122

CHAPTER 8
CHANGE OF STATE

Most substances can exist in three states, i.e. solid, liquid and gas. Water, for example,
may exist in the form of ice, water or steam. A transition from one of these states to
another is called a phase change. The change from one phase to another takes place very
abruptly at a defined temperature. The temperature at which a phase change occurs
depends on quantities such as pressure.

8.1 LATENT HEAT

Phase changes for water is illustrated by the phase diagram in Fig. 8.1. At the
temperature and pressure corresponding to point A, water can exist only as ice. If that
pressure is kept fixed and heat is added to water the temperature rises until point B is
reached.

As more heat is added the temperature does not rise, but the ice gradually melts into
water. The temperature remains constant until all the ice has melted (Fig. 8.2). Then, as
more heat is added, the temperature of water steadily increases until point D is reached.
Again, the temperature remains constant until all the water has been converted into
vapour. Then, additional heat will increase the temperature of that vapour.

Fig.8.2
If this experiment is repeated at a lower pressure, the phase changes occur at B' and D'
(Fig. 8.1). But the temperatures corresponding to the phase changes at B' and D' are
 123

different from those corresponding to phase changes at B and D. If this experiment is

repeated once more at an even lower pressure, ice changes at E directly into vapour
without passing through the liquid phase. Such direct change from the solid phase to the
gas phase is called sublimation.
Sublimation is used in the freeze-drying process which does not damage the food and
which preserves its shape and taste. In this process the food is frozen first. Then the food
is placed in a low-pressure enclosure and heat is added to it. The ice from the food
sublimates until all the vapour is drawn off.
Two significant points, the triple point and the critical point are shown in the phase
diagram (Fig.8.1). At the triple point, liquid, solid and vapour phases may all exist
together. At the critical point a kilogram of liquid and a kilogram of gas have the same
volume, and the distinction between the two phases vanishes. If the temperature and
pressure are adjusted so that a sample passes from F to F' along the path shown in
Fig.8.1, the change of phase from liquid to vapour will not be observed.
The energy absorbed or liberated in a phase change is called the latent heat. If L is the
latent heat of an object of mass m, the heat needed to change the phase of that object is
Q = Lm (8.1)
8.2 VAPORIZATION AND LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
If water in a container is heated the temperature will increase. The temperature will
increase until it reaches 100 °C. At this temperature the water boils and begins to
vaporize. If heat is added, the water keeps vaporizing. But the temperature of the
remaining water stays constant. If heat is continually added, all the water turns
completely into vapour. After that as more heat is added, the temperature of vapour will
increase.
The process of changing liquid into vapour is called vaporization.
The temperature at which a liquid vaporizes under normal pressure is called its boiling
point.
Different liquids have different boiling points. The boiling point of mercury is 360°C and
that of water is 100 °C.
Heat that must be supplied to change 1 kg of liquid at its boiling point from liquid phase
to vapour phase is called the latent heat of vaporization of that liquid.
The exact value of the latent heat of vaporization of water is 2 255 176 Jkg-1. But
2.255 106 Jkg-1 will be assumed for convenience in calculations. This means that 1 kg of
water needs 2.255 x 106 J of heat to change completely into steam.
If steam at 100 °C is cooled, it condenses back to water, in this process, although the
steam is losing heat, the temperature remains at 100 °C.
The change of vapour or gas phase into liquid phase is called condensation.
While the substance releases heat in condensation, the boiling substance absorbs heat in
vaporization.
 124

Steam also behaves the same as gas. When 1 kg of steam at 100 °C turns to water, it gives
off 2.255 x 106 J of heat. The heat absorbed in converting water into steam is released in
exact amount when converting steam back into water. The heat supplied in converting
water into steam at 100 °C is stored by the steam. When the steam turns to water, all of
such stored heat (same as the amount of heat taken) is released. This is an example of
conservation of heat (energy).

