Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • MTech HVDCT R19 UNIT-1

    Uploaded by

    novio333
    5 views35 pages

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    5 views35 pages

    MTech HVDCT R19 UNIT-1

    Uploaded by

    novio333

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 35
    Chapter One HVDC Transmission: B Developments 1.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The demand for large amount of electric power, today, necessitates transmission at increasingly high voltages. Until 1960, electrical power was transported through AC 3-phase system only. Voltage transformation from one level to another level is quite easy with AC through a suitable transformer. Also, power generation by large size generators (of 500 MVA capacity) is feasible with AC only. However, transport of bulk power and over long distances (500 km and above) gives rise to considerable problems like variation of voltage profiles, decrease in power transfer and generation of reactive power. As such, viability of power transfer using an alternate means is thought of. At this juncture, DC power transmission is considered, and in the last fifty ‘years, it has been developed for @ Gi) (iii) (iv) 1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Electrical science and its applications gained momentum with the discovery of direct current. Originally, electric power generation and transmission was through direct current. In 1882, the first electric central station in the world was built by Thomas A. Edison in New York and was supplying direct current at 110 V through underground tubular mains to an area of about 1.6 km radius. This station had Edison bipolar DC generators driven by steam engines. In case of high voltages, the size of commutator increases which restricts the peripheral speed of the machine. Hence, low speed DC machines were found to be costlier. Due to limitations of cost and size of DC machines on one hand and the advent of transformers, polyphase circuits and induction motors (between 1880-1890) on the other hand, alternating current (AC) power transmission system gained supremacy and began to play a dominant role in the phenomenal growth of power transmission systems. When the length of the line is more than 500 km, reactive power generated by the AC line is more than its power transmitting capacity as shown in Fig. 1.1 2 | Hv0C Transmission Q= Reactive volt-amperes P= Active power Qipao | 30 ao 700 KV, 2000 MW, 60 Hz ‘AC line 10 DC line => Line length (km) 300 600 900 1200 Fig. 141 Reactive power requirements of long AC and DC transmission lines ‘Among DC power transmission systems, the Thury system of HVDC transmission as designed by a French engineer was the first one to be put into operation in Europe, when AC system was in its infancy. It had a number of series-wound DC machines connected at the both ends of the transmission line and was operated at constant current. The first commercially successful DC system rated 100 kV, 20 kW was commissioned by the Gotland scheme in Sweden in 1954. Since then interest in HVDC power transmission has been increasing and many HVDC projects have been executed throughout the world (Table 1.1 to Table 1.5). Up to 1970, only mercury-valves were being used in HVDC projects in rectifier and inverter stations. Subsequently, thyristors and lately IGBTs have been developed and are being used extensively in bridge converters of HVDC systems. Locations of a few HVDC projects around the world are depicted in Fig. 1.2. The rapid advance in DC transmission technology has taken place because it has numerous advantages over EHVAC transmission in transporting bulk power through long-distance transmission lines. It reaps definite economic benefits when the transmission line length exceeds 500 km. Some advantages of HVDC transmission are listed below: (a) Interconnection of systems using long length of cables in particular while crossing sea water. (b) Interconnection of systems operating at different frequencies (as asynchronous tie). (©) Reduced transmission losses. (@) Rigid control over the magnitude and direction of power flow with easy reversibility of power flow. (e) Limiting the transfer of fault current. (0, Damping out oscillations and improving the stability margins when embedded in weak AC systems of low short circuit ratio (SCR). The strength of AC systems connected to the terminals of DC links is ‘measured in terms of short circuit ratio (SCR). [SCR is defined as the AC power transfer under short circuit at the converter bus or rated DC power. If SCR is less than 3, then AC system is said to be weak.] (g) HVDC transmission is most useful in areas requiring crossing of long waterways like crossing a sea to feed an island through submarine cables. The first major DC transmission line was established in 1960 in USSR for transmitting power of 750 MW at +400 KV, over a distance of $00 km. In USA, a DC line of 1360 km length operating at +400 kV for transmission of bulk power of 1440 MW was established in 1970. Several innovations in the development of DC conversion technology have enabled HVDC schemes look more attractive than AC systems when considering transfer of bulk power over long distances. The replacement of mercury valves with thyristors valves has reduced large requirements of land and civil engineering costs of convertor stations with attendant economic benefits. HVDC Projects from Around the World Table 1.1 Realised HVDC systems that use (or used) mercury arc rectifiers Length of Trans- Trans Ss Converter Converter Length Overhead mission mission —_Inaugu- No___Name Station 1 Station2 of Cable Line Voltage __ Power __ration Remarks 1 Elbe Project Dessau, Berlin 100km = — —-2200KV 6OMW_— 1945 Never placed in service, dismantled Germany Marienfelde, Germany 2 Moscow- Moscow, -Kashira, Russia 100km_ = — 200kV 30MW_~— 1951 Built of parts of HVDC. Kashira Russia Elbe-Project, shut down 3 Gotland 1 Vaestervik, Ygne, Sweden 98km = — 200kV — 20MW_— 1954 Shut down in February 1986 Sweden 4 HVDC Cross- Echingen, Lydd, UK km = — —-£100KV_-160MW_— 1961 Shut down in 1984 Channel France 5 Konti-Skan 1 Vester Stenkullen, 87km —-89km_ —-2S0KV_-250MW_— 1964 Replaced in August 2006 by Hassing, Sweden ‘modem converters using thyristors Denmark 6 HVDC Volzhskaya, Mikhai- — 475k 4400kV750MW 1964 = Volgograd Russia lovskaya, Donbass Russia 7 HVDCinter- Benmore Haywards,New 40km = 570km +270 KV 1200MW_— 1965 Upgraded in 1991. Pole 1 of this Istand Dam,New Zealand -350 kV system still uses mercury are recti- Zealand fiers, one of the last such systems in the world to continue with this technology. Pole 2 is thyristor bridge. 