gaze; (2) one person directing another’s attention; and
(3) reciprocal interaction.
35. Attention plays an important role in memory as part of a process called _____,
which is the process by which information gets into memory.
A. encoding
B. maintaining
C. filtering
D. inhibiting
Answer: A
Topic: Memory
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 182
Explanation: Attention plays an important role in memory as part of a process called
encoding, which is the process by which information gets into memory.
36. _____ is a central feature of cognitive development, involving the retention of

information over time.
A. Emotion
B. Memory
C. Consciousness
D. Intuition
Answer: B
Topic: Memory
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 182
Explanation: Memory is a central feature of cognitive development, involving the
retention of information over time.
37. Which of the following refers to the conscious memory of facts and experiences?
A. Non-declarative memory
B. Procedural memory
C. Implicit memory
D. Explicit memory
Answer: D
Topic: Memory
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 182
Explanation: Explicit memory refers to the conscious memory of facts and
experiences.
38. Which of the following would come under the domain of implicit memory?
A. Ability to drive a car
B. Ability to recite a poem
C. Ability to name the President
D. Ability to recall complex formulas
Answer: A
Topic: Memory
Difficulty: Medium
Blooms: Apply
Page: 182
Explanation: Implicit memory refers to memory without conscious recollection—
memories of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically. In
contrast, explicit memory refers to the conscious memory of facts and experiences.
39. Which of the following would come under the domain of explicit memory?
A. Ability to play a musical instrument
B. Ability to do type with high speed and accuracy
C. Ability to play soccer
D. Ability to name the people present at a recent party
Answer: D
Topic: Memory
Difficulty: Medium
Blooms: Apply
Page: 182
Explanation: Implicit memory refers to memory without conscious recollection—
memories of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically. In
contrast, explicit memory refers to the conscious memory of facts and experiences.
40. From about 6 to 12 months of age, _____ make the emergence of explicit memory
possible.
A. the maturation of the hippocampus and the surrounding cerebral cortex
B. the maturation of the olfactory bulb and the ventral areas of the frontal lobe
C. the maturation of the pons and the surrounding areas of the brainstem
D. the maturation of the medulla oblongata and the surrounding areas of the brainstem
Answer: A
Topic: Memory
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 182
Explanation: From about 6 to 12 months of age, the maturation of the hippocampus
and the surrounding cerebral cortex, especially the frontal lobes, makes the emergence
of explicit memory possible.
41. Most adults can remember little if anything from the first three years of their life.
This reflects the operation of _____.
A. infantile amnesia
B. infantile psychosis
C. juvenile dementia
D. infantile neurosis
Answer: A
Topic: Memory
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Page: 182
Explanation: Most adults can remember little if anything from the first three years of
their life. This is called infantile, or childhood, amnesia.
42. One reason older children and adults have difficulty recalling events from their
infancy and early childhood years is that:
A. during these early years, the primary somatosensory cortex is undeveloped.
B. during these early years, the occipital lobe of the brain is in the process of
developing.
C. during these early years, the sensory and motor association areas are immature.
D. during these early years, the prefrontal lobes of the brain are immature.
Answer: D
Topic: Memory
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 182
Page: 183
Explanation: One reason older children and adults have difficulty recalling events
from their infant and early childhood years is that during these early years the
prefrontal lobes of the brain are immature; this area of the brain is believed to play an
important role in storing memories of events.
43. According to Andrew Meltzoff, the infant’s imitative abilities are _____.
A. indiscriminate and generalized
B. inflexible and rigid
C. biologically based
D. unseen till two years after birth
Answer: C
Topic: Imitation
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 183
Explanation: Infant development researcher Andrew Meltzoff emphasizes that the
infant’s imitative abilities are biologically based, because infants can imitate a facial
expression within the first few days after birth. He also emphasizes that the infant’s
imitative abilities do not resemble a hardwired response but rather involve flexibility
and adaptability.
44. Carol was about a year and a half old when her father, who was babysitting her for
the day, noticed that she was brushing her hair with a rattle just the way his wife
brushed her hair before she left about three hours back. Carol’s father was sure this
was something new she had learnt. This is an example of _____.
A. concept formation
B. deferred imitation
C. centration
D. perceptual organization
Answer: B
Topic: Imitation
Difficulty: Hard
Blooms: Apply
Page: 183
Explanation: Deferred imitation is imitation that occurs after a delay of hours or days.
Carol is displaying deferred imitation here.
45. _____ are defined as cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or
ideas.
A. Data
B. Scripts
C. Concepts
D. Records
Answer: C
Topic: Concept Formation
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 183
Explanation: Concepts are cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or
ideas.
46. Infants who classify birds as animals and airplanes as vehicles even though the
objects are perceptually similar are engaging in:
A. conceptual categorization.
B. perceptual categorization.
C. surface-level categorization.
D. superficial categorization.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Page: 184
Explanation: It is not until about 7 to 9 months of age that infants form conceptual
categories rather than just making perceptual discriminations between different
categories. In one study of 9- to 11-month olds, infants classified birds as animals and
airplanes as vehicles even though the objects were perceptually similar—airplanes
and birds with their wings spread.
47. In the context of concept formation, which of the following is likely to be the
subject of intense interest among girls?
A. Dinosaurs
B. Trucks
C. Books/readings
D. Balls
Answer: C
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 184
Explanation: Categorization of boys’ intense interests focused on vehicles, trains,
machines, dinosaurs, and balls; girls’ intense interests were more likely to involve
dress-ups and books/reading.
48. In the context of testing and assessment of infant development, the most important
early contributor was _____.
A. A S Kaufman
B. Patricia Kuhl
C. Nancy Bayley
D. Arnold Gesell
Answer: D
Topic: Measures of Infant Development
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 186
Explanation: The most important early contributor to the testing of infants was Arnold
Gesell. He developed a measure that helped to sort out potentially normal babies from
abnormal ones.
49. An overall score that combines the subscores in the four domains of Gesell
assessment of infants is known as the _____.
A. deviation quotient
B. developmental quotient
C. clinical quotient
D. intelligence quotient
Answer: B
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 186
Explanation: An overall score that combines subscores in motor, language, adaptive,
and personal-social domains in the Gesell assessment of infants is known as
developmental quotient.
50. The Bayley Scales of Infant Development were developed in order to:
A. evaluate the child’s heart and lung functioning at birth.
B. assess infant behavior and predict later development.
C. differentiate potentially normal babies from abnormal ones.
D. combine the height and weight of the infant into a singular metric.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 186
Explanation: The widely used Bayley Scales of Infant Development were developed
by Nancy Bayley in order to assess infant behavior and predict later development.
51. When compared to intelligence tests of older children, tests for infants are
characterized by:
A. greater emphasis on measures of verbal intelligence.
B. lesser emphasis on perceptual-motor development.
C. greater emphasis on social interaction in infants.
D. lesser emphasis on relationship with the infant's caregiver(s).
Answer: C
Topic: Predicting Intelligence
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 187
Explanation: The infant-testing movement grew out of the tradition of IQ testing.
However, IQ tests of older children pay more attention to verbal ability. Tests for
infants contain far more items related to perceptual-motor development and include
measures of social interaction.
52. The _____ is correlated with measures of intelligence in older children.