8.3 FUSION AND LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

An experiment which can easily be performed by students is described below.
Break a cube of ice into small pieces. Put those pieces of ice in a tray. After some time, it
will be seen that the pieces of ice are mixed with water. If the temperature of that water is
measured with a thermometer, it will be found to be 0 °C. Now, gently heat the tray. The
ice continues to melt and the temperature remains at 0 °C until all the ice turns to water.
After all the ice has melted, the temperature of water will rise if more heat is added. This
fact has already been mentioned in discussing latent heat.
The above experiment illustrates two important facts concerning melting. These are:
(i) a definite quantity of heat is required to melt one unit of mass of solid such as ice;
(ii) the temperature remains constant while the ice (in crystal form) melts.
The temperature at which a solid melts is called the melting point.
The melting point for ice under normal pressure is 0°C.
Heat required to melt 1 kg of a solid at its melting point is called the latent heat of
fusion.
The exact value of the latent heat of fusion of ice is 333 464.8 J kg -1. But 3.335 x 105 J kg-
1
will be assumed for convenience in calculations.
The latent heat of fusion, latent heat of vaporization, freezing point and boiling point for
various substances are given in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1.
Melting Latent Heat Boiling Latent Heat of
Substance Point of Fusion Point Vaporization
° -1 °
( C) (kJ kg ) ( C) (K J Kg-1)
Helium -268.9 20.920
Nitrogen -209.9 25.481 -195.8 2.008 102
Ethyl alcohol -114 1.042 102 78 8.535 102
Mercury -39 11.799 357 2.720 102
Water 0 3.335 102 100 2.255 103
Silver 96 88.282 2193 2.335 103
Lead 327 24.518 1620 9.121 102
Gold 1063 64.434 2660 1.577 103
 125

Example (1) How much heat is required to melt 5 kg of ice at 0 °C ?

Since the latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.3 35 105 J kg-1, we get
Q =Lm
Q =3.335 105 J kg-1 5 kg
=1.67 106 J
Example (2) Ice cubes at - 10 °C with a total mass of 0.045 kg are mixed with 0.3 kg tea
at 30 °C. What is the final equilibrium temperature? (The specific heat capacity of tea is
the same as that of water.)

Assume that all the ice melts. If this is correct, the final temperature calculated must be
higher man 0 °C.
The heat needed to bring the ice to 0 °C is
Ql =micecice
= 0.045 2089 10
= 940.05 J
The heat needed to melt the ice is
Q2 =Lmice
=3.335 105 0.045
= 15 007 . 5 J
The heat needed to warm the melted ice from 0 °C to the final temperature T is
Q3 = micc C
= 0.045 4169 (T-0)
= 187.61 T J
The heat lost by the tea, originally at 30 °C, is
Q4 =mteactea
=0.3 4169 (30-T)
= (37 521-1 250.7 T) J
Since the heat lost must equal the heat gained,
Q4 =Q1 + Q2 + Q3
37 521- 1 250.7 T = 940.05 + 15 007.5+187.61 T
1 438.31 T =21 573.45
T =15°C
The final temperature is higher than 0 °C. Therefore, the original assumption that all the
ice melts is correct.
 126

Example (3) Replace the tea in the preceding example by 0.045 kg of water at 30 °C.
What is the equilibrium condition?
Assume provisionally that the ice melts completely.
To melt 1 kg of ice 3.335 105 J of heat are required. Suppose that 3.335 105 J of heat
are enough to cool m kg of water from 30 °C to 0 °C.

Using Q = mc , we have m= = = 2.67 kg

Since equal masses of ice and water are given, it is clear that not all the ice melts.
Therefore, the original assumption is wrong. The final temperature of the mixture of ice
and water must be 0 oC.
As in example (2). the heat required to raise the temperature of ice to 0 °C is
Q1 = 940.05 J
The heat required to melt a mass m1 of ice is
Q2 =Lm .
=3.335 l05 m1 J
The heat lost by the water, originally at 30°C, is
Q3 =mwatercvvater
= 0.045 4169 30 = 5628.15 J
Equating the heat gained to the heat lost, we get
940.05 + 3.335 l05 m1 =5628.15
m1 = 0.014kg
Only 0.014 kg out of 0.045 kg of ice melts. In the final equilibrium condition 0.045 -
0.014 = 0.031 kg of ice mixes with 0.045 + 0.014 = 0.059 kg of water.