8 HVDC Sakuma, Sakuma, Japan — — -#125KV_ 300MW_— 1965 Replaced in 1993 by new converter Back-to-back Japan using light-triggered thyristors Station, Sakuma (Contd) £ | sewdoyoneg uorsstusved OAH Tablet (Contd.) Length of Trans-—Trans- S. Converter Converter_—Length Overhead mission mission —_Inaugu- No. Name Station 1 Station? of Cable Line Voltage Power __ ration Remarks 9 SACOI1 —— Suvereto, _Lucciana, 304km — 118km — 200KV 200MW 1965 Replaced in 1986 by thyristors, Italia or ‘multiterminal scheme Codrongianos, Sardinia 10 HVDC Delta, North 42km — 33km = 260kKV 312MW_ 1968 = Vancouver British Cowichan, Island 1 Columbia British Columbia Il PacificDC Celilo, Sylmar, — 1362km £500 kV 3100MW_ 1970 Transmission voltage until 1984 Intertie Oregon California 4400 kV maximum transmission power until 1982 1440 MW, from 1982 to 1984 1600 MW, from 1984 to 1989 2000 MW; mercury are rectifiers replaced in 2004 by photothyristors 12 Nelson River Gillam, Rosser, — —-895km —4450kV 1620MW 1971 Used the largest mercury are rect Bipole 1 Canada Manitoba fiers ever built, Poles converted to thyristors in 1993, 2004 13, HVDC Kingsnorth, London 85km = — ——-4266KV_ 64OMW_ 1975 Shut down Kingsnorth UK, Beddington, UK; London Willesden, UK vorssuisuen SaAH | y Table 1.2 Some systems that used thyristors from first power-on S. ‘Name Converter Converter Length Length of Voltage ‘Trans- ‘Inauguration ‘Remarks No. Station 1 Station? of Cable Overhead mission Line Power 1 Hype New Brunswick, New Brunswick, — = 8OKV320MW «1972 = Back-to-back Canada Canada Station Eel, River 2 HVDC Vancouver Delta, British North 33 km 42km = 280kV 370MW 1977 = Island 2 Columbia Cowichan, British Columbia 3 Square Butte Center, North Arrowhead, - 749 km = 4250kKV— SOOMW 1977 - Dakota Minnesota 4c Coal Creek, Dickinson, - 7T10km = 4400kV 1000MW_ 1979 = North Dakota Minnesota 5 Cabora Bassa Songo, Apollo, South — — 1420km —4533kV 1920MW 1979 = Mozambique Africa Inga-Shaba Kolwezi, Zaire Inga, Zaire — — 1700km = +500KV S6OMW (1982 - HVDC Gotland 2 Vastervik, Yigne, Sweden 92.9 66km —150KV 130MW 1983, - Sweden km 8 HVDCTtaipul Foz do Iguacu, S40 Roque, So — 785km 4600kKV 3150MW 1984. Twoschemes Parana Paulo 805 km each 3150 MW 9 Nelson River Sundance, Rosser, Canada — 937km 500kV 1800MW_ 1985 = Bipole 2 Canada 10 HVDC Cross- Les Mandarins, Sellindge, UK 72 km — 4270 KV. 2000MW 1986-2 bipolar Channel (new) ‘France systems (Contd) § | s1ewdoyoneg uorsstusveu GAH Table 1.2 (Contd.) Ss. ‘Name Converter Converter Length Length of Voltage —‘Trans- ‘Inauguration ‘Remarks No. Station 1 Station2 of Cable. Overhead rmission Line Power TL Intermountain Intermountain, Adelanto, = 785km 4500KV 1920MW 1986 = Utah California 12 HVDCSileru— _Sileru, India.——_~Barsoor, India - 196km 4200kV 400MW 1989 - Barsoor 13. Fenno-Skan Dannebo, Rauma, Finland 200 km 33km — 400kV SOOMW 1989 - Sweden 14 HVDC Gezhouba, Nan Qiao, China — —1046km = 4500KV1200MW 1989 = Gezhouba— China Shanghai 15 Quebec—New _Ridson Quebec, Via Nicolet,Des_ — —1100km = 450KV_ 2000MW = 1991. Muiltiterminal England Canada canton Quebec 3 terminals Transmission 16 HVDCRihand— — Rihand, India Dadri, India - 8i4km 4500kV 1S00MW 1992 - Delhi 17 SACOI2 Suvereto, Italia Lucciana, 118km — 304km = 200kKV.--300MW = 1992 Multterminal France; scheme Codrongianos, Italy 18 HVDCInterIsland Benmore Dam, Haywards,New 40km — S70km = 350KV G4OMW 1992 - 2 New Zealand Zealand 19 Cross-Skagerrak 3 Tjele, Kristiansand, 130km_=—-100km = 350KV— SOOMW 1993 - Denmark Norway 20 SwePol Stirnd, Sweden Slupsk, Poland 24Skm == — 450kV 600MW 2000 = (Contd) vorssuisuen SaAH | 9 Table1.2 (Contd.) S. ‘Name Converter Converter Length Length of Voltage ‘Trans- ‘Inauguration ‘Remarks No. Station 1 Station2 of Cable Overhead rission Line Power 21 “HVDC Galatina, Italy Arachthos, 200km —-‘110km 400KV SOOMW 2001 = Italy—Greece Greece 22 HVDCThree Longquan, Zhengping, - 890km —4500kV 3000MW 2003 - Gorges-Changehou China China 23 HVDC Three Jingzhou, China Muizhou, China — 940km —4500kV 3000MW 2003 = Gorges— Guangdong 24 Basslink Loy Yang, George Town, 298.3 T18km — 400kKV — 6OOMW 2005 = Australia Australia km 25. SAPEL Latina, Italy -Fiume Santo, 435km_ = — ~—-$500kV 1000MW == 2008/9 - Sardinia 26 NorNed Feda, Norway Eemshaven, -S80km_=— ss — —450KV.— 700MW_=— 2007 = Netherlands 27 Xianjiba, Shanghai Xianjiba, China Shanghai,China — — 2071km — 800kV_ 6400MW_——— 2010 = 28 Yanan, Guangdong, Yunnan,China = — —-1400km »—4800kV SOOOMW = 2010 = Guangdong China 1 | swewdoyoneg uorsstusveu SaAH Table 1.3. Systems that used IGBTs from first power-on S. ‘Name Converter Converter Length of Length of Voltage Trans-_ Inaugu- ‘Remarks No. Station | Station 2 Cable Overhead mmission ration Line Power 1 HVDC Tjereborg Tjereborg, Tjereborg, Denmark 43km— — 29KV7,2MW 2000 _ Interconnection to Denmark wind power gener- ating stations 2 HVDC Back-to-back Eagle Pass, Texas, Eagle Pass, Texas, = — — —-4159kV36MW 2000 = Station, Eagle Pass, USA USA Texas 3 Directlink Mullumbimby, Bungalora, Australia S9km = — 480kV 180MW 2000 Land cable Australia 4 Cross Sound Cable New Haven, Shoreham, Long 40km = — —-#1S0KV 330MW_ 2002‘ Buried underwater Connecticut Island cable 5 Murraylink Berri, Australia Red CliffS, Australia 177km = — —-£150kV._-220MW_— 2002 Land cable 6 HVDC Troll Kollsnes, Norway Offshore Platform = 70km_=— — 460kV 84MW — 2005-Power supply Troll A for offshore gas compressor 7 Estlink Espoo, Finland Harku, Estonia 105km = — —-150KV 350MW 2006 - 8 HVDC Valhall Lista, Norway —-Valhall, Offshore 292km_— — 150kV 78MW 2009 = platform 9 Nord EONI Germany Germany Borkum — 203km = — 150kV 400MW 2009 - Diele East Bay Okland, San Francisco, US 88km_=— — 200kV 400MW 2010 = us 11 Caprivi Link Namibia-Gerus Namibia Zambari___970km_—_ — S00kV__300MW__2010 = *Source: Wikipedia: List of HVDC projects vorssuisuen oaAH | @ S. ‘Name Converter Converter Length Lengthof Voltage Power Remarks No. Station 1 Station? of Cable_ Overhead Line 1 HYDCSilem— __ Sileru (AP) Barsoor 196m =200kV 400MW 1989 Experimental line Barsoor (Chattisgarh) 2 Vindhyachal Vindhyachal (U.P) Vindhyachal = - ZIT6KV SOOMW 1989 Interstate Back-to-back (3) 3 HYDCRihand— — Rihand (U.P) Dadri (U.P) - 8l4km — +S00kV_ 1500 MW 1992 Interstate Delhi 4 Chandrapur-Padghe Chandrapur Padghe - 900km —-500KV 1500MW 1997 Interstate (Maharashtra) (Maharashtra) 