Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Which of the following does not change with the level of output?
a. Variable costs
b. Total costs
c. Fixed costs
d. Average total costs
e. Marginal cost
c; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Variable Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
Exhibit 8-1
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Long Run
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
7. Fixed costs exist in
a. both the long run and the short run.
b. only in the long run but not in the short run.
c. only in the short run but not in the long run.
d. in neither the long run nor the short run.
e. sometimes in the short run and sometimes in the long run.
c; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Long versus Short Run
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Short Run
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
9. If a firm is currently producing zero output in the short run, total cost equals
a. fixed cost.
b. zero.
c. variable cost.
d. average variable cost.
e. marginal cost.
a; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Short Run
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Long Run
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
11. If the total cost of producing 6 units is $228 and the total cost of producing 7 units is $245, what is the
marginal cost of producing 7 units?
a. $35
b. $38
c. $245
d. $3
e. $17
e; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
12. The addition to total variable cost when one more unit of output is produced is
a. average variable cost.
b. average fixed cost.
c. total cost.
d. fixed cost.
e. marginal cost.
e; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
Exhibit 8-2
14. Refer to Exhibit 8-2. The fixed cost is
a. $20.
b. $100.
c. $120.
d. $185.
e. $326.
b; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
15. Refer to Exhibit 8-2. At an output quantity of 5 units, the fixed cost is
a. $20.
b. $100.
c. $120.
d. $185.
e. $326.
b; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
16. Refer to Exhibit 8-2. At an output quantity of 3 units, the variable cost is
a. $13.
b. $20.
c. $48.
d. $148.
e. $185.
c; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Variable Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
17. Refer to Exhibit 8-2. The marginal cost of producing the sixth unit of output is
a. $12.30.
b. $37.
c. $54.30.
d. $67.
e. $74.
e; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
True/False Questions
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
20. In the long run, only fixed costs can change; variable costs cannot.
False; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
23. Fixed cost does not vary with the quantity of output that a firm produces.
True; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
24. In the short run, total cost is zero when the firm produces nothing.
False; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Short Run
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Fixed Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
29. The vertical distance between average total cost and average variable cost curves decreases as output
increases because
a. it is traditional to draw the curves that way.
b. marginal cost first falls and then rises.
c. in geometry, both curves must reach their minimums on the marginal cost curve.
d. marginal product first rises and then falls.
e. average fixed cost decreases as output increases.
e; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
Exhibit 8-3
30. Refer to Exhibit 8-3. At an output of 5 units, the average fixed cost is
a. $50.40.
b. $252.
c. $68.
d. $100.
e. $20.
e; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Fixed Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
31. Refer to Exhibit 8-3. At an output of 5 units, the average total cost is
a. $16.40.
b. $20.
c. $30.40.
d. $50.40.
e. $252.
d; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Variable Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
32. Refer to Exhibit 8-3. The average variable cost at 3 units of output is
a. $49.33.
b. $16.
c. $13.33.
d. $29.33.
e. $25.
b; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Variable Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
True/False Questions
33. Both fixed cost and average fixed cost do not decline as the quantity of output increases.
False; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
34. Average fixed cost is the difference between average total cost and average variable cost.
True; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
35. Average total cost is average variable cost plus marginal cost.
False; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Production Function
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Diminishing Returns
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
39. Assume that 1 laborer produces 6 units of output, 2 laborers produce 14 units, 3 laborers produce 20
units, and 4 laborers produce 24 units. Diminishing returns to labor set in
a. when the firm hires the first laborer.
b. never; diminishing returns have not set in, and total output is still increasing.
c. when the firm hires the second laborer.
d. when the firm hires the third laborer.
e. when the firm hires the fourth laborer.
d; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Diminishing Returns
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Diminishing Returns and Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Diminishing Returns and Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Product and Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Cost and Marginal Product
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
44. The short-run average total cost curve gets its U-shape as a result of
a. constant returns to scale.
b. diminishing marginal returns.
c. economies of scale.
d. total fixed costs.
e. diseconomies of scale.
b; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Diminishing Returns and Average Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
45. When a one-unit increase in input increases output more than the previous unit of input, we say that
there are
a. increasing returns.
b. increasing costs.
c. diseconomies of scale.
d. decreasing returns.
e. constant returns to scale.
a; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Increasing Returns
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Increasing Returns
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Product
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
True/False Questions
48. A production function relates output to its price.
False; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Production Function
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
49. Marginal product and marginal cost are not related in any particular way.
False; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Product and Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Product and Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
51. Marginal product of labor is the change in output divided by a change in labor input.
True; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Product of Labor
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
52. Marginal product is at its maximum when marginal cost is at its minimum.
True; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Product and Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
53. Marginal product increases over some range because of specialization that takes place within a firm.
True; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Increasing Returns
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
54. Why can't economists identify a definite time period that constitutes the short run?
ANSWER:
The short run varies depending on the industry and the technology that a firm uses. Some firms can
change capital within a shorter time period than others can.
Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Short Run
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
55. Define average total cost, average variable cost, and average fixed cost, respectively, using letter
symbols.
ANSWER:
ATC = TC/Q
AVC = VC/Q
AFC = FC/Q
Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
Exhibit 8-4
56. Refer to Exhibit 8-4. Calculate the average fixed cost for 4 units of output.
ANSWER:
$10
Fixed cost is $40 given that total cost is $40 when output is zero.
AFC = $40/4 = $10
Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Fixed Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
57. Refer to Exhibit 8-4. Calculate the average variable cost for the fifth unit of output.
ANSWER:
$30.40
AVC = (TC − FC)/Q = ($1.92 − $40)/5 = $152/5 = $30.40
Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Average Variable Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
58. Refer to Exhibit 8-4. Calculate the marginal cost for the third unit of output.
ANSWER:
$13
TC for the third unit − TC for the second unit = $88 − $75 = $13
Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
59. Which curve passes through the minimum point of the average total cost curve?
a. The fixed cost curve
b. The average variable cost curve
c. The long-run average total cost curve
d. The marginal cost curve
e. The demand curve
d; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal Cost Curve
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal and Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
61. When marginal cost is greater than average variable cost but less than average total cost,
a. average total cost is rising.
b. marginal cost is falling.
c. average fixed cost is minimized.
d. average variable cost is falling.
e. marginal cost is rising.
e; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal and Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Cost Curves
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal and Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Cost Curve Shapes
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Cost Curve Shapes
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
True/False Questions
66. If average variable cost is falling, then marginal cost must also be falling.
False; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Average and Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
67. When marginal cost is greater than average variable cost, average variable cost must be rising.
True; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Average and Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
68. If marginal cost is increasing, you know that average variable cost is increasing.
False; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Average and Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
69. The marginal cost curve intersects the average total cost curve at the lowest point of the average total
cost curve.
True; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Average and Marginal Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
70. What will happen to the average of 40, 65, and 70 when the number 50 is included and averaged?
a. It will rise because 50 is greater than the previous average.
b. It will fall because 50 is less than the previous average.
c. There is not enough information to know what will happen to the average.
d. It will remain constant because it is equal to the average.
e. It will either rise or fall depending on the next number to be included.
b; Basic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal versus Average
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
71. Consider the following string of numbers: 20, 18, 14, 8, 4. Given the average of these numbers, what
happens when the number 6 is included?
a. The average falls because 6 is less than 20, the first number in the set.
b. The average does not change because 6 is insignificant.
c. The average rises because 6 is greater than the last number in the set, 4.
d. The average rises because 6 is greater than the previous average.
e. The average falls because 6 is less than the previous average.
e; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal versus Average
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
72. Which of the following is characteristic of short-run costs associated with increasing levels of output?
a. The difference between average total cost and average variable cost decreases.
b. Average variable cost typically increases.
c. Average total cost is equal to the difference between average variable cost and average
fixed cost.
d. Average fixed cost is constant.
e. Marginal cost is equal to the difference between total cost and total variable cost.
a; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal and Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
Exhibit 8-5
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal Cost Curve
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Average Total Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Total Fixed Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal and Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Average Fixed Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal and Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal and Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
True/False Questions
83. If the average score of the first two exams is 85 and the score of the third exam is lower than 85, then
the average score of all three exams must be lower than 85.
True; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal versus Average
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
84. The distance between the average total cost curve and the average variable cost curve decreases as
output increases.
True; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Average Total and Average Variable Cost Curves
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
85. The distance between the average total cost curve and the average variable cost curve is the amount of
average fixed cost.
True; Basic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Average Total and Average Variable Cost Curves
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Shape of Cost Curves
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
87. Average total cost, average variable cost, average fixed cost, and marginal cost curves all have
U-shapes.
False; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Shape of Cost Curves
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
88. Explain why average cost is not necessarily rising when marginal cost is rising.
ANSWER:
Marginal cost first falls, pulling down the average. However, the average does not fall as fast as
marginal cost falls. Thus, when marginal cost begins to increase, it is still less than the average, pulling
the average down. Only when marginal cost exceeds the average does the average begin to rise.
Challenging
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Marginal and Average Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
Exhibit 8-6
89. Refer to Exhibit 8-6. If the market price is $10, total revenue for the profit-maximizing firm is
a. $550.
b. $3,000.
c. $1,800.
d. $1,350.
e. $1,000.
b; Basic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Total Revenue
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
90. Refer to Exhibit 8-6. At an output of 100 units, fixed costs equal
a. $550.
b. $200.
c. $450.
d. $1,000.
e. $350.
c; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
91. Refer to Exhibit 8-6. At an output level of 300 units, variable costs equal
a. $1,650.
b. $1,800.
c. $450.
d. $3,000.
e. $1,350.
e; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Variable Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
92. Refer to Exhibit 8-6. If the market price is $10, the firm's profits are
a. $450.
b. $1,200.
c. $3,000.
d. −$1,200.
e. −$450.
b; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Profit
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
Exhibit 8-7
93. Refer to Exhibit 8-7. If the market price is $90, then the amount of total economic profits for a
profit-maximizing, price-taking firm is
a. $0.
b. −$1,000.
c. $1,000.
d. −$3,000.
e. $3,000.
a; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Profit
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
True/False Questions
95. A firm can earn a loss even if it produces at a price that is equal to its marginal cost.
True; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Loss
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
96. If a firm produces at an output level where price exceeds average total cost, then it makes an economic
profit.
True; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Profit
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Breakeven Quantity
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Breakeven Point
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
True/False Questions
99. The breakeven point is the point where price equals a firm's average total cost.
True; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Breakeven Point
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
100. A firm is at the breakeven point if its economic profits are greater than zero.
False; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Breakeven Point
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
101. The breakeven point for a competitive firm is the point where price equals average variable cost.
False; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Breakeven Point
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
102. If a profit-maximizing, competitive firm is producing at a loss in the short run, then
a. P < AVC.
b. P < MC.
c. P = AVC + AFC.
d. average revenue is less than price.
e. P < ATC, but P > AVC.
e; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
104. If total revenue is greater than variable cost but less than total costs, the firm should
a. remain in operation because revenues are sufficient to cover variable costs and some fixed
costs.
b. shut down because revenue is not sufficient to cover all costs.
c. not make any decisions until it hires an economist.
d. remain in operation because revenue is sufficient to cover all fixed costs.
e. shut down because P is less than ATC.
a; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
106. If a competitive firm is losing money in the short run, then it should
a. never shut down in the short run.
b. shut down only if P is less than ATC.
c. shut down only if its losses are greater than its fixed costs.
d. shut down.
e. shut down only if TR is greater than TVC.
c; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
107. A firm that shuts down earns an economic loss equal to its
a. average variable cost.
b. total costs.
c. marginal cost.
d. total fixed cost.
e. total fixed cost minus total variable cost.
d; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
Exhibit 8-8
108. Refer to Exhibit 8-8. The shutdown point is when price falls to
a. $2.
b. $4.50.
c. a specific level between $2 and $4.50.
d. $6.
e. a specific level between $4.50 and $6.
c; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
True/False Questions
OBJ: factual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
110. The shutdown point for a competitive firm is reached when market price falls to the minimum of
average variable cost.
True; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
111. Some competitive firms are willing to operate at a loss in the short run because their revenues are at
least able to cover their fixed costs.
False; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
112. If total revenue is greater than variable costs but less than total costs, a firm should remain in operation
because its revenue is sufficient to cover variable costs and some fixed costs.
True; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
Exhibit 8-9
113. Refer to Exhibit 8-9. Calculate the profit if price equals $10 and output is 100 units.
ANSWER:
$0
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Profit
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
114. Refer to Exhibit 8-9. Calculate the profit of the firm when it is maximizing profit given a market price
of $10.
ANSWER:
$1,200
Profit-maximizing output is 30 units because P = MC.
Profit = (P − ATC)×Q = ($10 − $6)×300 = $1,200
Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Profit
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
115. Refer to Exhibit 8-9. Show that fixed costs are the same whether output is 100 units or 300 units.
ANSWER:
Fixed costs at 100 units = ($10 − $5.50)×100 = $4.50 100 = $450
Fixed costs at 300 units = ($6 − $4.50)×300 = $1.50 300 = $450
Challenging
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Capital Expansion and Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Capital Expansion and Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
118. When more capital is used in production,
a. the average total cost curve shifts left.
b. the average fixed cost curve shifts up.
c. fixed costs do not change, by definition.
d. only the respective fixed cost curves are affected.
e. the average variable cost curve does not change.
b; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Capital Expansion and Fixed Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Capital Expansion and Average Total Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Capital Expansion and Average Total Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
True/False Questions
121. The short run begins when a firm increases its capital input.
False; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Capital Expansion
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
122. An expansion of capital increases fixed costs but does not affect variable costs.
False; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Capital Expansion
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
123. Capital expansion can be shown as a shift in the average total curve.
True; Basic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Capital Expansion
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
124. Capital expansion causes the average total cost to decrease at low levels of output but increase at high
levels of output.
False; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Capital Expansion and Average Total Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
125. Capital expansion causes the average total cost curve to be shifted up for all levels of output.
False; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
TOP: Capital Expansion and Average Total Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
126. The U-shapes of the long-run and short-run average total cost curves
a. are due to diminishing marginal returns.
b. occur only in rare circumstances.
c. have the same cause.
d. have different causes.
e. must always occur.
d; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: U-Shaped Cost Curves
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
127. The long-run average total cost curve is often bumpy because
a. capital can be varied only in tiny increments.
b. capital can often be varied only in large increments.
c. short-run average variable cost curves are bumpy.
d. short-run average total cost curves are bumpy
e. capital cannot be increased with labor at the same time.
b; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: Shape of Long-Run Average Cost Curve
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
True/False Questions
128. Long-run average cost and short-run average cost curves have their U-shapes for the same reasons.
False; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: Long-Run versus Short-Run Average Cost Curve
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
129. Long-run average total cost is derived from summing individual average total costs in different
periods.
False; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: Long-Run versus Short-Run Average Cost Curve
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: Capital Expansion
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: Capital Expansion
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: Change in Price of Capital
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
133. When comparing countries with big labor supplies like China to countries with relatively lower labor
supplies like the United States and Canada, we would expect production in countries like China to be
a. labor intensive because of the relative abundance of labor.
b. labor intensive because of the relatively high expense of labor.
c. capital intensive because of the high value of capital.
d. capital intensive because of the relative scarcity of labor.
e. labor intensive because of traditional production practices.
a; Challenging
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: Mix of Capital and Labor
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
True/False Questions
134. The price of labor relative to capital determines the amount of labor used relative to capital in a firm.
True; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: Mix of Capital and Labor
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
135. The profit-maximizing decision in choosing the optimal levels of capital and labor in the long run is
the same as the profit-maximizing decision in the short run.
True; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: Mix of Capital and Labor
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
136. Explain what happens to variable costs when capital usage in a firm increases.
ANSWER:
At all levels of output, variable costs tend to decrease. Less labor is necessary because more capital
makes the same amount of production possible with less labor.
Challenging
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: Capital Expansion and Variable Costs
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
137. Explain what happens to the average total cost curve when capital usage is increased.
ANSWER:
At relatively low levels of output, average total cost increases because the increase in average fixed
cost due to increased capital takes on greater weight at low levels of output. At relatively high levels of
output, the decrease in variable costs due to lower labor usage takes on greater significance, and the
consequent decrease in average variable cost pulls down average total costs.
Challenging
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 4. Costs and Production: The Long Run
TOP: Capital Expansion and Average Total Cost
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
140. Economies of scale
a. account for the downward-sloping portion of the long-run average cost curve.
b. occur when an increase in resources causes a less-than-proportionate increase in output.
c. suggest that the firm's marginal cost curve lies above its average cost curve.
d. suggest that the firm's marginal cost curve is declining.
e. are represented by the declining portion of the average fixed cost curve.
a; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Minimum Efficient Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Constant Returns to Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
Exhibit 8-10
70
60 Long-run ATC
50
40
Cost
30
20
A B C
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Quantity
143. Refer to Exhibit 8-10. Area A represents
a. diminishing returns.
b. economies of scale.
c. constant returns to scale.
d. diseconomies of scale
e. economic losses
b; Basic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Diseconomies of Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
145. Refer to Exhibit 8-10. The minimum efficient scale is where output is at
a. 3 units.
b. 4 units.
c. 5 units.
d. 6 units.
e. 7 units.
a; Basic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Minimum Efficient Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Scale of Production
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
147. Which of the following could be a reason a firm might experience economies of scale?
a. Specialization
b. Ability to sell in other nations
c. Inability to use large machinery
d. Increased bureaucratization
e. All of these
a; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Diseconomies of Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
Exhibit 8-11
149. Refer to Exhibit 8-11, which is a long-run average total cost (ATC) schedule. At 3 units of output, the
firm's production is in
a. decreasing marginal cost.
b. increasing marginal product of labor.
c. constant returns to scale.
d. economies of scale.
e. diseconomies of scale.
e; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
150. Refer to Exhibit 8-11, which is a long-run average total cost (ATC) schedule. The minimum efficient
scale is at
a. 0 unit.
b. 1 unit.
c. 2 units.
d. 3 units.
e. 4 units.
c; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Minimum Efficient Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
True/False Questions
151. Economies of scale can exist in both the short run and the long run.
False; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
152. Economies of scale exist when the long-run total cost curve is increasing at an increasing rate.
False; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
153. Constant returns to scale occur when a firm's output remains constant regardless of its input.
False; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Constant Returns to Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
154. Economies and diseconomies of scale are the reasons short-run average total cost decreases and then
increases.