A. Apgar Scale
B. Gesell test
C. Fagan test
D. Bayley scale
Answer: C
Topic: Predicting Intelligence
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 187
Explanation: Unlike the Gesell and Bayley scales, the Fagan test is correlated with
measures of intelligence in older children.
53. _____ is a form of communication that is based on a system of spoken, written or

signed symbols.
A. Proprioception
B. Haptics
C. Telepathy
D. Language
Answer: D
Topic: Defining Language
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 188
Explanation: Language is a form of communication, whether spoken, written, or
signed, that is based on a system of symbols.
54. Which of the following is the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful
sentences using a fixed set of words and rules?
A. Parsing
B. Chunking
C. Universal language acquisition
D. Infinite generativity
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 188
Explanation: Infinite generativity is the ability to produce an endless number of
meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.
55. Lillian gave her class of twelve students a sentence making exercise in her English
class. She provided the students with seven words and instructed them to create as
many sentences as they could with this set of words only. Lillian’s exercise tests
_____.
A. infinite generativity
B. perceptual organization
C. emotional intelligence
D. postconventional reasoning
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Blooms: Apply
Page: 188
Explanation: Infinite generativity is the ability to produce an endless number of
meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.
56. Which of the following is defined as the sound system of the language?
A. Morphology
B. Phonology
C. Semiotics
D. Grammar
Answer: B
Topic: Language’s Rule Systems
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 188
Explanation: Phonology is the sound system of the language, including the sounds
that are used and how they may be combined.
57. In English, the sound represented by the letter p, as in the words pot and spot, is a
_____.
A. scheme
B. word
C. morpheme
D. phoneme
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 188
Explanation: A phoneme is the basic unit of sound in a language; it is the smallest unit
of sound that affects meaning. For example, in English the sound represented by the
letter p, as in the words pot and spot, is a phoneme.
58. _____ refers to the units of meaning involved in word formation.

A. Morphology
B. Phonology
C. Graphology
D. Philology
Answer: A
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 189
Explanation: Morphology refers to the units of meaning involved in word formation.
59. _____ involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and
sentences.
A. Semiotics
B. Syllable
C. Syntax
D. Haptics
Answer: C
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 189
Explanation: Syntax involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases
and sentences.
60. The appropriate use of language in different contexts is known as _____.

A. haptics
B. pragmatics
C. semiotics
D. generativity
Answer: B
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 189
Explanation: The appropriate use of language in different contexts is known as
pragmatics.
61. Patricia Kuhl’s research has demonstrated that from birth up to about 6 months of
age, infants are “citizens of the world”. In the context of Kuhl's research, what does
this expression convey?
A. Infants recognize when sounds change most of the time irrespective of the
language being spoken.
B. Infants are exclusively sensitive to the language their parents speak between birth
and six months of age.
C. Long before infants speak recognizable words, they produce a number of
vocalizations in order to specifically imitate the language their parents speak.
D. Infants respond quickly to polite speech in their native language between birth and
six months of age.
Answer: A
Topic: How Language Develops
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Page: 190
Explanation: Kuhl’s research has demonstrated that from birth up to about 6 months
of age, infants are “citizens of the world”: they recognize when sounds change most
of the time, no matter what language the syllables come from.
62. The strings of consonant-vowel combinations produced by babies in the middle of

the first year is called _____.
A. crying
B. labeling
C. cooing
D. babbling
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 191
Explanation: In the middle of the first year babies babble—that is, they produce
strings of consonant-vowel combinations, such as “ba, ba, ba, ba.”
63. The gurgling sound made in the back of the throat by babies usually to express
pleasure during interaction with the caregiver is known as _____.
A. cooing
B. crying
C. babbling
D. murmuring
Answer: A
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 191
Explanation: The gurgling sound made in the back of the throat by babies usually to
express pleasure during interaction with the caregiver is known as cooing.
64. Receptive vocabulary comprises of:

A. the words that the child speaks but does not understand.
B. the first words a child uses to speak as a sentence.
C. the words that the child understands but cannot speak.
D. the first words that the child babbles to his caregivers.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 191
Explanation: Receptive vocabulary consists of the words that the child understands. In
infancy receptive vocabulary (words the child understands) considerably exceeds
spoken vocabulary (words the child uses).
65. Which of the following represents a rapid increase in the number of words
children know that begins at approximately 18 months?
A. Overextension
B. Spontaneous vocalization
C. First words
D. Vocabulary spurt
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 191
Explanation: The rapid increase in vocabulary that begins at approximately 18 months
is called the vocabulary spurt.
66. Rachel looks at their neighbour walking their dog and exclaims “not monkey” in a
loud and urgent tone. This is an example of:
A. two-word utterances.
B. word of mouth.
C. babbling.
D. pragmatics.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
Blooms: Apply
Page: 192
Explanation: By the time children are 18 to 24 months of age, most of their
communication consists of two-word utterances. To convey meaning with just two
words, the child relies heavily on gesture, tone, and context.
67. _____ is defined as the use of content words without grammatical markers such as
articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives.
A. Gesture
B. Elaborative speech
C. Receptive speech
D. Telegraphic speech
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 192
Explanation: Telegraphic speech is the use of content words without grammatical
markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives.
68. _____ is an area in the left frontal lobe of the brain that is involved in producing
words.
A. Zona incerta
B. Broca’s area
C. Reticular formation
D. Wernicke’s area
Answer: B
Topic: Biological and Environmental Influences
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 193
Explanation: Broca’s area in the left frontal lobe of the brain is involved in producing
words.
69. When an individual experiences brain damage affecting his Broca’s area or
Wernicke’s area, it leads to specific language deficiencies that are collectively
referred to as _____.
A. anoxia
B. ataxia
C. aphasia
D. amnesia
Answer: C
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 193
Explanation: Broca’s area, an area in the left frontal lobe of the brain involved in
producing words, and Wernicke’s area, a region of the brain’s left hemisphere
involved in language comprehension. Damage to either of these areas produces types
of aphasia, which is a loss or impairment of language processing.
70. Lily was five when a car accident damaged a crucial portion of her brain that
controlled language functioning. Following the accident, Lily was unable to speak
though she could understand the meaning of the words being spoken to her. From the
information provided in the scenario, we can infer that the brain damage Lily suffered
affected her _____.
A. Wernicke’s area
B. limbic system
C. Broca’s area
D. amygdala
Answer: C
Difficulty: Hard
Blooms: Apply
Page: 193
of aphasia, which is a loss or impairment of language processing. Individuals with
damage to Broca’s area have difficulty producing words correctly; individuals with
damage to Wernicke’s area have poor comprehension and often produce
incomprehensible speech.
71. Jason fell of his bicyle and hit his head against the pavement when he was six
years old.
Though the doctors did their best to repair any brain damage he incurred, Jason
sustained severe injuries that left him unable to understand language. Jason is able to
speak but his sentences make no sense and do not aid communication. From the
information provided in the scenario, we can infer that the brain damage Jason
suffered affected his _____.
A. reticular formation
B. Broca’s area
C. Wernicke’s area
D. tegmentum
Answer: C
Difficulty: Hard
Blooms: Apply
Page: 193
of aphasia, which is a loss or impairment of language processing. Individuals with
damage to Broca’s area have difficulty producing words correctly; individuals with
damage to Wernicke’s area have poor comprehension and often produce
incomprehensible speech.
72. Which of the following statements reflects the views of Noam Chomsky on
language?
A. The LAD is a physical part of the brain and not a theoretical construct.
B. Children do not have an innate ability to detect the sounds of language.
C. Children are born with an innate device to learn language.
D. Language acquisition in humans is an environmentally conditioned process that
starts at birth.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 193
Explanation: Linguist Noam Chomsky proposed that humans are biologically
prewired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way. He said that children
are born into the world with a language acquisition device (LAD), a biological
endowment that enables the child to detect certain features and rules of language,
including phonology, syntax, and semantics.
73. _____ is a term devised by Noam Chomsky that describes a biological endowment
that enables the child to detect the features and rules of language, including
phonology, syntax, and semantics.
A. Language acquisition device
B. Linguistic relativity tendency
C. Infinite generativity potential
D. Genetic imprinting potential
Answer: A
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 193
Explanation: Language acquisition device is a term devised by linguist, Noam
Chomsky that describes a biological endowment that enables the child to detect the
features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics.
74. Which of the following is an important function of child-directed speech?