3 Vizag.2 Gajuwaka (AP) — Gajuwaka (A.P) - 176kV 500MW 2005 Back-to-back Eastern arid and Souther grid 6 East South-2 Talcher (Orissa) Kolar 1450 km —-500kV 2000 MW 2002 Interstate (Karnataka) 7 Ballia-Bhiwadi —Ballia (U.P) Bhiwé = 780km —£S00kV 2500MW Under construction (2009) (Rajasthan) 8 Biswanath-Agra —_Biswanath Agra (UP) = 1875km —+800kV 6000 MW To be completed in 2012 (Assam) ‘Source: Wikipedia: Li of HVDC projects 6 | swowdojoned vorsswisued, oaAH 410 | HvDc Transmission Table 1.5 HVDC back-to-back schemes S.No. ‘Name Location Voltage Power Year Remarks | HDC Back-to-back, Shin-Shinano, £125kV 600MW_ 1977 Interconnection Shin Shinano Japan S0Hz/60Hz 2 Acaray Acaray, 26.5 kV SOMW 1981 - Paraguay Vyborg, Vyborg, Russia 485kV 1065 MW _ 1982 — 4 Daimronr Durnrohar, MSkV SSOMW 1983 Austria 5 Chateauguay Chateauguay 140kV 1000 MW_ 1984 = Saint Constant 6 Virginia Smith US-Sidney 1S0kV-200MW_ 1988, - Nebraska 7 Btzenricht Btzenriteh, 160kV 600 MW 1993 Shut down in Germany 195 8 Minami Fukumitsu Minami— 125kV -300MW_ 1999 - Fukumitsu, Japan 9 Sharyland Sharyland, 21kV 1S0MW 2007 Texas, USA 10 ALRadhiti Al Fadhili, 1800 MW 2008 Saudi Arabia The thyristor valves offer the following advantages. (a) They are free from arc backs which are frequent in mercury arc valves. (b) Have low power loss and offer wide flexibility of design which helps arrive at an economical design for a particular project. (©) Low maintenance requirements. ‘The progressive increase in voltage and current ratings of thyristors and 12-pulse mode of operation has brought economy in filter requirements. Fairly good advances in this technology have taken place around the world, Advanced methods of cooling using Freon to keep the junction temperatures of SCRs at low values in order to enhance the power handling capabilities in thyristors have been developed. Gate turn-off thyristors and fiber optic triggering have also been developed in addition to improved control philosophies with microprocessor applications which have contributed to the development of reliable convertors and other power apparatus in HVDC systems. Nowadays IGBT Technology has induced further development of new HVDC projects. Several HVDC schemes projects that have come up in India have been listed in Table 1.4, ‘An experimental DC line between upper Sileru in Andhra Pradesh and Barsoor in Chattisgarh with 400 MW at 4200 KV was commissioned in 1989. At present it is operating at ~200 kV and 200 MW only. HVDC Transmission: Developments | 14 AN OOT 2008108-1U9IS, NOOSE ‘ey6ped-indespueys "MT 0OF youu, MN Ozer sseq BOYED mV Oss pqeus-P6u) ee iy vex0s8 MIN OOO BV euBpegrundeipueyo AN 0008 InoyzBueyg-se6105 ee pueICOZ MON ‘MAN 008 \weedeureusin ‘MN 008 reUDehypUIn ‘NWN 0035 wwlec-pueuiy "Mn OOzF leubueus-eqnouzes MIN OZL 100-peA606j0n| lnysvo}4-opre9,oH ‘TV 008 MIN OSS TWN 092 NDS a028i5-Ae MAN 00S co me, MN Oss yong, TAN 0501) Boa) + ‘AAW 0S ueys-ouueS mn Budde, pues UeYsNOUZ MW 06 ous mn Jouueyo $8019 see Fig.1.2 Location of some HVDC projects around the world* ‘*Rudervall Roberto etal, HVDC Transmission Systems Technology (Review Paper), ABB Power Systems, Sweden. ‘wvwabb.com.in 42 | Hvoc Transmission ‘There are mainly three types of HVDC links that are in use as shown in Fig. 1.3. Converter transformer-1 — lt Converter waratomor2 HCO] eater —— tment AC f if AC Bus-2 wos ust Ac Bus-2 COAK HOO L4 l < to (&) Bipolar nk (unbalanced operation) AC Bus-1 AC Bus-2 oO (€) Homopolar link Fig.13 Types of DC links (a) Monopolar Link A monopolar system has only one conductor with ground as return conductor, and it is usually of a negative polarity. It is suitable in submarine systems where sea water can be used as a return conductor. (& Bipolar Link (Unbalanced Operation) biptr stem tas vo condos, oof pose and other of negative polarity. The mutual or ground point is maintained at the mid-potential. Each terminal of a bipolar system has two converters of equal voltage ratings connected in series. If both neutrals are grounded then two poles operate at equal current and there is no ground current. In the event of fault in one conductor, the other conductor with ground return can be used up to half the rated load or power with the rated current of the pole. (0) HIENNRENINII. soopotar ye tas voor mor condos with he sme poly say negative, and they always operate with ground return. In the event of fault in one conductor, the whole HVDC Transmission: Developments | 13 converter can be connected to a healthy pole and can carry more than half the power (2-pole) by overloading but at the expense of increased line loss. However, this is not possible in a bipolar system due to the use of graded insulation for negative and positive poles. When continuous ground currents are inevitable, homopolar system is preferable. The additional advantage is lower corona loss and radio interference due to negative polarity on the lines. 1.3. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR HVDC SYSTEMS Sources and generation of power is usually in AC mode. An essential requirement of a DC system is conversion of AC to DC at one end and inversion back to AC at the other end. This naturally demands recti- fiers and inverters of high power ratings. The advent of power thyristors have made this job easier. Nowadays all HVDC schemes prefer to employ 12-pulse conversion because of less ripple and reduction in harmonics. A typical layout of HVDC transmission system is shown in Fig. 1.4. snosting reactor _ Dc tine Conv. trans. = Waive a a bows! FF [AKOD— ccna Ee rem |, j oer EE I7py a-Of+] FEE wey HL pa Communication channel ac bus capacitor | Controf system, Fig.1.4 A typical HVDC transmission scheme Essential requirements of HVDC system are (a) 6/12-pulse converters (b) Converter transformer with suitable ratio and tap changing (c) Filters both on the AC side and on the DC side to take care of the harmonic generation at the converters and to reduce the harmonics (@) Asmoothing reactor in the DC side to reduce the harmonic currents in the DC line and possible transient overcurrents 44 | HvDc Transmission (©) Shunt capacitors to complement the reactive power generated by the converters as they operate on lagging power factor and take lagging current (®) DC transmission line or DC cables for power transmission (@) Converters In all HVDC schemes that evolved after 1970, only thyristor valves are being used in converters. New techniques using Freon for cooling the junction of thyistors, to enable the temperature of the