False; Moderate
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Scale of Production
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
155. Minimum efficient scale is the largest output size for which the long-run average total cost is at a
minimum.
False; Basic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Minimum Efficient Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
ANSWER:
Economies of scale occur when average cost declines as the quantity of production increases and all
resources are variable. Declining average cost is due to more efficient use of some resources.
Basic
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scale
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
OBJ: factual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scope
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge
158. Suppose one firm buys cattle to process only the skins for leather, and another firm buys cattle to
process only the meat for food. If the two firms merged, they would experience
a. increasing returns.
b. economies of scale.
c. economies of scope.
d. increasing marginal product.
e. decreasing marginal cost.
c; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scope
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
159. A merger between two firms producing different products may experience
a. increasing returns.
b. economies of scale.
c. economies of scope.
d. increasing marginal product.
e. decreasing marginal cost.
c; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scope
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
160. Economies of scope occur when average total costs fall as a result of increased production of the same
product.
False; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scope
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
161. A firm can experience economies of scope by reducing the variety of products it produces.
False; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scope
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
162. Economies of scale and economies of scope are related and occur for the same reason.
False; Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scale and Scope
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
163. Explain the difference between economies of scale and economies of scope.
ANSWER:
Economies of scale occur when average total costs fall as a result of increased production of the same
type of product. Economies of scope occur when firms producing different types of product merge;
this results in lower average total costs.
Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Economies of Scale and Scope
MSC: Bloom's: Analysis | AACSB: Analytic
164. Consider the relationship between the average test score of a class and one student's test score.
Suppose there are 10 students with an average test score of 80. Suppose the marginal score is the test
score of a new student, Kelly.
(A) If Kelly's score is 90, what will happen to the new average test score of the class?
(B) If Kelly's score is 70, what will happen to the new average test score of the class?
(C) What do your answers to parts (A) and (B) illustrate about the relationship between
marginal and average curves in general?
ANSWER:
(A) If Kelly's score is 90, which is higher than the original average score, then the new
average test score will increase.
(B) If Kelly's score is 70, which is lower than the original average score, then the new
average test score will decrease.
(C) If the marginal curve is higher than the average curve, then the average curve will
increase; if the marginal curve is lower than the average curve, then the average curve
will decrease.
Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: The Relationship between Average and Marginal
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
165. Consider the weight of the people in a theater. Suppose the first person you notice weighs 160 pounds,
the second and third weigh 132 and 108 pounds, respectively.
(A) Graph the average and marginal weight of the three people in the theater, placing weight
on the vertical axis and quantity of people on the horizontal axis in the same order that
you notice them.
(B) What do you notice about the relationship between marginal and average weight?
(C) Suppose the fourth person coming into the theater weighs 170 pounds. What happens to
the average weight?
ANSWER:
(A) The following graph illustrates the relationship between average and marginal weight.
(B) Notice that marginal weight equals the weight of the additional person observed. The
marginal weight is below the average weight when the average weight is declining. The
marginal weight is above the average weight when the average weight is increasing.
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 1. Costs for an Individual Firm
TOP: The Relationship between Average and Marginal
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
166. Fill in the table below about the cost structure of a firm.
ANSWER:
Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 5. Economies of Scale
TOP: Cost Structure of a Competitive Firm
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
167. Fill in the table below for a competitive firm that can sell its product for $7 a unit.
ANSWER:
(A) This firm will produce 2 units of output, which maximizes its profit.
(B) At that quantity level, this firm makes $5.
(C) The market is not in long-run equilibrium because of excess profits, which result in firm
entry into the market.
(D) In the short run, this firm would break even at 5 units of output. The firm would shut
down at 6 units of output, where price equals average variable cost.
Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Cost and Production
MSC: Bloom's: Application | AACSB: Analytic
168. Draw typical average total cost, average variable cost, and marginal cost curves for a competitive firm
with price at the shutdown point. Show that total revenue equals variable costs at this quantity. Also
show the firm's losses at this quantity.
ANSWER:
If total revenue is equal to total variable cost for a price-taking firm, then price is equal to average
variable cost, as shown in the diagram below. Economic profit is equal to the difference between total
revenue and total cost. This difference is illustrated by the shaded rectangle in the diagram below. The
firm is earning a negative economic profit because price, which also equals average variable cost, is
less than average total cost. The difference between variable cost and total cost is the fixed cost, so the
area of the shaded rectangle also equals total fixed cost.
Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 2. Cost Curves
TOP: Shutdown Point
MSC: Bloom's: Knowledge | AACSB: Analytic
169. Use the cost function information provided in the table below to answer the following questions.
(A) Suppose this firm is a price-taker. If the price is $18 per unit, will this firm be earning
economic profits? How much? What quantity will it produce?
(B) What is the breakeven price? What is the shutdown price?
ANSWER:
(A) No. The firm will suffer a $6 loss by producing 3 units.
(B) The breakeven price is $20. The shutdown price is $9.
Moderate
OBJ: conceptual
SEC: 3. The Production Decision in the Short Run
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
ogniqualvolta il re vi tornava, e ben pochi s’attaccarono alla fortuna
del nuovo signore. Mentre la nobiltà ribramava l’antica dominazione,
le persone colte stomacavansi d’un assolutismo non palliato dalla
gloria; la plebe rimpiangeva i tempi in cui non pagava nulla; e a
guarnir la città, non tanto contro i forestieri come contro i cittadini,
bisognava tenere più soldati che non ne desse il Genovesato, ed
erigere fortezze minacciose.
Re Vittorio Emanuele, si dicesse pur raggirato dalla moglie, dal
confessore, dal confidente, palesava però intenzioni benevole;
lasciava poc’a poco sottentrare le nuove idee e nuove persone; e
dopo gli odiati Cerutti e Borgarelli, chiamò al ministero il conte
Prospero Balbo, onorato per mente e per liberalità secondo i tempi e
il ceto, che impacciato da tutto l’organamento burocratico, sperò alle
urgenti riforme supplire con palliativi. Secondando la moda, si diè
voce che stava in lavoro una costituzione, e se non veniva agli
effetti, imputavasene l’Austria, la cui vicinanza impacciava
l’indipendenza del regno; l’Austria, potenza preponderante in Italia,
spauracchio universale, su cui i governanti versavano anche le colpe
proprie. Rimedio unico, infallibile a tutti gli abusi acclamavasi la
costituzione: questa al Piemonte attirerebbe l’attenzione e i voti di
chiunque aspira al meglio nazionale, e d’un soffio diroccherebbe
l’Austria, reggentesi solo sul despotismo: gli impazienti
raddoppiavano d’attività nelle combriccole dei Carbonari, degli
Adelfi, de’ Maestri sublimi; e quando scoppiò la rivoluzione di Napoli,
più sorrise il desiderio d’emancipare il Piemonte dalla tutela
austriaca, e metterlo a capo dell’Italia redenta.