A. It captures the infant's attention and maintains communication.
B. It reduces the occurrence of infantile amnesia for the earliest memories of infancy.
C. It reduces the need for reciprocal interaction between caregivers and children.
D. It assists in prolonging REM sleep in infants.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 194
Explanation: Child-directed speech has the important function of capturing the
infant’s attention and maintaining communication.
75. Language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, with simple words and sentences
to communicate meaningfully and clearly is known as _____.
A. elaborative speech
B. abstract speech
C. telegraphic speech
D. child-directed speech
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 194
Explanation: Language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, with simple words and
sentences is known as child-directed speech.
76. _____ is rephrasing something the child has said by turning it into a question or
restating the child’s immature utterance in the form of a fully grammatical sentence.
A. Recasting
B. Relearning
C. Labeling
D. Overextending
Answer: A
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 195
Explanation: Recasting is rephrasing something the child has said, perhaps turning it
into a question or restating the child’s immature utterance in the form of a fully
grammatical sentence.
77. _____ is a strategy used to increase children’s acquisition of language by restating

the telegraphic speech of a child in a linguistically sophisticated form.
A. Screening
B. Labelling
C. Expanding
D. Identifying
Answer: C
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 196
Explanation: Expanding is restating, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a
child has
said. For example, a child says, “Doggie eat,” and the parent replies, “Yes, the doggie
is eating.”
78. _____ a strategy used to increase children’s acquisition of language by identifying

the names of objects.
A. Rephrasing
B. Labelling
C. Expanding
D. Restating
Answer: B
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 196
Explanation: Labeling is identifying the names of objects.
79. An interactionist view emphasizes that both _____ and experience contribute to
language development.
A. culture
B. parenting style
C. ecological context
D. biology
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 196
Explanation: An interactionist view emphasizes that both biology and experience
contribute to language development.
80. Which of the following actions is desirable for parents to encourage language
development in children?
A. Parents should help infants and toddlers by supplying them with words and
thoughts they cannot communicate.
B. Parents should speak to infants and toddlers in abstract and high-level ways.
C. Parents should understand that different children acquire language at different
speeds.
D. Parents should actively discourage any idiosyncrasies the child shows while
communicating.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 197
Explanation: Parents should be aware of the ages at which their child reaches specific
milestones (such as the first word, first 50 words), but refrain from measuring this
development rigidly against that of other children.
Short Answer Questions
81. Name the different processes delineated by Piaget to explain how children
construct their understanding of the world.
Answer: Piaget developed several concepts to explain how children construct their
knowledge of the world; especially important among these concepts are schemes,
assimilation, accommodation, organization, equilibrium, and equilibration.
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 172
Page: 173
82. What are Piaget's six substages of sensorimotor development?

Answer: Piaget’s six substages of sensorimotor development are as follows:
• Simple reflexes
• First habits and primary circular reactions
• Secondary circular reactions
• Coordination of secondary circular reactions
• Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity
• Internalization of schemes
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 174
Page: 175
83. What are the milestones of the sixth sensorimotor substage given by Piaget?
Answer: Internalization of schemes is Piaget’s sixth and final sensorimotor substage,
which develops between 18 and 24 months of age. In this substage, the infant
develops the ability to use primitive symbols. For Piaget, a symbol is an internalized
sensory image or word that represents an event. Primitive symbols permit the infant to
think about concrete events without directly acting them out or perceiving them.
Moreover, symbols allow the infant to manipulate and transform the represented
events in simple ways.
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 175
84. What is object permanence?

Answer: Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even
when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Acquiring the sense of object
permanence is one of the infant’s most important accomplishments, according to
Piaget. The principal way that object permanence is studied is by watching an infant’s
reaction when an interesting object disappears. If infants search for the object, it is
assumed that they believe it continues to exist.
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 176
85. What are the salient features of the core knowledge approach?
Answer: The core knowledge approach states that infants are born with domain-
specific innate knowledge systems. Among these domain-specific knowledge systems
are those involving space, number sense, object permanence, and language. Strongly
influenced by evolution, the core knowledge domains are theorized to be prewired to
allow infants to make sense of their world. In this approach, the innate core
knowledge domains form a foundation around which more mature cognitive
functioning and learning develop.
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 178
86. Describe the nature-nurture controversy in relation to the cognitive development

of infants?
Answer: The proponents of nature theory (like Elizabeth Spelke) endorse the core
knowledge approach, which states that infants are born with domain-specific innate
knowledge systems. Strongly influenced by evolution, the core knowledge domains
are theorized to be prewired to allow infants to make sense of their world. On the
other hand, the proponents of the nurture theory consider that infants learn from the
environment. According to Mark Johnston, infants likely come into the world with
“soft biases to perceive and attend to different aspects of the environment, and to
learn about the world in particular ways.” Although debate about the cause and course
of infant cognitive development continues, most developmentalists today agree that
Piaget underestimated the early cognitive accomplishments of infants and that both
nature and nurture are involved in infants’ cognitive development.
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 178
Page: 179
87. Describe attention in the first year of the infant's life.

Answer: Attention is the focusing of mental resources on select information. Attention
in the first year of life is dominated by an orienting/investigative process. This process
involves directing attention to potentially important locations in the environment (that
is, where) and recognizing objects and their features (such as color and form). From 3
to 9 months of age, infants can deploy their attention more flexibly and quickly.
Another important type of attention is sustained attention, also referred to as focused
attention. New stimuli typically elicit an orienting response followed by sustained
attention. It is sustained attention that allows infants to learn about and remember
characteristics of a stimulus as it becomes familiar.
Topic: Attention
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 180
88. Distinguish habituation from dishabituation. What is the significance of these

concepts in the context of cognitive development in infants?
Answer: Closely linked with attention are the processes of habituation and
dishabituation. Habituation is the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after
repeated presentations of the stimulus. On the other hand, dishabituation is the
increase in responsiveness after a change in stimulation. Knowing about habituation
and dishabituation can help parents interact effectively with infants. Wise parents
sense when an infant shows an interest and realize that they may have to repeat
something many times for the infant to process information. But if the stimulation is
repeated often, the infant stops responding to the parent. In parent-infant interaction, it
is important for parents to do novel things and to repeat them often until the infant
stops responding.
Topic: Attention
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Page: 181
89. What is joint attention? Give an example of how joint attention plays an important
role in many aspects of infant development.
Answer: Joint attention is seen when individuals focus on the same object or event.
Joint attention requires (1) an ability to track another’s behavior, such as following
someone’s gaze; (2) one person directing another’s attention; and (3) reciprocal
interaction. Joint attention plays important roles in many aspects of infant
development and considerably increases infants’ ability to learn from other people.
Nowhere is this more apparent than in observations of interchanges between
caregivers and infants as infants are learning language. When caregivers and infants
frequently engage in joint attention, infants say their first word earlier and develop a
larger vocabulary.
Topic: Attention
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Page: 181
90. Distinguish between implicit and explicit memory.