junctions of the valves to go as low as possible have been developed. This has increased the power handling capacity of the devices. New developments like gate turn-off thyristor, (GTO, 8 KV, 4000 A), IGBTs (6.5 KV, 1000 A) and light triggered thyristors with reliable cesium-mercury flash lamp for high power light sources have made control schemes not only more reliable but also appear to have reduced 2000 electronic compo- nents per valve according to Jack L. Tink, Manager of HVDC Marketing at General Electric. Thyristors are now available in the market with blocking voltage ratings of 6 KV which is six times the ratings of the first thyristors used in converter stations in the early 1970s. This means only one-sixth of the valves need to be ‘used now, saving considerable space and cost. Today, HVDC valves have entered a new phase with the development of IGBT valves. From a basic ‘chip’ with a PIV rating of 4 to 6 kV and around 1000 A, a module is made with a few thyristors or IGBTs connected in series parallel combination for 10 to 15 kV voltage rating and required current rating (1 kA to 3 KA) giving suitable redundancy. A valve is built with such modules in series up to 500 KV. With IGBTs, which are self commuted (unlike thyristors) the modules are arranged into stak-paks, with which the IGBT stack valves are built. In Fig. 1.5 HVDC converter arrangement using thyristor valves as well as IGBTs is shown. The developments in HVDC valves are pictorially shown in Fig. 1.6. Nowadays, IGBT valves are used mainly in underwater cable and cable schemes in the power range 100 to 500 MW with voltage rating up to 200 kV. (b) Converter Transformers The transformers used in HVDC systems before rectification of AC are termed as converter transformers. They differ in their design as compared to one used in AC systems because of superimposed DC voltages. The insulation system ofa converter transformer has to withstand AC voltages, short time overvoltages and also superimposed DC voltages with polarity reversals. An understanding of the breakdown of solid interfaces in liquids is needed in the design of transformers. The tolerance on the impedance of converter transformers is more stringent since any variation in impedance has more effect on the cost of the associated DC terminal equipment. The content of harmonics in a converter transformer is much higher than conventional AC transformer. These harmonics cause additional leakage flux resulting formation of local hot-spots in the windings. Suitable magnetic shunts, directed oil flow for effective cooling along with additional cooling arrangements would be necessary to avoid such hot spots. (© Filters Harmonics are generated in HVDC transmission lines due to repetitive firing of thyristors. ‘These are transmitted to the AC network in which a DC link is embedded. This may cause overheating of the equipment and interference with communication systems. In addition to this, noncharacteristic harmonies are also generated due to an unbalance in converter transformer reactance, AC supply voltage and errors in the firing angle of the phases. It is necessary to regulate the harmonics through filtering techniques. (d) Reactive Compensation (Shunt Capacitors) Reactive vol-ampers are generated inthe process of conversion, due to delay in the firing angle of the converter stations. As DC system does not generate or require reactive volt-amperes, this must be suitably compensated by connecting shunt capacitors HVDC Transmission: Developments Thyrstor module a HVDC classic = Thyristor valves = Thytistor modules = Thyristors 1 Line commutated i1\ ether ears valve valve valve ‘Thyristors HvDc-vsc ‘Submodule = IGBT valves = IGBT valve stacks = StakPaks IGBT vaive stack. = Submodules = = =(0) © Self-commutated aaa Cable pair Fig.1.5 HVDC converter arrangements Performance Second generation thyristor valve First First generation generation thyristor valve mercury are valve Year 1954 1970 1980 2000 Fig.1.6 Development of HVDC valves 46 | HvDC Transmission at the both ends of the system. The compensation of static vars depends upon short circuit ratio (SCR) of AC systems. For weak AC systems (low SCR) which are common in India, proper choice of reactive power compensation must be seriously considered. (©) DC Transmission Line or DC Cable 1 requires only two conductors as compared to three conductors in a 3-phase AC system. Consequently losses are also less. The size of the structure of the towers is also less in DC transmission. There is no skin effect in the conductors because there is no variation of current in time (zero frequency). For the same power handling capacity, the size of the conductors required in DC transmission is small. Typical HVDC cables used in NorNed cable project are shown in Fig. 1.7. Conductor Seppe oF uminum k ‘Aluminium or copper Conductor sereen Conductor screen ._— ‘Semi-conduetive polymer ‘Semi-conducting polymer —— Insulation Dry cured HVDC polymer Dry cured polymer Insulation screen Insulation screen Semi-conductive polymer Semi-conducting polymer iustatte vereon i Swelling tape Copper wires IS Lead alloy sheath Inner jacket ‘Swelling tape Polyethylene Aluminium laminate a Outer covering >~ Galvanized steel wires Outer cover Polyethylene Polypropylene yarn @ ¢ ks oko Flat Mass-impregnated ‘submarine cable LA I~ | Corpor prot wies, 70 mn? a a at ms @ ® r % caomarte cable [7 Copper profile wires, 700 mm? WWtrrs: Va wne o” Fig.1.7 HVDC cables HVDC Transmission: Developments | 17 The relative merits of the two modes of transmission of AC and DC should be compared based on the following facts to assess the suitability: (1) Economics of transmission (2) Technical performance (3) Reliability 1 Economics of Power Transmission DC transmission of bulk power over long distances has certain distinct advantages over conventional AC power transmission such as the following: 1 (1) InDC transmission, inductance and capacitance of the line has no effect on the power transfer capability of the line and the line drop. Also, there is no leakage or charging current of the line under steady conditions. DC has more decided advantages when power is transmitted through cables as there is no charging current in the cable. (2) For long distance power transmission over 500 km, the saving in cost is substantial as shown in Fig. 1.8(a). A DC line requires only 2 conductors whereas an AC line requires 3 conductors in 3-phase AC systems. The cost of the terminal equipment is more in DC lines than in