Allora le società secrete abbracciarono moltissimi soldati, più
avvocati e professori, e gl’impiegati fin nelle somme magistrature, e
non pochi del clero, e tutti gli studenti; poi propagate nelle provincie
compresero sindaci e parroci, legarono intelligenze colle lombarde e
romagnole. L’antica lealtà savojarda repugnava dalle congiure; l’onor
militare rifuggiva dal calpestare il giuramento di fedeltà; ma si fece
intendere che non trattavasi di ribellarsi al re, bensì di salvarlo dalla
congiura dei preti e dei nobili e dalla servitù, dell’Austria, che si
spargeva volesse obbligare a ricevere guarnigione tedesca, e
concorrere alla spedizione contro di Napoli; anzi, essa pensasse
trarre in un arciduca il Piemonte, a danno di Carlalberto principe di
Savoja Carignano.
Questo giovane rampollo del ramo cadetto reale, educato
popolarmente a Parigi, erasi mescolato d’amicizie, di studj, di
godimenti, d’intelligenze colla gioventù coeva; e poichè de’ quattro
fratelli della Casa regnante nessuno lasciava figliuoli maschi,
trovossi vicino al trono, e fu messo granmastro d’artiglieria. In
quest’arma molti aderivano a’ Carbonari, ed essi gli posero indosso
la febbre di divenire illiberatore d’Italia. Il conte Santorre Santarosa
spingeva a venire ai fatti, mentre sollevata Napoli, incalorite le menti
dalla rivoluzione greca e dalla spagnuola, imbarazzate le Potenze;
Francia commossa parlava di vessillo tricolore, di costituzione del
1791; la Germania, reciso il nervo austriaco, volea rialzare il
liberalismo; Italia esser matura; leverebbesi come un uomo solo per
acquistare la libertà, l’unità, l’indipendenza. Quando poi gli Austriaci
mossero verso Napoli, certo (diceasi) gli eroi popolari terranno testa
lungamente (1821); i monti sono le barriere della libertà, nè i briganti
furono mai domabili: intanto l’insurrezione in Piemonte si compirà
senza ostacoli, Milano seconderà, Romagna e i piccoli Stati non
tarderanno, e tutta l’Italia superiore si troverà costituita prima che
gl’Imperiali tornino a reprimerla; Francia, se anche non favorisse,
non permetterà mai che l’Austria entri armata in paese che confina
con essa.
Si cominciò al solito dalla stampa clandestina, e girò un reclamo, in
cui pretendeasi strappare al re la benda postagli da’ suoi cortigiani,
rivelandogli esausto l’erario, il denaro stillato dalla fronte del popolo
è prodigato a impinguare le più alte e inutili persone dello Stato; gli
uomini a cui è affidata l’economia pubblica sagrificano all’egoismo
personale gl’interessi della patria. — Maestà, se invece di cumulare i
poteri in una classe sola, aveste chiamato il consiglio di tutta la
nazione, i lumi generali avrebbero riparato a questi mali, nè voi
avreste il rimorso d’aver condotto a rovina lo Stato. Il vostro Governo
avversò sempre la dottrina; l’istruzione primaria è abbandonata
all’ignoranza e all’impotenza dei Comuni; l’educazione media è
tiranneggiata dai Gesuiti; gli studj filosofici involti nella ruggine
monacale; i legali, disordinati per mancanza di legislazione;
l’Università condotta da uomini o inetti o stupidi o maligni, gl’ingegni
migliori vanno a cercare un pane altrove, o vivono sprezzati. I favoriti
hanno il monopolio dei diritti e dei privilegi, pesando sulla classe
industriosa della società. Le provincie dai governatori delle divisioni
sono rette come paese di nemici. Le amministrazioni civiche e
comunali cascano in disordine per l’indolenza, l’incapacità, la
discordia dei capi. La religione, in mano dei Gesuiti, è strumento
d’ambiziose voglie e di tenebrosi raggiri. La legislazione civile ha
l’arbitrio per base, la criminale il carnefice per sostegno. Uno strano
ed informe accozzamento di leggi romane, di statuti locali, di
costituzioni patrie, di editti regj, di sentenze senatorie, di
consuetudini municipali, hanno tolto la bilancia alla giustizia, e
lasciata la strada al despotismo dei tribuni. L’esercito non ha forza
morale, perchè composto di elementi contrarj, di corpi privilegiati, di
brigate varie tra loro di dottrine, di lingua, di diritti, comandati da capi
promossi non per merito ma per favore. Dei militari una parte è
avvilita, perchè si vede preclusa la strada ai gradi maggiori; tutti
indignati ai maneggi del vostro Governo, il quale medita di trafficare
la loro vita col gabinetto d’Austria. No: il nome de’ soldati piemontesi
non si confonderà mai col tedesco; essi sono e saranno italiani».