Answer: Memory involves the retention of information over time. Implicit memory
refers to memory without conscious recollection—memories of skills and routine
procedures that are performed automatically. In contrast, explicit memory refers to the
conscious memory of facts and experiences.
Topic: Memory
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 182
91. What is infantile amnesia? Explain any one causal factor of infantile amnesia.
Answer: Most adults can remember little if anything from the first three years of their
life. This is called infantile, or childhood, amnesia. The few reported adult memories
of life at age 2 or 3 are at best very sketchy. Elementary school children also do not
remember much of their early childhood years. One reason older children and adults
have difficulty recalling events from their infant and early childhood years is that
during these early years the prefrontal lobes of the brain are immature; this area of the
brain is believed to play an important role in storing memories of events.
Topic: Memory
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 182
Page: 183
92. What are Meltzoff’s views on imitation in infants?

Answer: Infant development researcher Andrew Meltzoff sees infants’ imitative
abilities as biologically based, because infants can imitate a facial expression within
the first few days after birth. He also emphasizes that the infant’s imitative abilities do
not resemble a hardwired response but rather involve flexibility and adaptability. He
argues that beginning at birth, there is an interplay between learning by observing and
learning by doing. Meltzoff also studied deferred imitation, which occurs after a time
delay of hours or days. Piaget held that deferred imitation doesn’t occur until about 18
months of age. Meltzoff’s research suggested that it occurs much earlier, around 9
months of age.
Topic: Imitation
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 183
93. What is perceptual categorization?

Answer: Using habituation experiments, some researchers have found that infants as
young as 3 to 4 months of age can group together objects with similar appearances,
such as animals. These early categorizations are best described as perceptual
categorization. That is, the categorizations are based on similar perceptual features of
objects, such as size, color, and movement, as well as parts of objects, such as legs for
animals.
Topic: Concept formation
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Page: 183
Page: 184
94. How is Gesell's measurement of infant development used? Name the four
categories of behavior in the current version of the Gesell test.
Answer: Arnold Gesell developed a measure that helped to differentiate between
potentially normal babies from abnormal ones. Gesell’s examination was used widely
for many years and still is frequently employed by pediatricians to distinguish
between normal and abnormal infants. The current version of the Gesell test has four
categories of behavior: motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social. The
developmental quotient (DQ) combines subscores in these categories to provide an
overall score.
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 186
95. Describe the Bayley Scales of Infant Development.

Answer: The widely used Bayley Scales of Infant Development were developed by
Nancy Bayley (1969) in order to assess infant behavior and predict later development.
The current version, the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development— Third
Edition (Bayley-III), has five scales: cognitive, language, motor, socio-emotional, and
adaptive (Bayley, 2005). The first three scales are administered directly to the infant,
the latter two are questionnaires given to the caregiver. The Bayley-III is more
appropriate for use in clinical settings than the two previous editions.
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 186
96. What is the relationship between language and phonology?

Answer: Language is a form of communication—whether spoken, written, or
signed—that is based on a system of symbols. Language consists of the words used
by a community and the rules for varying and combining them. Every language is
made up of basic sounds. Phonology is the sound system of the language, including
the sounds that are used and how they may be combined. Phonology provides a basis
for constructing a large and expandable set of words out of two or three dozen
phonemes. A phoneme is the basic unit of sound in a language; it is the smallest unit
of sound that affects meaning.
Difficulty: Medium
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 188
97. Describe the nature and function of pragmatics with an example.
Answer: A final set of language rules involves pragmatics, the appropriate use of
language in different contexts. It is a system of using appropriate conversation and
knowledge of how to effectively use language in context. An example of pragmatics
is using polite language in appropriate situations, such as being mannerly when
talking with one’s teacher. Taking turns in a conversation involves pragmatics.
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Understand
Page: 189
Page: 190
Refer to: Fig. 6.11
98. Long before infants speak recognizable words, they produce a number of
vocalizations. What are the functions of these vocalizations?
Answer: The functions of these early vocalizations in infants are to practice making
sounds, to communicate, and to attract attention. Babies’ sounds go through this
sequence during the first year:
• Crying: Babies cry even at birth. Crying can signal distress, but different types of
cries signal different things.
• Cooing: Babies first coo at about 1 to 2 months. These gurgling sounds are made in
the back of the throat and usually express pleasure during interaction with the
caregiver.
• Babbling: In the middle of the first year babies babble—that is, they produce strings
of consonant-vowel combinations, such as “ba, ba, ba, ba.”
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 190
Page: 191
99. Explain the role of Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area with regard to language.
Answer: Two regions involved in language were first discovered in studies of brain-
damaged individuals: Broca’s area, an area in the left frontal lobe of the brain
involved in producing words, and Wernicke’s area, a region of the brain’s left
hemisphere involved in language comprehension. Damage to either of these areas
produces types of aphasia, which is a loss or impairment of language processing.
Individuals with damage to Broca’s area have difficulty producing words correctly;
individuals with damage to Wernicke’s area have poor comprehension and often
produce incomprehensible speech.
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 193
100. What is labeling?

Answer: Labeling is identifying the names of objects. Young children are forever
being asked to identify the names of objects. Roger Brown (1958) called this “the
original word game” and claimed that much of a child’s early vocabulary is motivated
by this adult pressure to identify the words associated with objects.
Difficulty: Easy
AACSB: Analytic
Blooms: Remember
Page: 196
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
stress must be laid on the contributions from classic authors. No
student can afford to neglect the histories, annals, poems, and
sacred books of the ancients, whether African, European, or Asiatic.
Professor J. L. Myres (1908) has pointed out that anthropological
investigations and speculations were already afoot in the fifth century
B.C. and before, and has outlined the ethnological problems
concerning man, his origin and relationships, and the questions
connected with his social life that interested and puzzled the ancient
Greek world. Not only Herodotus, but other writers, show that these
problems were thoroughly familiar to the Greeks. Long before
Herodotus, Hesiod refers to a standard scheme of archæology, in
which Ages of Gold, Silver, and Bronze succeed each other;
primitive man is described as a forest dweller growing no corn, but
subsisting on acorns and beech mast; Anaximander and Archelaus
have suggestions to solve the mystery of man’s origin, Anaximander
taking an “almost Darwinian outlook”[83] of the animal kingdom;
Æschylus distinguishes the tribes of men by culture, noting the
differences in their dress and equipments, religious observances and
language.
83. This statement is criticised by E. E. Sikes in Folk-Lore, xx., 1909, p. 424.
The chief value of the Greeks to the ethnologist is that they were
collectors of material. Some of their theories have been
substantiated, but they arrived at conclusions by deduction rather
than by induction.
Thus in many ways anthropology owes a deep debt of gratitude to
the classics. It was not until recently that this debt began to be
repaid.
Within the last twenty or thirty years there has been an increasing
recognition of the value of anthropological studies in the elucidation
of the classics; and this healthy movement is mainly associated with
the name of Professor William Ridgeway, of Cambridge, who
devoted his presidential address before the Royal Anthropological
Institute, in 1909, to this subject.
In 1887 Professor Ridgeway proceeded to apply the comparative
method to Greek coins and weights in a paper called the “Homeric
Talent: Its Origin and Affinities.”[84] He there tried to show that the
origin of coined money among the Lydians, and its evolution by the
Greeks and Italians, entirely accorded with the evolution of primitive
money from the use of objects such as axes, ornaments, cattle, and
so forth.
84. Hellenic Journal, VIII., p. 133; see also The Origin of Metallic Currency,
1892.
One of the relations of Ethnology to other branches of the