AC line. Break-even tance is one at which the cost of the two systems is the same. It is understood from Fig. 1.8(a) that a DC line is economical for long distances which are greater than the break-even distance. The break-even distance also varies with the power transmitted over the line as shown in Fig. 1.8(b). Table 1.6 below shows the comparative capability of HVDC systems for power transfer over various distances with that of an EHVAC system at different voltages. *The above figures refer to fai weather conditions Table 1.7 Gives typical line loading figures for different voltages with alternating current and with direct current Alternating Current Direct Current Highest System Voltage (KV) ‘Typical Load (MW) Highest System Voltage (kV) Typical Load bipole (MW) 360) 300-1000 =250 200-500" 420 400-1200 = 300 400-1000 550 800-2000 +400 ‘800-1600 800 2000-4000 = 600 2000-4000 200 4000-8000. +800 4000-8000 48 | HVDC Transmission (3) The choice of DC transmission voltage for a given power has a direct impact on the total instal- lation cost. The cost of losses is very important in the evaluation of energy losses cost and the time horizon for utilisation of the DC system. Hence, to estimate costs of an HVDC system, a life cycle cost analysis is done, Here a comparison between (i) EHVAC system and Thyristor valve DC system, and (ii) EHV AC system and VSC (IGBT) valves with cable is carried out. For the first one (i), the capital costs for HVDC converter are higher than that of EHVAC substations. On the other hand, the cost of transmission for lines, cables land cost, ete, are lower for a DC system. In Fig. 1.8 (c) and (4), the break-even distance arrived at is larger (>500 km). The break-even distance depends on several factors such as line or cable, cost of materials, labour costs, etc. Similar comparison is made for VSC based Cost Break-even distance Terminal cost | 200 400 «600800 ra) Robie costo And conn ce 200 = § | 600 3 $400 4 3 é 200 400 800 1200 ~—«1600 __**, Power transmitted (MW) Fig.18(8) Variation of break-even distance with powertransmited HVDC Transmission: Developments | 19 900) 800 700 600 500 —AC price 460} |—DC price eee g¢e8888828838 Distance (km) Fig. 1.8(c) Break-even distance for thyristor HVDC schemes Cost Total AC DC line cost JAC tine cost DC terminal cost - fac terminal ‘cost Distance HVDC and AC systems for smaller power transport (50 to 200 MW) and for shorter distances few tens of km to about 200 km (Fig. 1.9). The subdivision of costs for HVDC schemes for 2000 MW is given in Fig. 1.10. DC transmission has some positive features which are not present in AC transmission, but are mainly due to the fast controllability of power in DC lines through converter control. Following are some technical advantages: (2) Palco! ove pve vi i ie econ, 20 | HvDc Transmission VSC + cable Distance from the AC grid Fig. 1.9 Breakeven distance for VSC (IGBT schemes) Erection, commissioning 8% Other equipment 10% Engineering 10% Control 7% Freight insurance 5% AC filters 10% Converter transformers 16% Civil works, buildings 14% Valves 20% Fig.1.10 Cost subdivision for a typical 2000 MW HVDC scheme Comparison of Single-Phase AC Line and Monopolar DC Line While comparing the perfor- mance of monopolar DC line with single-phase AC line, it is presumed that the size of the conductor is same in both the systems. The maximum system voltage to ground is also same. Let J, be the rms AC current of single-phase system. HVDC Transmission: Developments | 24 Let J, be the direct current of the monopolar DC system, Lal, a) Since the system maximum voltage is same in both cases, V,=2V, (1.2) where V, is the DC voltage of the pole w.r.t. ground. where V, is the rm. line to ground voltage of AC system. ‘The power transmitted through DC line = P,= V, 1, ‘The power transmitted through AC line = P,. = V1, 0s P, Vy 1, The ratio of DC power/AC power = —4 = 4-4 _ (1.3) Pro Vy, 0080 Assuming the power factor cos $= 0.945 P, P. ac v2/0.945 =1.5 (4) Itmeans a monopolar DC line can transmit 1.5 times the power an AC line can transmit for the same conductor size and system maximum voltage. 1.4.3(a) Comparison of Bipolar DC Line with 3-phase AC Line for Power Transfer Capability (For same current and power level) It is presumed in the comparison that the insulation levels are the same, i.e., the maximum system voltage in both the cases is the same and the size of the conductor also the same with the above conditions. Leh, v= viv, where Vis the DC voltage of the pole wrt. ground The DC power transmitted by a bipolar line is P,=2Vd, AC power transmitted by a 3-phase system = P,..= 37, J, cos Pa power transmitted by 3-phase AC line Pc Val 35] V,, 1, 0086 V,, 1, 0086 ¢ Bower transmitted by bipolar DC li The ratio o' as) WW yly 2 3V, 1, cos @ 3 22 | Hvoc Transmission with cos $ = 0.945 Pa? V2 Pac 3 0.985 It means that the power transmitted by a bipolar line is the same as that of a 3-phase AC line. 1.4.3(b) Comparison of a Bipolar DC System with 3-phase AC System for Same Insulation Levels (For same power transmitted and equal losses) ‘A comparison of a bipolar DC system with that of a 3-phase AC system transmitting the same amount of power with same percentage of losses and with the same size of the conductor is given below. From this, the insulation strength of DC and AC systems can be compared. Let _V, = Phase voltage ofa 3-phase AC system Phase current of a 3-phase AC system 1,= Conductor current of a DC system V, = Voltage of one pole w.rt. ground = Resistance of each conductor Assuming the power factor to be unity in the AC system, we have P,.= Total AC power P,_= Total DC powei v1, (1.6) VL, (a7) For equal losses it follows that 32R=2xI5R 1,=N2Bx1, (as) Since power transmitted is the same in both the cases, we have (9) W, 1p = Waly If we compare the insulation in both the cases, the breakdown of the system insulation depends upon the maximum voltage, then DC insulation level ___Vs BRxv, B (10) ACinsulation level J2xV, V2xV, 2 = 0.866 HVDC Transmission: Developments | 23 An important conclusion that can be derived from the above is that the DC insulation level required is only 86.66% of that required in an AC system. It means that the number of insulators required in DC system is 86.6% that of 3-phase AC system. This results in lower cost of transmission. 