8.4 DEPENDENCE OF MELTING POINT AND BOILING POINT ON

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
In the previous sections, it was pointed out that the melting point of ice is 0 °C and the
boiling point of water is 100 °C. The melting points and boiling points for other
substances were also given in Table 8.1. But those values are for the melting points and
boiling points under normal pressure. It was mentioned when describing phase changes
that the melting point and boiling point vary with pressure. The variation of the values of
the melting point of ice and boiling point of water (ice point and steam point) with
pressure will now be discussed in detail.
The melting point of ice varies with atmospheric pressure. The variation is shown in the
fusion curve of Fig.8.3. The uniqueness of ice and of gallium and bismuth is that the
melting point of these substances decrease as the pressure increases. The melting points
of other substances increases as the pressure increases.
Hence, it is possible to melt ice by applying pressure to it as well as by heating it.
 127

Fig. 8.3
It was mentioned that the boiling point of water varies with the atmospheric pressure. An
increase in external pressure will raise the boiling point of water. This is used in pressure
cookers (Fig. 8.4). When a pressure cooker is in operation, the pressure inside it is twice
the normal atmospheric pressure. At this pressure water boils at a higher temperature of
120 °C and thus food can be cooked in a much shorter time.

Fig. 8.4 A pressure cooker reduces cooking time by raising the boiling point of
the water inside it.

Fig. 8.5 An aerosol can: applying the effect of increased pressure on boiling.
Another application of the effect of increased pressure on boiling is in aerosol can such as
those for hair sprays and insecticide sprays ( Fig. 8.5). In one form of aerosol spray, the
propellant liquid is mixed with the insecticide. The pressure in the container is kept high,
so that the propellant does not vaporize. When the button is pressed, a valve opens and
the pressure is released. At the reduced pressure, the propellant quickly vaporizes or
boils. In the process, the propellant expands, pushing the insecticide out in the form of a
spray. It is dangerous to throw aerosol cans into a fire since if heated to high
temperatures, the propellant boils despite the high pressure. The propellant expands even
though the release button is pressed and this may cause an explosion.
 128

At higher altitudes, the pressure is lower. Water boils at a temperature lower than 100 °C.
The boiling point of water is thus an indication of the altitude. Boiling at low
temperatures under reduced pressure is very useful. It requires less energy to boil off the
unwanted water. This method is cheaper because less fuel is used. In a sugar mill, sugar
solution is made by mixing the cane sugar with water. The solution is boiled at 60 °C
under reduced pressure until granulated sugar crystals separate out. This is cheaper than
boiling it at 100 °C. Furthermore low temperature boiling does not brown the sugar.
The detailed account of variation of the boiling point of water is illustrated by the
vaporization curve in Fig. 8.4. The variation of the values of boiling point with pressure
is more obvious than that of the values of melting point of ice with pressure. This means
that the effect of pressure on the boiling point of water is greater than that on the melting
point of ice.

Fig.8.4
In order to see clearly the variation of the boiling point of water with change in pressure
from 1000 mm Hg to 2000 mm Hg, the enlarged graph for that pressure range is shown
separately in the dotted frame.
The point at the top of the vaporization curve is called critical point. At temperatures
above that point, the substance cannot exist in liquid phase. However much the pressure
is increased, the liquid phase can never exist at all. The critical temperature of helium is
the lowest. It is - 268.9 °C or 4.26 K. Helium exists as a gas at temperatures above this
value.