Humanities which hitherto has received scant acknowledgment is its
influence on the course of Political Science. Professor J. L. Myres
recently gave a brilliant address on this subject at Winnipeg, in which
he points out how Bodin (1530-1596), Edward Grimstone (1615),
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1704),
Montesquieu (1689-1755), Rousseau (1712-1778), Voltaire (1694-
1778), Herder (1744-1803), and others, referred to or utilised the
accounts of natives by travellers to illustrate their theories of
statecraft.
Chapter VIII.
THE HISTORY OF ARCHÆOLOGICAL DISCOVERY
Prehistoric Man. Dr. Johnson was not in advance of his time in

anthropological matters. While he was gibing at
Lord Monboddo for his belief in man’s simian affinities, he was also
making a pronouncement on the subject of prehistoric archæology
that later discoveries were soon to disprove. Up to his time history
was content to start from the earliest written documents,
supplemented, now and then, by the evidence of coins and
inscriptions; and Dr. Johnson summed up contemporary opinion in
his statement, “All that is really known of the ancient state of Britain
is contained in a few pages. We can know no more than what old
writers have told us.”
But it was not long before it was recognised that there was other
evidence besides that of the “old writers,” evidence the nature of
which has been well described by Sir W. R. Wilde:—
We possess what cannot be falsified by the scribe, and, although
styled prehistoric, they are far more truthfully historical than the writing
that no doubt was largely interfered with, and which, if old, now requires a
gloss to interpret it. The grassy mound or circle, the stones erected into a
cromleach, the great sepulchral mound, the cinerary urn, the stone
weapon or tool, the grain-rubber for triturating cereal food, the harpoon
for spearing fish, the copper and bronze tools and weapons, and the gold
ornaments of the most early tribes—all are now, in their way, far more
truthful than anything that could have been committed to writing, even if
there were letters in that day. They are litanies in stone, dogmata in
metal, and sermons preaching from the grassy mound.[85]
85. Brit. Ass., Belfast, 1874.

Much of this evidence already existed, but even when rightly
interpreted it was for a long time ignored and scoffed at. It has been
noted in the life-history of a scientific truth, “People first say, ‘It is not
true,’ then that ‘It is contrary to religion,’ and lastly that ‘Everybody
knew it before.’” The first attitude of incredulity was to a great extent
justified by the doubtful character of the earlier finds, many of which
later investigation has had to reject or to hold in suspense as “not
proven.” The second stage was more serious, and for a long time the
new science was hampered by the accusation of irreligion. But
“Anthropology,” as Huxley pointed out, “has nothing to do with the
truth or falsehood of religion.” “Je suis naturaliste,” said Abbé
Bourgeois, “je ne fais pas de théologie.”
Gradually the accumulated evidence became too insistent to be
ignored. The work of various archæologists in Denmark, the
explorations of caves and lake dwellings in Britain and on the
Continent, and the patient labours of Boucher de Perthes in the
Somme Valley, all gave proof of the existence of prehistoric man,
and the science of prehistoric archæology was established.
Flint Long before this time, as far back as the
Implements. sixteenth century, flint implements had been
discovered in various parts, and proved as great a puzzle as the
fossils which perplexed and tried the faith of the earlier geologists.
The uncultured folk of Europe recognised that the chipped arrow-
heads which occasionally occur on the surface of the ground were
the implements of an alien people, as the names “elf darts” and “fairy
darts” imply. The country folk in the more backward districts believe
that fairies still exist; but better informed intelligent people believe
they are purely mythological, while students are aware that these
arrow-heads were the implements of earlier populations, who are
classed in folk-memory under the generic term of “fairies.”
Typical neolithic implements, such as stone adze and axe heads,
had attracted the attention of writers in the Middle Ages, such as
Gesner and Agricola, who, as Sir John Evans[86] informs us,
regarded them as thunder-bolts—a belief which is still widely spread
not only in Europe, but over the greater portion of the Old World. But
Mercati, physician to Clement VIII. at the end of the sixteenth
century, appears to have been the first to maintain that what were
regarded as thunderbolts were the arms of a primitive people
unacquainted with the use of bronze or iron. Certain later writers, as
de Boot (1636) and la Peyrère (1655), also regarded them as of
human workmanship. Buffon, too, in 1778, declared the “thunder-
stones” to be the work of primeval man.
86. Ancient Stone Implements, 1872; 2nd ed. 1897, chap. iii.
In 1797 John Frere found numerous flint implements at a depth of
about twelve feet in some clay pits at Hoxne, Suffolk, and referred
them to “a very remote period indeed, even beyond that of the
present world, and to a people who had not the use of metals.”[87]
87. Archæologia, xiii., p. 204.
But the discovery does not seem to have attracted any interest, or
raised any discussion; and the Hoxne implements lay unnoticed for
more than half a century, until Evans, returning from Amiens and
Abbeville in 1859, recognised the importance of the collections, and
by further excavations proved their antiquity.
The belief of the Middle Ages, that everything inexplicable was the
work of the Devil, was succeeded by an ascription of all objects of
unknown antiquity to the Druids or the Romans; but to neither of
these could be attributed the finds which were being made at the
beginning of the nineteenth century in the Danish kitchen-middens
and dolmens, in the Swiss lake dwellings, and in the caves and
gravels of Britain and of France. Still many years were to pass, and
many heated discussions were to be held, before archæology came
to be recognised as an ally of anthropology, and Prehistoric Man
obtained credence.
Denmark. In this new science Denmark took the lead. In
1806 a Commission was appointed to make a
scientific investigation into the history, natural history, and geology of
the country; and among the first problems to be met with were the
dolmens and shell-mounds, abounding in stone implements, which
found no period in Danish history capable of accommodating them.
History and the sagas were searched in vain. Meanwhile more and
more of these prehistoric implements were brought to light. A new
Commission was appointed, and the various sites were carefully
examined. The collection of Professor R. Nyerup formed, in 1810,
the nucleus which, in 1816, expanded into the Royal Danish
Museum of Antiquities at Copenhagen, now, as the National
Museum, lodged in the Princessen Palace. C. J. Thomsen held the
post of curator from 1816 to 1865. He ordered, arranged, and
classified the collections, dividing the objects according to their
epoch of culture, and setting them in chronological order,
establishing the sequence of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. This
was the first attempt to classify the archæological contents of a
museum on a chronological basis, and it was continued, elaborated,
and developed by his successor, Professor J. J. A. Worsaae, 1865 to
1885.[88]
88. The classification itself was not new; it had been adumbrated by many
writers. See Evans, 1872, pp. 3 ff.
Caves. Another class of evidence which was of great
importance in determining the pre-history of man
was that derived from the caves. The beginnings of cave-exploration
are described by Professor Boyd Dawkins:—
The dread of the supernatural, which preserved the European caves
from disturbance, was destroyed in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries by the search after “ebur fossile,” or unicorn’s horn, which
ranked high in the materia medica of those days as a specific for many
diseases, and which was obtained, in great abundance, in the caverns of
the Hartz, and in those of Hungary and Franconia. As the true nature of
the drug gradually revealed itself, the German caves became famous for
the remains of the lions, hyænas, fossil elephants, and other strange
animals, which had been used for medicine.[89]
89. Cave Hunting, p. 11.