1.4.3(c) Comparison of Bipolar DC with 3-phase AC System (For same power transmitted and same insulation level) Another basis of comparison is to assume equal power transmission with equal peak voltage in both AC and DC systems. The conductor size is assumed to be the same. The power losses can be compared in both the systems. When power transmitted is the same in both the cases Power transmitted in AC = P,.=3Y,1, Power transmitted in DC = P,.= 2V,, Since the peak voltage is same in both the systems V,,,, = The maximum conductor to ground voltage = V,, Assuming the same maximum voltage from line to neutral in AC V, = Vx |V2=¥,/V2 aay V,= V2 v, (1.12) Given the total power transmitted in both the cases is same. Wehave Py. = Pye a WL = Wel, 14 =1.061, Hence, power loss in AC system _ 345 R (4) power los inDCsystem 2/3 R It follows from Eq. 1.14 that the power loss in an AC system is 33% more than a DC system. 1.4.3(d) Comparison of 3-phase Double Circuit AC Line with 3 Circuit DC Homopolar Line with Same Power Loss Let (a) Insulation levels be the same in both the systems, and (b) Percentage line losses be the same. Hence, the peak voltage from line to ground in both the systems is the same. 24 | HvDC Transmission V2 V, =¥, (from Equation 1.12) ie 203, Pro= WV, 1, Py = Vy Ly Percentage losses in DC (due to bundling) 613 R/6V, Ly =1, R/V2V, (11s) Percentage losses in AC = 61} R/6V,, 1, =1,, R/V, (1.16) Equating the percentage losses in both the systems, we have (7) e (DC) eee = OV, 1g [Vy 1 = V2 x V2 =2 (1.18) power transmitted in double circuit 3@ AC line 4 /' pty NIX The power that can be transmitted by a double circuit 3-phase AC line is one half of the power transmitted by 3-circuit DC line. 1.4.3(e) Other Factors in Favour of HVDC Transmission System ‘These are as follows: 1, Overvoltages—Switching surges levels in EHVAC system are of the order of 2.5 p.u., whereas for DC it is less than 2.0 pu. Earlier, DC lines were designed for a switching overvoltage of 1.7 p.u. 2. Reliability —The reliability of power supply is more in a DC line compared to AC. A single conductor to ground fault on bipolar DC line enables it to supply at least 50% power. But in 3-phase AC system more than 50% capacity is lost. 3. Stability of Power System—The power transfer capacity of a DC system is limited only by thermal conditions and current carrying capacity of the conductor and it isa function of difference of voltages at the two ends of the line, However in AC system, power transmitted depends on the sending end voltage V,, receiving end voltage V,., line reactance X and phase angle difference between V, and V,, (i.) P= V-¥, sin 6/X and is reduced with increase in line length due to increase in reactance (X). It is necessary to provide shunt reactors and series capacitors to compensate this. Stability limits: The power transfer capability vs distance is shown in Fig. 1.11. The power transfer capability of an AC line is a function of distance and it decreases with increase of the inductance, whereas DC line is not affected because it is governed by DC resistance of the line (conductors), thermal conditions and current carrying capability of the conductor. 4, Corona and Radio Interference and Skin Effects—Corona loss and radio interference are lower in DC systems. Further, there is no skin effect in the conductors of a DC system, whereas it increases the effective resistance of the AC system. 5. Towers and Tower Sizes—As shown, the DC insulation level is lower than AC insulation for a given power transmission. Therefore, the size of the towers and the corresponding right-of-way are also less. HVDC Transmission: Developments | 25 oc —— Distance Fig. 1.11 Power transfer capabilities vs distance 6. Cable for Underground or Undersea Transmission—In a steady state operation there is no charging current or reactive KVA taken by the cable unlike in AC systems. Consequently there is no dielectric loss in DC cables. In DC cables electric fields are unidirectional and ionic motion is absent. Therefore, a working stress of 400 kV/cm can be used in DC cables as against 100 kV/cm in AC conditions. Thus, thinner insulation can be used for a given voltage and cooling conditions are superior in DC cables. Further, DC cables are subjected to less overcurrent stresses. The effective power transmitted by a cable with DC is about 2.5 times that with AC. 7. Voltage Profile—The voltage profile along the AC line is complicated by line charging and inductive voltage drops. When the lagging volt-amperes produced by the line (/2X,) is equal to the leading volt- amperes produced by the line (V*/X,) for a particular load. Such a load is called surge impedance loading or natural loading on the line. Under these conditions V?/X0=PX, vy _X, (7) “X,¢ E c The surge impedance loading of the line is given by Surge impedance Z,, a (1.19) and Table 1.8 gives surge impedance loading for AC lines at 50 Hz operating frequency. 26 | HvDc Transmission When load is equal to the surge impedance loading on the line, the voltage profile in an AC line is relatively flat and p.f. on the line is same throughout the line; and is equal to unity when conductor resistance and insulation leakage conductance of the line are neglected. When the sending end and receiving end voltages are held constant, the voltage at the middle of the line changes with the line loading as shown in Fig. 1.12. Voltage x= Distance from the sending end Fig. 1.12 Variation of voltage along the line with load > Tine length Voltage in the middle of the line rises when the load is less than the surge impedance loading of the line, whereas the voltage at the middle of the line decreases, when the load on the line is more than P., In order to maintain constant voltages at the two ends, reactive power compensation is required. When the load P > P., shunt compensation is required with external capacitors to be connected across the line to nullify the lagging volt-amperes. On the other hand, under light load conditions (P < P.), inductive compensation is required and can be done by switching on external series inductances along the line. Although DC converter stations require reactive power depending on the line loadings, the line itself does not require reactive power. The steady state charging currents in AC system pose serious problems in cables. This reduces the break-even distance of cable-transmission to around 40 km, 8. Line Compensation—For reasons stated in the previous section, AC lines require shunt and series compensation in long distance AC transmission to overcome the problems of line charging and stability limitation, Series capacitors and shunt inductors are used for this purpose. The other method of improving the stability and voltage regulation is by means of static var compensation (SVC). 