CBE 3322: Heat Transfer Operations

Section 3b - Convection
(External Flow)

Dominic Pjontek, Ph.D., P.Eng.

University of Western Ontario
Convection problem methodology

Here are the general steps to follow when solving convection problems:

1. Consider the flow geometry (e.g., flat plate, cylinder, sphere)

2. Specify an appropriate reference temperature (typically the film

temperature) and evaluate the fluid properties at this temperature.

3. Calculate the Reynolds number to determine whether the flow is

laminar or turbulent.

4. Decide whether a local or surface average heat transfer coefficient

is required for the specified problem.

5. Use the appropriate correlation.

Convection (External flow) 2

Film temperature

◼ We’ve previously discussed that the local or average convection

coefficient (h or h ) for a surface can be found based on a
relationship between the Nusselt number (Nu), Reynolds number
(Re), and Prandtl number (Pr).
hL
( *
Nu = f x , ReL , Pr ) Nu =
kf
= f (ReL , Pr )

◼ These calculations require fluid properties which are dependent on

the temperature. As a result, we will generally assume constant fluid
properties that are often evaluated at an estimated mean boundary
layer temperature, referred as the film temperature (Tf):

Ts + T
Tf =
2

Convection (External flow) 3

Empirical method
◼ The system to the right illustrates how
convection coefficients can be studied
experimentally. In this case, the surface
temperature (Ts) is held constant.

◼ We can easily vary the velocity (u∞), plate

length (L), and nature of the fluid (Pr).

◼ This allows us to study the Nusselt number

for a wide range of Reynolds and Prandtl
numbers. An example of the collected data
is shown on the right.

◼ The following empirical expression is thus

generally used for convection coefficients:

Nu = C ReLm Pr n

Convection (External flow) 4

Flat plate – Laminar flow

◼ Convection parameters can be obtained by solving the appropriate

form of the boundary layer equations (not presented in this course).
◼ The following is assumed for these correlations: steady-state,
incompressible, and laminar flow with constant fluid properties,
negligible viscous dissipation, and negligible pressure drop in the x-
direction.
◼ From this, we obtain the following estimates for the velocity (δ) and
thermal (δt) boundary layer thicknesses in laminar flow:

5x 
=  Pr1 3
Re x t

Convection (External flow) 5

Flat plate – Laminar flow
◼ The previous analysis also provides the following local Nusselt
number (Nux) correlation for a flat plate in laminar flow:

hx x
Nu x = = 0.332 Re1x 2 Pr1 3 Pr  0.6
k
◼ For the average Nusselt number (Nux), we must integrate the
previous equation over the studied length:
12
1 x k  u  x dx
hx =
x 0
h x dx = 0.332 Pr1 3   
x   

0 x 12
= 2h x

hx x
thus: Nu x = = 0.664 Re1x 2 Pr1 3 Pr  0.6
k

Convection (External flow) 6

Flat plate – Turbulent flow

◼ The following expression can be used to estimate the velocity (δ)

and thermal (δt) boundary layer thicknesses in turbulent flow:
−1 5
 t   = 0.37 x Re x

◼ The local Nusselt number in turbulent flow can be determined with:

hx x
Nu x = = 0.0296 Re 4x 5 Pr1 3 0.6  Pr  60
k

Reminder: The above equation is for the local convection

coefficient only when Rex > Rex,c = 5·105

Convection (External flow) 7

Flat plate – Mixed boundary layer conditions
◼ For a flat plate, the flow is initially laminar and will eventually
transitions to turbulent flow, assuming a sufficient plate length.
◼ If the transition occurs upstream of the studied plate length (xc/L ≤
0.95), convection will be significantly affected by both flow regimes.
◼ In this case, we would need to integrate the correlations as follows:
1  xc
hL =   hlaminar dx +  hturbulent dx 
L

L 0 xc 
◼ The average Nusselt number for a mixed boundary layer is thus:

0.6  Pr  60
(
NuL = 0.037 ReL4 5 − 871 Pr1 3 ) 5  10 5  ReL  10 8
Re x ,c = 5  10 5

Convection (External flow) 8

Example (Flat plate)
◼ One hundred electrical components, each dissipating 25 W, are attached to one
surface of a square copper plate (0.2 m x 0.2 m). The dissipated energy is
transferred to water in parallel flow over the opposite surface. A proturberance at the
leading edge of the plate acts to trip the boundary layer (i.e., flow over the plate is
always turbulent). The plate can be assumed isothermal.
◼ The water velocity and temperature are u∞ = 2 m/s and T∞ = 17°C, respectively.
The water thermophysical properties can be approximated as ν = 0.94 x 10-6 m2/s,
k = 0.620 W/m·K, and Pr = 5.2.

◼ What is the temperature of the copper plate?

◼ If each component has a contact surface of 1 cm2 and contact resistance of 2 x 10-4
m2K/W, what is the component temperature? (assume the components are
isothermal and that the copper has no temperature gradient across the thickness)

Convection (External flow) 9

Cylinder in cross flow

◼ It is common in engineering
to have flow perpendicular to
the axis of a circular cylinder.

◼ The provided image presents some important concepts for flow around
a cylinder: the forward stagnation point, general position of the
boundary layer, and the separation point.