These caves were investigated mainly by geologists or
palæontologists, searching for evidence as to the extinct animals
that formerly occupied them. Indications of the presence of man
were unsuspected, and, if found, disregarded. Thus much of the
evidence of man’s early history was doubtless unwittingly destroyed.
The Franconian caves were explored towards the end of the
eighteenth century, and described by Esper (1774), Rosenmüller
(1804), and Dr. Goldfuss (1810). The most famous of these was the
cave of Gailenreuth. Here, for the first time, investigations were
carried out systematically, the finds classified, and, since they
indicated the co-existence of man and extinct mammals, theories as
to their significance and derivation filled the air.
In 1861 William Buckland (1784-1856), Professor of Mineralogy at
Oxford (afterwards Dean of Westminster), visited the caves, and
kindled that interest in cave-exploration which was to produce such
remarkable results in England.
Oreston. In the same year the first bone-cave
systematically explored in the country was
discovered at Oreston, near Plymouth, and the deposits proved the
former existence of the rhinoceros in that region.
Kirkdale. More famous was the exploration of the Kirkdale
Cave, near Helmsley, in Yorkshire, discovered in
1821, in a limestone quarry, and investigated and described by Dr.
Buckland.[90] He found remains of the broken and gnawed bones of
the rhinoceros, mammoth, stag, bison, etc., which had been the prey
of the hyænas inhabiting the cave, and he traced their origin to a
universal deluge. Subsequently he examined the remains from other
caves, and summarised his conclusions in Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,
published in 1824. Dr. Buckland was henceforward the
acknowledged authority on bone caves and their contents, and to his
disbelief in the contemporaneous existence of man with the cave
animals may be traced much of the incredulity with which all
evidence of early man in Britain was received for more than a
generation.
90. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1882.
So far but few traces of man’s presence in the caves had been
detected, and, when found, had generally been explained away as
later intrusions, though human occupations had been proved in
Franconia, in the French caves explored by MM. Tournai de Christol
and Marcel de Serres in the south of France in 1828, and later by the
discoveries of Dr. Schmerling in the caves of Liège about 1832.
Liège. From the forty caves examined Dr. Schmerling
found not only bones of extinct animals, but also a
few human bones, and a large number of bone and flint implements
and flakes, which he attributed to human workmanship.
Unfortunately, these discoveries were discredited both by Dr.
Buckland and Sir Charles Lyell, but have since been fully
substantiated by Dr. E. Dupont.[91]
91. Les Temps Antéhist. en Belgique, 1871.
Kent’s Cavern. The most important of all the cave explorations
in England is that of Kent’s Cavern, Torquay. This
cavern was known from time immemorial; but the first investigation
recorded was that of Mr. Northmore, of Cleeve, Exeter, who visited it
in 1824, in expectation of finding evidence of the worship of Mithras.
The next year he returned there again, accompanied by the Rev.
J. MacEnery, the Roman Catholic chaplain at Tor Abbey, whose
name will always be honourably connected with the explorations of
the cave. He was not a geologist or a palæontologist, but to him fell
the distinction of discovering the first flint implement ever found in
unmistakable association with remains of extinct animals. On
another occasion he visited the cave together with Mr. Northmore
and Dr. Buckland. “Nothing remarkable was discovered that day,
excepting the tooth of a rhinoceros and a flint blade. This was the
first instance of the occurrence of British relics being noticed in this
or, I believe, any other cave. Both these relics it was my good fortune
to find.”
He subsequently found many other flint implements, but Dr.
Buckland was not convinced that they occurred in an undisturbed
area. He believed that the ancient Britons had scooped out ovens in
the stalagmite, and that through them the flint implements had
reached their position in the cave earth. In 1846 the Torquay Natural
History Society appointed a committee of investigation, consisting of
Pengelly and two others, who confirmed MacEnery’s discovery of
flint implements in conjunction with extinct animals. Nevertheless,
their evidence was not accepted. In Pengelly’s words: “The scientific
world ... told us that our statements were impossible, and we simply
responded with the remark that we had not said they were possible,
only that they were true.”[92]
92. Kent’s Cavern, 1876. Lecture delivered at Glasgow (1875).
Lake Dwellings. Before chronicling the final triumph of the cave
explorers in 1859, we may briefly note another
series of investigations which was being carried on at the same time,
and which also shared in the work of throwing light on the shadowy
figure of prehistoric man. This was the excavation of crannogs and
lake dwellings.
Irish Crannogs. In 1839 Sir W. R. Wilde explored some of the
Irish crannogs, or semi-artificial islands, usually
made of layers of stone, logs, sticks (the so-called fascine
dwellings), resting on cluans or islets in the Irish lakes. The first
crannog explored was that at Lagore, famous in ancient times as
Loch Gobhair, near Dunshaughlin, co. Meath, and mentioned in the
Annals of the Four Masters as having been plundered in the ninth
and tenth centuries. It was originally discovered by accident. Some
labourers, when clearing out a stream in the neighbourhood, came
across very numerous bones, and also a vast collection of objects of
all descriptions, warlike and domestic, made of stone, bone, wood,
bronze, and iron, and a few human remains.
The next crannog to be disclosed was one in Roughan Lake, near
Dungannon; and thereafter more and more came to light, until in
1857 forty-six had been recorded.
The crannog finds, and the depth of the deposits, indicated great
age; and Sir William Wilde at once recognised their significance in
determining the history of early human occupation in the island. This
evidence was strengthened by the discoveries shortly afterwards
made in Switzerland.
Swiss Pile- These were also partly the result of an accident.
Dwellings. The winter of 1853-4 happened to be particularly
cold and dry, and in consequence tracts of the
shores of the Swiss lakes, which were normally covered by water,
stood bare and dry. The inhabitants of Ober Meilen, near Zürich,
took advantage of this to enclose part of the foreshore, building
walls, and filling the reclaimed space with mud. During the necessary
excavations various remains came to light, stumps of piles, stone
and horn implements, etc. Dr. Ferdinand Keller, President of the
Antiquarian Society at Zürich, hearing of these discoveries, hastened
to explore the newly-revealed area. Fishermen had long before
reported on the existence of a submerged forest, the stumps of
which caught their fishing nets and spoilt the fishing on the sloping
shores. In 1829, during excavations, some piles were found, but,
being attributed to the Romans, no further notice was taken of them.
Dr. Keller discovered that the “submerged forest” was in reality of
human origin, formed of sharpened and pointed piles, driven into the
ground at regular intervals, and he recognised here evidences of
prehistoric human occupation, corresponding with that recently
proved for Denmark. Pile dwellings were subsequently discovered in
the lakes of Biel, Sempach, Neufchatel, Geneva, and Wallenstad,
though investigations were only carried out in Biel and Zürich. These
yielded animal remains, numerous stone implements, pottery, a
skull, parts of several skeletons, and one piece of bronze.
At first the evidence was merely ignored, then it was listened to,
but discredited, or various ingenious explanations were made to
explain it away.
But gradually the accumulated evidence became too insistent to
be ignored, and was supported by too great names to be neglected.
The caves of the Mendips, explored by Williams and Beard, of North
and South Wales, explored by Stanley, of Yorkshire and of
Devonshire, the crannogs of Ireland and the pile dwellings of
Switzerland, all told the same tale.
Brixham. The turning point was reached in 1858. During
that year a new cave had been discovered while
excavating for building foundations at Brixham, on the shores of
Torbay, Mr. Pengelly persuaded the owner to grant him a refusal of
the lease of the virgin site, and it was submitted to a most careful
examination. Thirty-six rude flint implements were discovered in
association with the remains of hyænas, cave, brown and grizzly
bears, woolly rhinoceros and mammoth, in undisturbed red loam
beneath a layer of stalagmite.
This was conclusive evidence. A paper read by Mr. Pengelly at the
meeting of the British Association at Leeds, 1858, and supported by
such authorities as Charles Lyell, Ramsey, Prestwich,[93] Owen, and
others, clinched the argument, and the contemporary existence of
man with Pleistocene fauna was firmly established.
93. “It was not until I had myself witnessed the conditions under which these flint
implements had been found at Brixham that I became fully impressed with
the validity of the doubts thrown upon the previously prevailing opinions with
respect to such remains in caves.”—Prestwich, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1860.
It was not long before the same concession of the antiquity of man
was reached on the Continent.
Boucher de Boucher de Perthes, the son of a distinguished
Perthes. botanist, was early attracted to the work of cave-
exploration, and in 1805 and again in 1810 made discoveries of
animal bones and of flint implements which he recognised as the
work of man. Later on, when extensive excavations for fortifications
and railroads were being carried on at Abbeville, he found the same
type of implement in situ, and in 1838 submitted some of his
discoveries and deductions to the Society of Emulation of Abbeville,
of which he was president. The next year he brought the same
evidence to Paris and showed his flints to several members of the
Institute. In 1847 he published a description of his finds. In 1855
Rigollot,[94] by his finds at Amiens, had confirmed the evidence
produced by Boucher de Perthes.
94. Mémoire sur des Instruments en silex trouvés à St. Acheul près Amiens.
In 1858 Hugh Falconer, the palæontologist, visited Abbeville to
see the collection of implements made by Boucher de Perthes, and
“became satisfied that there was a great deal of fair presumptive
evidence in favour of many of his speculations regarding the remote
antiquity of these industrial objects, and their association with
animals now extinct.”[95] Acting on Falconer’s suggestion, numerous
geologists visited Abbeville in the following year, including Sir Joseph
Prestwich, Sir John Evans, and Sir Charles Lyell; and Arthur J.
Evans, then a boy accompanying his father, had the good fortune to
find one of the chipped flints in situ. This established the horizon of
the flints beyond question, though there were still some who
disputed the human workmanship. The English archæologists and
geologists however, had already been convinced by the evidence of
the Devonshire caves, and the acceptance of “palæolithic man” on
the Continent dates from their visit.
95. Palæont. Mem., ii., p. 597.
Subsequent Thenceforward archæology made greater
Progress of progress abroad than in Great Britain, mainly,
Archæology. perhaps, on account of the more numerous
materials for study.
France. To indicate the share that France has had and
maintains in the elucidation of Prehistoric
Anthropology, we have only to mention the work of É. Lartet with Mr.
Henry Christy on the French caves of Aurignac (1861) and Périgord
(1864); A. J. L. Bertrand and G. Bonstetten on dolmens (1864, 1865,
and 1879); É. Rivière on the Mentone caves (1873); and the
numerous works of E. Chantre, especially with regard to the Rhone
basin. These and others prepared the way for the classic work of G.
de Mortillet (1883), whose masterly summary and methodical
treatment of the subject have been of great service to all subsequent
workers. While recognising the labours of other investigators, special
mention must be made of Judge E. Piette (1827-1906), whose
excavations in the cave of Mas d’Azil constitute a landmark in such
studies. Professor E. Cartailhac, Dr. Capitan, and l’Abbé H. Breuil
have done further service in their investigations in French caves; and
the two latter, in their beautiful memoir on the cave of Altamira in
North Spain, have further demonstrated the wonderful artistic sense
and technique of the cave-dwellers during the later phases of
Palæolithic times.
In Britain we may note the names of J. Barnard Davis, J. Thurnam,
Rolleston, Sir Charles Lyell, Sir John Evans, Canon Greenwell, and
Professor Boyd Dawkins, whose standard works have largely helped
to mould the course of archæology in our own country.
In Germany, among the earlier writers may be mentioned C.
Fuhlrott, L. Lindenschmidt (1864-1881), J. A. Ecker (1865-1870), A.
Lissauer, and, above all, Rudolf Virchow, the author of numerous
and valuable contributions.
Elsewhere, G. Nicolucci studied prehistoric man in Italy, and
during the last thirty years the investigations of the illustrious Dr.
Oskar Montelius, of Stockholm, have been valued by all
archæologists.
Tertiary Man. Boucher de Perthes was the vindicator of
Quaternary Man in France; l’Abbé Bourgeois
stands as the protagonist on behalf of Tertiary Man.
The first discovery of any traces of man’s existence during Tertiary
times was made in some sand and gravel quarries at Saint Prest,
near Chartres, by M. Desnoyers in 1863. He found various incised
bones bearing evidence of human workmanship, together with
remains of Elephas meridionalis and Rhinoceros leptorhinus. But Sir
Charles Lyell gave it as his opinion, on examining the beds, that they
were rather late Quaternary than true Tertiary.
The whole question was hotly debated at the Second Congress of
Archæology and Prehistoric Anthropology at Paris, in 1867, where
l’Abbé Bourgeois (1819-1878), Professor of Philosophy at Blois,
exhibited his famous flint implements from Miocene beds at Thenay,
near Tours, Loir-et-Cher. These were undoubtedly Miocene beds, but
it was open to doubt if the implements were of human origin, and, if
so, if they were found in undisturbed positions. At the Congrès
International d’Anthropologie at Brussels in 1872 a committee of
fifteen was formed to discuss the problem, and opinions were
divided. Nine authorities recognised human workmanship (one
changed his opinion later); four denied it; one was favourable, but
with reserve; and one was unable to decide at all. De Mortillet
believed that they had not been made by man himself, but by a
semi-human precursor of man, which he named Homosimius
Bourgeoisii.
Other finds of Tertiary man, those of the Upper Miocene, by C.
Ribeiro, at Otta, in the Tagus Valley, 1860; of Tardy in the same year,
and of Rames in 1877, in beds of the same horizon at Puy-courny,
Auvergne; of Capellini, in Pliocene beds of Monte Aperto, near
Siena, and of Fritz Noetling in lower Pliocene beds in Burma, 1894,
have none of them been received without question, and are still
classed by most authorities, as by Sir John Evans in 1870, and again
in 1897, as “Not proven.”
Eoliths. Closely connected with the question of Tertiary
Man is the “raging vortex of the eolith controversy,”
as Sollas describes it. Benjamin Harrison, of Ightham, Kent, first
drew attention to these rude chipped flints, which he found in the
chalk plateau, and claimed to be of pre-glacial age, and of human
origin. Prestwich accepted this view; Evans rejected it, and
anthropologists are still divided into opposite camps on the question.
Eoliths have since been discovered in various parts of the world, and
have merely served to confirm the respective points of view of the
partisans on either side.
Sollas, after summing up all the evidence, says: “When experts
are thus at variance nothing remains for the layman but to preserve
an open mind.” These discussions as to the existence of quaternary
and Tertiary man would have been settled once for all had actual
undoubted human bones been found in any of the beds, but this was
rarely the case, and disputants had to rely almost entirely on
questionable artifacts.
Chapter IX.
TECHNOLOGY
The history of that branch of Ethnology which is concerned with the