9. Reactive Power Compensation—The line length can be expressed in electrical degrees as =lJE/c (1.20) where is the length of the line in metres Lis the series inductance of the line in henries/ph/metre Cis the shunt capacitance of line in Farads/ph/metre Ifthe voltage along the line is to be regulated within 15% throughout the line for all loads (light/heavy) compensation of reactive power becomes essential. The power transferred through the line can be expressed as 10. HVDC Transmission: Developments | 27 P=P, sec 8 a2 EC In order to maintain constant voltage along the line as shown by Curve 2 in Fig. 1.12, lagging reactive power should be supplied during light loads by switching shunt reactors, and leading reactive power should be supplied during heavy loads by switching shunt capacitors. The reactive power requirement increases with the increase of line length. where P, is the natural loading on the line and @ is given by (1.20) as @ The variation of reactive power requirements with line loading is shown in Fig. 1.13. By means of controllable series/shunt compensations and static VAR systems, reactive power compensation can be optimised. 304 az ge {No oad s o eau as z e 2 s Heavy load 04 © 20° aor > Distance from sending end in electrical degrees 1.13 Variation of reactive power with line loading For long lines, the permissible transmission line loading, based on thermal ratings of conductor is much higher than P = 1.5 P,, But the increased requirements of compensation and voltage regulation problems set a limit of power transfer to about 1.3 P,, This difficulty is likely to be overcome by controllable series compensation and SVC. AC Interconnection Problem—When two power systems are interconnected through an AC line, the automatic generation control of both the systems has to be co-ordinated using the line power and frequency signals. The operation of an AC tie may pose problem even with co-ordinated control of inter-connected systems because of the following reasons: (a) Presence of large power oscillations that lead to frequent tripping (b) Increase in fault level (©) Transmission of disturbance from one system to the other ‘The power control through a DC line eliminates all of the above problems. An asynchronous DC tie does not demand co-ordinated control. It is clear that two systems which have different nominal frequencies cannot be interconnected directly but through a DC link only. 28 | HvDc Transmission 1.8 LIMITATIONS OF HVDCTRANSMISSION LINES _ 1. Due to generation of harmonics in converter operation, nonsinusoidal currents will flow in converter transformers on the AC side, causing audio frequency telephone interference. Therefore, huge filters are required on both AC and DC sides to suppress the harmonics. 2. Static var compensation is essential since a DC system cannot generate reactive power when the converters operate with gate control. Reactive power is to be supplied from AC side at both ends. 3. Reliable multiterminal DC systems are yet to be established because of lack of HVDC circuit breakers. At present gate control is used to block DC under fault conditions. However, recent developments indicate that this can be achieved in near future. Canada (Quebec)—Massachusetts HVDC system is operating as a 3-terminal system and was put into service in 1991 (see Table 1.2). 4. Complexity of control. 5. High cost of conversion equipment. 6. Inability to use transformers to change voltage levels. Over the years, there have been significant advances in DC transmission, which have tried to overcome the disadvantages listed above. These are Development of DC breakers Modular construction of thyristor valves, Increase in ratings of thyristor cells that make up a valve ‘Twelve pulse operation of converters Use of metal oxide gapless arresters Application of fiber optics and digital electronics in the control of converters A study of the existing HVDC links in the world indicates that the reliability of DC transmission system is quite good and comparable to that of AC systems. The performance of thyristor valves is much more reliable than mercury arc valves. Further, developments like direct light triggered thyristor (LTT) and new techniques of control and protection have improved reliability levels. Transient Reliability: This is a factor specifying the performance of HVDC systems during recordable faults on the associated AC systems. The transient reliability can be defined as the ratio of Recordable AC system faults are defined as those faults which cause one or more AC bus phase voltages to drop below 90% of the voltage prior to the fault. It is assumed that the short circuit level after the fault is not below the minimum specified for satisfactory converter operation. HVDC Transmission: Developments | 29 Both the factors namely energy availability and transient reliability of existing DC systems with thyristor valves is 95% or more. The average failure rate of thyristors in a valve is less than 0.6% per operating year. Itis common practice to provide redundant thyristors in the series string comprising an HVDC valve, so that in the event of failure of a thyristor, a redundant element can be replaced during scheduled maintenance once or twice a year. Maintenance of thyristor valves is also much simpler than mercury valves. Outage statistics of HVDC systems is given mean time to repair (MTTR). the Table 1.9 indicating mean ¢ to failure (MTTF) and Table 1.9 Outage statistics of HVDC systems S.No. Equipment MTTF (years) ‘MITR (hours) 1 Thyristor valve Ba 61 2 Converter transformer 16.1 1700.0 3 ‘Smoothing reactor 168 1700.0 4 DC filter 19.7 19 5 AC filter 126 9.3 6 Master control 25.0 69 1 Pole control 90 86 8 Pole of the transmission 1.25/10 km 15 9 DC line switch 1472 18 While comparing the reliability of various alternatives, it must be remembered that the bipolar DC line can be as reliable as a double circuit AC line with the same power capability. This is because of the fact that in the event of failure of one pole of DC system, the other pole can supply at least 50% energy with ground return. 1.7 STANDARD RATED VOLTAGES OF HVDC AND EHVAC SYSTEMS Standard rated voltages of HVDC and EHVAC systems are given in the Table 1.10 and 1.11. The choice of voltage for new lines is preferred from the nearest system voltage. The commonly used HVDC voltages can be read from Tables 1.1 to 1.5. New transmission voltage level is decided only after surveying technical and economic aspects and accep- tance feasibility reports of the line. Always, transmission systems are planned along with the planning of generation. 