L’11 gennajo 1821 alquanti studenti dell’Università comparvero al
teatro d’Angennes con berretti rossi alla greca. Arrestati, in onta del
privilegio che li sottoponeva al magistrato degli studj, furono messi in
fortezza: i condiscepoli irritati si asserragliano nell’Università, a gran
voce domandando la scarcerazione de’ colleghi: il reggimento
Guardie mandato a calmarli trova resistenza, e fa sangue. Tali
manifestazioni sogliono chiamarci primizie di martiri; e ne rimase una
cupa irritazione. Se n’incaloriva la faccenda delle società secrete;
ma quale costituzione adottare? la francese, la spagnuola, o
l’inglese? perocchè sempre si stava all’imitare, anzichè fondarsi sulle
basi storiche e nazionali. Per risolvere si mandano tre deputati alla
vendita suprema di Parigi, alla quale faceano centro i Liberali di
Spagna, i Radicali d’Inghilterra, gli Eterj di Grecia, i nostri Carbonari;
e vien data la preferenza alla costituzione spagnuola, come scevra
d’elementi aristocratici e tutta popolare. Ma il Governo, istruitone
forse dalla Polizia francese, intercettate le lettere del principe La
Cisterna e del marchese Priero, conobbe partecipi gl’impiegati e i
militari, cioè quelli che doveano opporsi, onde non sapeva o non
poteva impedire. Il conte Moffa di Lisio e il marchese Sanmarzano,
uffiziali sospetti, invitati a partire da Torino, ricusano, e con Giacinto
Collegno, ajutante di Carlalberto, con Santarosa, Morozzo, Ansaldi,
Bianco, Baronis, Asinari ed altri uffiziali prendono concerto di
rivoltare l’esercito, sorprendere Alessandria, acclamare Vittorio re
costituzionale dell’alta Italia.
I cospiratori non si erano intesi co’ Napoletani, onde non fu nè
contemporaneo il sollevarsi, nè uniforme l’intento; poi i preparativi
erano impacciati dal tentennare del principe di Carignano fra la gloria
e la fedeltà. Ma la rivolta scoppia fra i militari a Fossano ed
Alessandria (9 marzo), costituendo una giunta della Federazione
italiana; fra il restante esercito corre il grido d’Italia, di francare
dall’Austria il re, sicchè possa seguire i moti del suo cuore italiano, di
porre il popolo nell’onesta libertà di manifestare i proprj voti al trono,
come i figli a un padre; e scritto sui vessilli, Regno d’Italia,
Indipendenza italiana; e gridando, Viva la costituzione, Morte agli
Alemanni, i sollevati s’accostano a Torino. Quivi gli studenti e
alquanti militari col capitano Ferrero attruppatisi a San Salvario, che
allora giaceva un pezzo fuor di città, gridano la costituzione; altri
uccidono il colonnello Raimondi che li richiama al dovere; ma non
secondati dal popolo, con disastrosa marcia sfilano come vinti verso
Alessandria, il cui comandante fu ucciso [184].
Il re non osa ricorrere alla forza, ma espone lealmente la
dichiarazione fatta dai re a Troppau contro ogni novità, mostrando
come ne resterebbe pericolata l’indipendenza; e non volendo nè
promettere quel che non è disposto a mantenere, nè autorizzare atti
che agli stranieri diano pretesto d’invadere il suo paese, depone una
corona (13 marzo) ch’egli non potea conservare se non colla guerra
civile.
Il Carignano, da lui nominato reggente, esitava a palesare le sue
intenzioni, sicchè schiamazzi, poi armi. Dalla cittadella sorpresa
gl’insorgenti minacciano far fuoco sulla città: molti soldati lasciano le
bandiere, considerandosi come sciolti dal giuramento dato al re;
l’anarchia sottentra; quando il Carignano proclama la costituzione
spagnuola, gli applausi vanno al cielo, e al nome di Carlalberto si
accoppia quello di re d’Italia.
In Lombardia avea preso piede la setta della Federazione italiana, e
da un pezzo tramava nelle sale del marchese Gattinara di
Breme [185] e del conte Federico Confalonieri, mascherata sotto il
velo d’imprese benefiche o progressive, come una distilleria d’aceto
a Lezzeno, un battello a vapore sul lago di Pusiano e sul Po,
l’illuminazione a gas, il mutuo insegnamento, un bazar, il giornale del
Conciliatore, apostolo del romanticismo. L’Austria, avutone fumo,
arrestò Silvio Pellico, giovane saluzzese educatore in casa Porro, la
cui Francesca da Rimini avea fatto sperare all’Italia un secondo
Alfieri. Allo scoppiar della rivoluzione piemontese si rinserrarono le
file in mano del conte Confalonieri, principale nella sciagurata
insurrezione del 1814, poi nei suoi viaggi legatosi co’ primarj liberali,
e che si mise attorno Demester e Arese antichi uffiziali napoleonici,
Giuseppe Pecchio economista, Pietro Borsieri letterato, i marchesi
Giorgio Parravicini e Arconati, Benigno Bossi, i fratelli Ugoni di
Brescia, il cavaliere Pisani di Pavia, il conte Giovanni Arrivabene di
Mantova, l’avvocato Vismara novarese, Castiglia, altri ed altri. Essi
aveano già disposta sulla carta una guardia nazionale, una giunta di
Governo; neppur l’inno mancava, opera d’un sommo poeta; e
appena l’esercito piemontese varcasse il Ticino, insorgerebbero
Milano, Brescia, le valli, le campagne, occupando le casse e le
fortezze di Peschiera e Rôcca d’Anfo.
I Lombardi spedirono al Sanmarzano, generale degli insorgenti
piemontesi, con numerose firme esortandolo a venire. — Cominciate
ad insorgere voi», ci diceano i ministri piemontesi; e noi
rispondevamo: — Da soli non bastiamo a vincere; ma senza noi, voi
non bastate a difendervi». Il vero è che Sanmarzano contava
appena ducento dragoni e trecento fanti; ma poichè coll’audacia
dominansi le rivoluzioni, risolvea ritentar l’impresa, massime che gli
Austriaci, collo sgomento di chi accampa in terra nemica, aveano
ritirato ogni truppa dal Ticino, e il vicerè lasciavasi vedere a incassar
mobili e vendere vasellame. Ma il ministro piemontese Villamarina
disapprovò quella temerità; e il reggente che, come dice il Santarosa
«voleva e non voleva», mandò quel reggimento ad Alessandria. Così
la rapidità degli avvenimenti, la inconcepibile mancanza di concerti,
la titubanza dei capi, la paura che Torino cessasse d’essere capitale
del Regno, elisero il moto della Lombardia, donde sol pochi giovani
corsero in Piemonte ad aggregarsi al battaglione di Minerva.