handicrafts of man is very brief. Specimens of the arts and crafts of
various races had long been collected in museums, and till recent
years they were little more than curiosities or trophies; but, owing to
the inspiration of General Pitt-Rivers, they are now proofs of stages
in the evolution of human thought or handicraft, or links in a chain of
scientific argument indicating the migrations or contacts of peoples.
Pitt-Rivers. Augustus H. Lane-Fox (1827-1900) served with
distinction in the Crimea. In 1851 he began to
collect specimens to illustrate his views. This, it will be remembered,
was eight years before the publication of the Origin of Species. So
Lane-Fox was to all intents and purposes a pre-Darwinian
evolutionist. Few men have had the collecting instinct so strongly
developed, but there was invariably some principle or theory that the
objects he collected were designed to illustrate. The spoils of over
twenty years of intelligent collecting were exhibited in 1874 in the
Bethnal Green Museum. The collection was a revelation to students,
and was the first application of the theory of evolution to objects
made by man. Colonel Lane-Fox succeeded to vast estates in
Wiltshire and Dorsetshire in 1880, and assumed the name of Pitt-
Rivers. The following year he commenced the series of excavations
on his estate which are models of scientific “digging.” The Pitt-Rivers
Museum at Oxford, and that at Farnham in Dorsetshire, are fitting
monuments of his genius. The curator of the former museum, Mr. H.
Balfour, is ably carrying on the methods of Pitt-Rivers, and has made
valuable investigations on the evolution of musical and other
implements.
Otis T. Mason (1838-1908), of the United States National Museum,
paid particular attention to the implements and processes of the
technology of backward peoples, more especially of the aborigines
of North America; and he was also interested in the wider aspects of
human industrial development.
Pitt-Rivers was certainly one of the first to demonstrate that
patterns and designs may be studied from the point of view of
evolution; but he did not make any detailed studies in this direction.
The first systematic treatise in this fascinating field of investigation
was by Dr. H. Colley March, who, in The Meaning of Ornament
(1889),[96] utilised certain views put forward by Gottfried Semper in
his valuable book Der Stil (1860-1863); but for over a decade the
distinguished Swedish archæologist and ethnologist, Dr. Hjalmar
Stolpe (1841-1905), had been amassing data to illustrate the
evolution and distribution of ornamentation, and he published a
memoir on Polynesian art in 1890, which was followed by one on
American art in 1896. Dr. C. H. Read,[97] Mr. H. Balfour (1893),[98] and
others, worked on similar lines, and much valuable research in this
direction has also been accomplished by American and German
ethnologists.
96. Trans. Lanc. and Cheshire Ant. Soc., 1889.
97. Journ. Anth. Inst., xxi., 1891, p. 139.
98. Evolution of Dec. Art.