SUMMARY
 Most substances can exist in three states, i.e. solid, liquid and gas. A transition from
one these states to another is called a phase change.
 The change from one phase to another takes place very abruptly at a definite
temperature.
 The temperature at which a phase change occurs depends on quantities such a
pressure.
 A direct change from the solid phase to the gas phase is called sublimation.
 At the triple point, liquid, solid and vapour phases may all exist together.
 At the critical point a kilogram of liquid and a kilogram of gas have the same
volume, and the distinction between the two phases vanishes.
 The energy absorbed or liberated in a phase change is called the latent heat.
 129

 The process of changing liquid into vapour is called vaporization.

 The temperature at which a liquid vaporizes under normal pressure is called its
boiling point.
 Heat that must be supplied to change 1 kg of liquid at its boiling point from liquid
phase to vapour phase is called the latent heat of vaporization of that liquid.
 The change of vapour or gas phase into liquid phase is called condensation.
 The temperature at which a solid melts is called the melting point.
 Heat required to melt 1 kg of a solid at its melting point is called the latent heat of
fusion.
 The melting point and boiling point vary with pressure.

Concept Map (States of Matter)

States of Matter

which comprise

Solid so
lid
ifi
ca
me tio
lt in n
g

Melting point
lowered by increased pressure Liquid co
Freezing point nd
en
lowered by presence of impurities bo sa
ev tio
Latent heat of fussion Lf and ap ilin g n
specific latent heat of fussion lf or o
at r
io
Lf = mlf where n
Lf = latent heat of fussion (J) Gas
m = mass (kg)
lf = specific latent heat of
fussion (Jkg-1)

Boiling point
increased by presence of impurities
lowered by reduced pressure
raised by increased pressure
Latent heat of vaporisation Lv and
specific latent heat of vaporisation lv
Lv = mlv where
Lv = latent heat of vaporisation (J)
m = mass (kg)
lv = specific latent heat of
vaporisation (Jkg-1)
 130

EXERCISES

1. Explain the following.

(a) Sublimation (b) Triple point (c) Latent heat
2. Define the latent heat of vaporization and the latent heat of fusion. Write down the
units of those quantities in the SI system.
3. Can heat be extracted from water at 0 °C?
4. When a lake that has been frozen in winter melts in summer, what effect does it have
on the temperature of the air above it?
5. Ice expands when it melts. Does it correlate with the fact that the melting point of ice
decreases when the pressure is increased?
6. When an ice block falls from some height into the water at 0 °C in the lake, some ice
melts. Explain whether this statement is correct or not.
7. An ice block at -5 °C is dropped into a swimming pool full of water at 0 °C. What will
happen to the temperature of the water in the pool? What will happen to the ice?
8. Why is getting burnt by steam at 100 °C worse than that by hot water of the same
mass at 100 °C?
9. How much heat is needed to melt 10 kg of ice at-10 °C?
10. Does all the ice melt when 0.15 kg of ice at 0 °C is put into 0.25 kg of water at 20 °C?
What is the final temperature?
11. How much more heat is needed to convert 1 kg of ice at 0 °C completely into steam at
100 °C than to change 1 kg of water from 0 °C to 100 °C?
12. 0.2 kg of water at 0 °C is poured into a container having liquid nitrogen at -196 °C by
mistake. How much nitrogen vaporizes? The boiling point of nitrogen is - 196°C and
its latent heat of vaporization is 200 832 J kg-1.
13. A 10 kg mass of copper block is dropped from a height of 50 m. How much has the
temperature increased when the copper block is about to touch the ground? The
specific heat capacity of copper is 385 J kg-1K-1.
14. An ice cube at 0 °C falls from some height and melts completely when it is about to
touch the ground. From what height does that ice cube fall?
15. A lead bullet at 100 °C melts after striking a steel plate. With what velocity does the
bullet strike the steel plate?
16. A glass of lemonade of mass 0.2 kg is initially at 30 °C. 0.05 kg of ice at 0 °C is added
to the lemonade and all of it melts. What is the final temperature of the lemonade?
(Latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 x 105 Jkg-1; Specific heat capacity of lemonade =
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 x 103 Jkg-1 °C-1 )