Binder ambasciatore austriaco, insultato fin nel suo palazzo, parte
lasciando una nota minacciosa. Il duca del Genevese che, per la
rinunzia del fratello, diventava re col nome di Carlo Felice, da
Modena dichiara ribellione ogni attenuamento della piena autorità
reale, e punibile chi non torni all’ubbidienza; ed ordina le truppe si
concentrino a Novara sotto il generale La Torre. Carlalberto, anche
dopo giurata la costituzione, non si era risoluto a convocare i collegi
elettorali, bandir guerra all’Austria, entrare in Lombardia. Udita poi la
dichiarazione del nuovo re, e che questo avea invocato l’Austria,
dicendo minacciata la propria vita, e sè incapace di padroneggiare la
rivoluzione, fugge all’esercito regio a Novara, e di là pubblica che
«altro ambir non saprebbe che di mostrarsi il primo sulla strada
dell’onore, e dar così l’esempio della più rispettosa obbedienza ai
sovrani voleri».
Era il 23 marzo, il giorno stesso d’un altro proclama ventisette anni
dopo.
Quella fuga toglieva agl’insorgenti ogni apparenza di legalità: ma
risoluti di non cedere, creano una giunta provvisoria [186]; sparigliano
proclami e bugie. Intanto ogni cosa va sossopra; la Savoja si
chiarisce pel re; la brigata che porta quel nome, ricusa disertare,
onde fu dovuta rimandare in patria; i carabinieri in arme si recano
all’esercito regio; a Genova il governatore Des Geneys, che
annunziò la defezione di Carlalberto, è assalito, trascinato per le vie,
e a fatica salvato dai generosi che non voleano contaminare con
violenze la rivoluzione; i Liberali medesimi discordano, quali
caldeggiando la Camera unica, quali la duplice, quali unitarj, quali
federalisti. Santarosa, fatto ministro della guerra, cerca destare il
coraggio colle speranze, e collo spargere che gli Austriaci furono
disfatti dai Napoletani, e le valli Bresciane insorsero furibonde; ma
ecco giungere certezza della disfatta degli Abruzzi, e che centomila
Russi sono in mancia; poi addosso ai Liberali muovono i Realisti col
generale La Torre e gli Austriaci col generale Bubna (9 aprile), che in
Lombardia aveva, se non alle trame, partecipato alle speranze de’
Carbonari; presso Novara succede un’affrontata, e la rivoluzione
piemontese è finita.
Carlalberto ricoveratosi a Milano, è dal generale austriaco
beffardamente presentato come re d’Italia: Carlo Felice a Modena lo
tratta come uno scapato, e la lettera di lui getta in viso al suo
scudiere: egli si ritira a Firenze a digerire l’obbrobrio, confessare i
suoi torti e farne scusa, solo appoggiato dall’ambasciatore francese
per rispetto alla legittimità [187].
La società de’ Maestri Sublimi, raffinamento della Massoneria, e che
professava il regicidio, fu dalla Francia trapiantata a Ginevra dal
fiorentino Michelangelo Buonarroti, antico adepto di Babœuf, che
v’istituì un congresso italiano per diffonderne i dogmi nel nostro
paese. Alessandro Adryane, che n’era diacono straordinario, fu
spedito qui per rannodare le rotte fila; ma a Milano lasciossi cogliere
con tutte le carte, le quali diedero a conoscere la trama, senza
bisogno che la rivelasse Carlalberto, come si ciancia. Da nove mesi
era finito il parapiglia di Piemonte quando si cominciarono i processi
contro i Lombardi, parte a Milano, parte a Venezia [188], da una
commissione speciale, alla cui testa il tirolese Salvotti. In quelli
l’imputato si trovava all’arbitrio d’un giudice, senza difensori,
senz’avere sott’occhio le sue e le altrui deposizioni; durava interi
mesi di solitudine nel carcere fra un esame e l’altro; e qualche volta
l’inquirente, fattosi mansueto, gli diceva: — Ecco, ella è interamente
nelle mie mani. Qui non siamo in paese di pubblicità
compromettente. Confessa ella quel che del resto noi sappiamo?
l’imperatore le fa grazia, ella torna a casa sua onorato. Persiste al
niego? sta in me il diffamarla, e spargere che ha tutto rinvesciato,
che tradì i compagni, e così torle quel ch’ella mostra valutare tanto,
la pubblica opinione».
Ad arti di simil genere, piuttosto che a torture fisiche, non tutti
resistettero; vi fu uno che, per generosità di salvare un amico, corse
a denunciare se stesso, poi accortosi dell’errore si finse pazzo, e per
mesi sostenne la straziante simulazione; altri credette scagionarsi
col provare che aveva dissuaso i Piemontesi dall’invadere la
Lombardia; altri ammise di quelle tenui concessioni che conducono
ad altre; tanto che si potè raccogliere onde condannare
Confalonieri [189], Adryane, Castiglia, Parravicini, Tonelli, Borsieri,
Arese e molt’altri a Milano, dove furono esposti sulla gogna il 24
gennajo 1824. E già a Venezia, la vigilia di Natale, giorno di
gratulazioni e feste ecclesiastiche e civili, erasi letta la sentenza di
Pellico, Maroncelli, Solera, Villa, Oroboni, Foresti, Fortini ed altri e,
cosa insolita in quella stagione, l’accompagnarono tuoni e ruggito del
mare sotto un insistente scirocco, onde al domani la città fu invasa
dall’acqua, e tutto il litorale ne patì fin alla Spezia e a Genova.
Furono portati allo Spielberg, ove alcuni soccombettero, quali il
conte Oroboni, il veterano Morelli, il Villa; Maroncelli perdette una
gamba; altri poterono dopo molti anni uscire ancora a narrare i proprj
patimenti [190]. E mentre alcuni li esagerarono, o posero in evidenza
se stessi, o denigrarono altrui, Silvio Pellico li raccontò senza
rancori, senz’arte; e tutto il mondo lesse le sue Prigioni, e la pietà
per quei sofferenti partorì esecrazione a colui che così facea soffrire:
e che pure non avea mai lasciato che l’applicazione dell’estremo
supplizio gli togliesse di esercitare il diritto più prezioso pei re, il
ripiego più nobile pell’uomo, la grazia e la riparazione.
Gioja, Romagnosi, Trechi, Mompiani, Visconti e altri fur on rilasciati
senza condanna [191]. I quali poi restavano in condizione tristissima,
chè, mentre la Polizia perseverava nell’adocchiarli e vessarli, quasi a
giustificarsi dell’averli perseguitati, il pubblico (troppo solito complice
degli oppressori) dubitava di loro perchè non condannati, e
accogliendo le sinistre insinuazioni sparse d’alto luogo, finiva per
temere e odiare quelli ch’erano temuti e odiati dal Governo.