Chapter X.
SOCIOLOGY AND RELIGION
Those branches of cultural anthropology which deal with

comparative sociology and magico-religious data are sometimes
designated as “ethnology.” It frequently happens that students who
have written upon these and closely allied subjects have in the same
book treated the archæological, technical, and linguistic aspects of
cultural anthropology or ethnology in the larger sense. It is therefore
impossible to keep to a precise classification of the subject when
dealing with it historically.
Comparative The main stumbling-block in the way of
Ethnology. comparative ethnology was the difficulty of
establishing the study on a firm scientific basis. “Man cannot be
secluded from disturbing influences, and watched, like the materials
of a chemical experiment in a laboratory.”[99] Ethnologists were
accused of basing their conclusions on the most fragile evidence,
collected from most untrustworthy sources:—
99. Lang, 1898, p. 39.
Anything you please ... you may find among your useful savages....
You have but to skim a few books of travel, pencil in hand, and pick out
what suits your case.... Your testimony is often derived from observers
ignorant of the language of the people whom they talk about, or who are
themselves prejudiced by one or other theory or bias. How can you
pretend to raise a science on such foundations, especially as the savage
informants wish to please or to mystify inquirers, or they answer at

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1. Summarize and evaluate Piaget’s theory of infant development.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is true with regard to Piaget’s theory of infant

2. In the context of Piaget’s theory, _____ is the process of adjusting to new

3. Piaget stressed that:

4. In Piaget’s theory, _____ are actions or mental representations that organize

6. In Piaget’s theory, mental schemes first develop in _____.

7. Assimilation occurs when children:

8. In Piaget’s theory, _____ is defined as the tendency of children to adjust their

16. In the context of Piaget's sensorimotor development, a _____ is a scheme based

23. Which of the following is an example of an A-not-B error?

24. Research by Renée Baillargeon found that infants as young as 3 to 4 months

26. Which of the following is a critique of the core knowledge approach?

30. _____ is defined as the increase in responsiveness after a change in stimulation.

32. Research on habituation has shown that:

36. _____ is a central feature of cognitive development, involving the retention of

52. The _____ is correlated with measures of intelligence in older children.

53. _____ is a form of communication that is based on a system of spoken, written or

58. _____ refers to the units of meaning involved in word formation.

60. The appropriate use of language in different contexts is known as _____.

62. The strings of consonant-vowel combinations produced by babies in the middle of

64. Receptive vocabulary comprises of:

74. Which of the following is an important function of child-directed speech?

77. _____ is a strategy used to increase children’s acquisition of language by restating

78. _____ a strategy used to increase children’s acquisition of language by identifying

Short Answer Questions

82. What are Piaget's six substages of sensorimotor development?

84. What is object permanence?

86. Describe the nature-nurture controversy in relation to the cognitive development

87. Describe attention in the first year of the infant's life.

88. Distinguish habituation from dishabituation. What is the significance of these

90. Distinguish between implicit and explicit memory.

92. What are Meltzoff’s views on imitation in infants?

93. What is perceptual categorization?

95. Describe the Bayley Scales of Infant Development.

96. What is the relationship between language and phonology?

100. What is labeling?

One of the relations of Ethnology to other branches of the

THE HISTORY OF ARCHÆOLOGICAL DISCOVERY

Prehistoric Man. Dr. Johnson was not in advance of his time in

85. Brit. Ass., Belfast, 1874.

89. Cave Hunting, p. 11.

The history of that branch of Ethnology which is concerned with the

97. Journ. Anth. Inst., xxi., 1891, p. 139.

98. Evolution of Dec. Art.

SOCIOLOGY AND RELIGION

Those branches of cultural anthropology which deal with

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