30 | HvDC Transmission Table 1.11 Standard Voltages as per (IEC) for 3-phase AC overhead lines Description HV EHV UHV AV (rms) KV (rms) KV (rms) ‘Nominal rated voltage—phase to phase 132 220 345, 400, 500 750, 1000, 1100 Highest voltage—phase to phase 145 345 362, 420, 525 765, 1050, 1200 1.8 CHOICE OF EHVAC AND UHVAC LINES AND SUBSTATION The power transmission capability of a single EH'VAC line depends on the surge impedance loading and compensation and is denoted as P,, Usually 3-phase lines are double circuit lines to ensure reliability of power supply, in case one of the 3-phase lines is out of order due to faults. Intermediate substations are required at an interval of 250 to 400 km for providing compensation of reactive power. If P is the total power to be trans- mitted through EHVAC/UHVAC line over a distance of 1000 km, the number of 3-phase circuit is given by P ==x2 1.22) n=5 (1.22) where n= Number of 3-phase circuits. P =Total power to be transmitted P, = Surge impedance loading of one line 2 = Factor for double circuit ‘Number of AC line conductors = 3 Number of intermediate substations is given by s-[-s of the line in km _ (1.23) 300 where L is the length of the line in km, For transmission of bulkpower over long distances, an HVDC bipolar line can be used up to 2500 MW but for EHVAC lines, the number of conductors changes with the distance as well as power. The Table 1.12 gives the number of conductors of EHVAC line for various power levels and line lengths. Table 1.12 EHVAC lines for different powers and line lengths Length of the Line Power Number of 3-phase ‘System Total Number of kan) (uy AC Lines(n) Voltage (KV) Line Conductors 1000 2x2 400 12 1000 2x2 400 12 1000 3x2 400 18 1000 4x2 400 24 1000 2x2 750 12 2500 4x2 400, 24 2500 2x2 750 12 3000 2x2 750 12 HVDC Transmission: Developments | 34 At present, several HVDC links have been installed in the world and by the year 2011 about 150 links are expected to be installed with a total power transfer capability of 100,000 MW. HVDC links technically are superior to EHVAC links and are preferred for interconnection between two individually controlled AC systems. Table 1.13 shows the superiority of DC link to AC link. Table 1.13 Comparison between DC and AC interconnection S.No. Characteristics ‘HVDC Link EHVAC Link Criterion for Preference 1. Powertransfer ability High, limited by temper- Lower, limited by power HVDC Link for higher ature rise angle and the reactance power 2. Controlof power flow Fast, accurate and Slow and difficult HVDC is preferred bi-directional 3. Frequency disturbance Reduced Communicated between HVDC is preferred the system 4, System support Excellent, power flow is Poor, oscillations continue HVDC is better quickly modulated for for long damping oscillation 5. Transient performance Excellent Poor HVDC is preferred 6. Fault levels Remains unchanged after Get added after the HVDC is better interconnection interconnection 7. Power swings Damped quickly Continue for long time HVDC is better 8. Interconnection Asynchronous ‘Synchronous HVDC is preferred 9. Frequency conversion _Possible Not possible HVDC is preferred 10, Cascade tripping of AC Avoided Likely HVDC is preferred systems 11, Spinning reserves of AC Reduced Not much reduced HVDC is preferred Network 12, Transient stability limit Very high, limited, by Less than half of the HVDC is preferred thermal capacity of the thermal limit of line equipment conductor 1.10 HVDC-VSC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS HVDC-VSC systems have been developed as a new technology in the last few years using IGBT valves. This technology was introduced in the mid 1990s using semiconductor chips that both rectify and control power. These chips are called the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs). The technology employs voltage source converters which transform DC voltage into AC or an AC signal into DC. This has the capability to keep both voltage and frequency stable, and hence, better stability over the grid. The important features and advantages are as follows: 32 | Hvpc Transmission (i) Most suitable for underground and underwater schemes and transmission mode is Cable. DC cables contain solid insulation and hence are superior to the oil pregnated HV paper cables. The risk of damage to the cables is much less. (ii) Since this does not use overhead lines, and the cable is either two core or two single core cables bunched together, it does not produce an external magnetic field. The static magnetic field is largely cancelled since current flows in the opposite direction in the two conductors. (iii) Ithas independent control for active and reactive power. (iv) Itcan feed power into passive networks without any source or generation. (v) Ithas modular compact design and can be fabricated and delivered in short time. (vi) Ithas the advantage of remote control and unmanned operation, (vii) It is robust against grid alterations. (viii) Very low acoustic noise is produced, and noise within the converter station is mitigated through total enclosure of the equipment in a container. Further, the converter station is much more environment friendly and its impact is less, when compared to a thyristor converter station. Advantages and Benefits to AC system side are as follows: (i) Conventional converter station consumes reactive power depending on the firing angles of rectifier or inverter and this cannot be controlled independently. In HVDC-VSC systems both the active and reactive power flow within the operating range and can be controlled independently. (ii) Increased power transfer capability in the existing system can be obtained. Higher voltage levels at which the converter allows a transmission system to operate allows more power transfer to AC lines. (ii) Faster restoration after a block or block out—The converter and systems can recover faster since it has fast time response. 1.10.1 HVDC-VSC System: Description and Components The system consists of voltage source converter (VSC) with series connected IGBT valves controlled by pulse width modulation (PWM). The switching frequencies are usually around 1 to 2 kHz depending on AC system frequency and converter topology. Converter valves DC capacitors (Voltage sourcas) A oS

    You might also like