In Piemonte si fecero 92 sentenze di morte, 432 di lunga o perpetua
prigionia [192], ma tutti in contumacia, essendosi lasciato partire chi
volle; il notajo Garelli e il sottotenente Laneri furono messi a morte, e
in effigie La Cisterna, Caraglio, Collegno, Lisio, Morozzo, Regis,
Santarosa; di seicennovantaquattro uffiziali inquisiti, dugenventi
furono destituiti, e così molti impiegati civili.
Anche negli Stati Pontifizj i cospiratori abbondavano: e il Puccini,
direttore della Polizia toscana, scriveva al Corsini plenipotenziario al
congresso di Lubiana: «Nelle Marche e nelle Legazioni sono assai
numerose le sêtte, e grandi mezzi adoprano per diffondere l’odio
contro i Governi monarchici, e sperano nei torbidi d’Italia, comunque
arrivino. L’odio di questi partiti si sfoga colle maniere dei tempi del
duca Valentino. Molte uccisioni vennero commesse negli anni scorsi
sopra ecclesiastici ed impiegati pubblici a Forlì, Ravenna, Faenza;
altre in maggior numero modernamente, certo per odio di parte».
Istantemente aveano chiesto che le truppe sarde si avvicinassero al
confine, ma non ne fu nulla; e quel Governo, ripigliata forza,
cominciò gli arresti; di quattrocento processati, molti, principalmente
per opera del Rusconi legato di Ravenna e del Sanseverino di Forlì,
condannò alla pena capitale, che il papa commutò nella reclusione. Il
granduca non credette necessarj i processi perchè non ebbe paura.
Maria Luigia li lasciò fare, e vi furono involti Ferdinando Maestri e
Jacopo Sanvitali professori; ma commutò le pene in esiglio. A
Modena nel 1817 erasi formata una società della Spilla nera per
rassicurare i Napoleonidi: e al tempo stesso i Massoni, gli Adelfi, le
Chiese dei sublimi maestri perfetti aveano adepti, e s’erano ascritti i
dottori Carlo e Giuseppe Fattori di Reggio, nella cui casa teneansi le
adunanze, il capitano Farioli di Guida, il dottore Pirondi, Prospero
Rezzio e molti ebrei [193]. Tutte le Società aveano statuti proprj, ed
alcune v’univano l’obbligo di farsi vicendevoli correzioni e di non
vagheggiare la moglie dell’amico: comune era quello di uccidere chi
fosse condannato o avesse rivelato il segreto: pagare una certa
somma, manifestare a tutta la società le operazioni del Governo.
Sconfitti su tutti i punti, i Liberali rifuggono in Ispagna a fiancheggiare
una causa che sentiano dover soccombere, ma che era la loro; e a
mostrare, colle generose morti, che non erano colpevoli delle fughe
di Rieti e di Novara. Altri crociaronsi in ajuto della Grecia, dove a
Sfacteria perì il Santarosa, eroe all’antica.
Gli alleati, all’udire l’inaspettato successo, esclamano «doverlo
attribuire non tanto ad uomini che mal comparvero nel giorno della
battaglia, quanto al terrore onde la Provvidenza colpì le ree
coscienze»; e protestando di lor giustizia e disinteresse, annunziano
all’Europa d’aver occupato il Piemonte e Napoli, e nella lora unione
«una sicurezza contro i tentativi de’ perturbatori». Insieme
partecipano ai loro ministri presso le Corti «essere principio e fine di
loro politica il conservare ciò che fu legalmente costituito, contro una
setta che pretende ridurre tutto a una chimerica eguaglianza»;
annunziano altamente che «i cambiamenti utili o necessarj nelle
leggi o nella amministrazione degli Stati, non devono emanare che
dalla libera volontà di quelli che Dio rese responsali del potere [194].
Così essi erigonsi custodi e dispensieri unici della verità, della
giustizia, delle franchigie: e i Liberali ebbero servito agl’interessi
dell’Austria, dandole occasione di estendere l’alta vigilanza e quasi
l’impero su tutta la penisola, da lei sottratta ai tumulti o al progresso.
Poi a Verona (1822) s’adunarono a congresso i re di tutta Europa
colla grandezza loro e cogli avanzi di loro miserie: e i diplomatici più
vantati dichiararono che «resistere alla rivoluzione, prevenire i
disordini, i delitti, le calamità, assodar l’ordine o la pace, dare ai
Governi legittimi gli ajuti che aveano diritto di chiedere, fu l’unico
oggetto degli sforzi dei sovrani; ottenutolo, ritirano i soccorsi che la
sola necessità avea potuto provocare e giustificare, felici di lasciare
ai principi il vegliare alla sicurezza e tranquillità del popolo: e di
togliere al mal talento fin l’ultimo pretesto di cui possa valersi per
ispargere dubbj sull’indipendenza dei sovrani d’Italia». In fatto
l’Austria si persuase a sgombrare il Piemonte e abbreviare
l’occupazione del Napoletano; della Grecia non si ascoltarono
tampoco i deputati, benchè il papa gli avesse accolti ad Ancona e
raccomandati; si convenne dei casi in cui i re si dovrebbero sussidj
reciproci; si stabilì soffocare la rivoluzione anche in Ispagna, e
l’incarico ne fu commesso all’esercito francese, che tra le grida di
Muoja la costituzione, Viva il re assoluto, procedette senza ostacolo
fino a Siviglia. Carlalberto, combattendo al Trocadero, aveva in
faccia ai re lavato la macchia dell’essersi lasciato salutare re
d’Italia [195].
La facile caduta di rivolte militari o di popolari sommosse, fecero
persuasi i re d’essere sicuri, e che niuna reale efficacia possedesse
lo spirito liberale, che amavano confondere col rivoluzionario;
bastasse affrontarlo per vincerlo; e pesarono sull’Italia con una
taciturna oppressione non ricreata da verun lampo di speranza.
CAPITOLO CLXXXIV.
La media Italia. Rivoluzioni del 1830.