◼ Some interesting fluid dynamics arise due to the changing pressure

gradients at various locations of the fluid streamlines.

Convection (External flow) 10

Cylinder in cross flow – Drag coefficient
◼ The drag coefficient for
a sphere or cylinder
exhibits interesting
behavior, depending on
the separation point.

◼ The separation angle is

highly dependent on
the Reynolds number,
where a significant drop
in the drag coefficient
can be observed when
ReD > 2·105

Convection (External flow) 11

Cylinder in cross flow
◼ We are interested in the Nusselt
number for a cylindrical system.

◼ Difficulties arise due to the

complex flow conditions based on
the angular coordinate of the
cylinder. The image to the right
demonstrates this variation for a
wide range of Reynolds numbers.

◼ It should be noted that the diameter is used as the characteristic

length for the Reynolds number (ReD) of a circular cylinder:

VD VD
ReD = =
 

Convection (External flow) 12

Cylinder in cross flow
◼ Since we are mainly interested in the average convection
coefficients, the empirical correlation of Hilpert will be used:

hD Fluid properties should

Nu = = C ReDm Pr1 3 be evaluated at Tf
k
◼ where the C and m parameters are listed in the table below:

ReD C m
0.4 – 4 0.989 0.330
4 – 40 0.911 0.385
40 – 4000 0.683 0.466
4000 – 40 000 0.193 0.618
40 000 – 400 000 0.027 0.805

Convection (External flow) 13

Non-circular cylinders in cross flow

◼ The previous correlation can also be used for cylinders with non-
circular cross section, using the table below for C and m:

Convection (External flow) 14

Cylinder in cross flow

◼ A comprehensive equation for the average convection coefficient of

a cylinder has been proposed by Churchill and Bernstein, which
covers a wide range of ReD and Pr:

4 5
Pr1 3   ReD  
12 58
0.62 Re
NuD = 0.3 + 1 + 
D
 
(
1 + (0.4 Pr )
23 1 4
)
  282 000  

ReD Pr  0.2

◼ All properties should be evaluated at the film temperature.

Convection (External flow) 15

Sphere

◼ The average convection coefficient of a sphere can be determined

using the following correlation:

14
0.4   
NuD =
hD
(
= 2 + 0.4 ReD + 0.06 ReD Pr  
12 23
)
k  s 

0.71  Pr  380
3.5  ReD  7.6  10 4

◼ As this correlation contains a (μ/μs) term, fluid properties must be

evaluated at T∞.

Convection (External flow) 16

Example (Cylinder)

◼ A high tension line with a 25 mm diameter has an electrical

resistance of 10-4 Ω/m and is transmitting a current of 1000 A.

a) If ambient air at 10°C and 5 m/s is in cross flow over the line, what
is its surface temperature?

b) If the line may be approximated as a solid copper rod, what is its

centerline temperature?

Convection (External flow) 17

Flow across a bank of tubes

◼ Heat transfer across a bank or

bundle of tubes is relevant for many
industrial applications (e.g., boiler,
air conditioner, heat exchanger).

◼ For this configuration, the

characteristic length for the
Reynolds number is again the tube
diameter. However, we evaluate the
Reynolds number (ReD,max) at the
maximum fluid velocity (Vmax) within VmaxD
the tube bank. ReD ,max =


Convection (External flow) 18

Flow across a bank of tubes
Aligned tube arrangement
◼ A bank of tubes is either aligned or staggered Aligned
in the direction of the fluid velocity.

◼ The configuration is characterized based on

the transverse pitch (ST) and longitudinal
pitch (SL), which are measured between the
tube centers.

◼ For an aligned tube configuration, the ST

maximum fluid velocity (Vmax) occurs at the
Vmax = V
ST − D
transverse plane (A1).

Convection (External flow) 19

Flow across a bank of tubes
Staggered tube arrangement
Staggered
◼ For the staggered tube configuration, the
maximum fluid velocity (Vmax) can occur
at the transverse plane (A1) or the
diagonal plane (A2).
◼ Vmax will only occur at A2 when:
12
 2  S 2  ST + D
SD = SL +  T   
  2   2 if not valid
Use Vmax based on A1:
if valid
ST
ST Vmax = V
Vmax = V ST − D
2(SD − D )

Convection (External flow) 20

Flow across a bank of tubes
Correlation
◼ We can now use the correlation proposed by Zhukauskas to
determine the average convection coefficient for a bank of tubes:

14
NL  20
 Pr 
NuD = C1  Re m
D ,max Pr 0.36
  0.7  Pr  500
 Prs  1000  ReD ,max  2  10 6

◼ Fluid properties for the above equation should be evaluated at the

arithmetic mean of the fluid inlet (Ti) and outlet (To) temperatures.

Convection (External flow) 21

Flow across a bank of tubes
Correlation constants
◼ The required constants (C1 and m) for the Zhukauskas correlation at
varying Reynolds numbers are provided below:

Convection (External flow) 22

Flow across a bank of tubes
Correction factor for number of tubes
◼ If the number of rows (NL) in the tube bank is below 20, a
correction factor (C2) must be applied as follows:

NuD N = C 2  NuD N
L  20 L  20

◼ where C2 is provided in the table below:

Convection (External flow) 23

Flow across a bank of tubes
Temperature difference
◼ The fluid may experience a large temperature change as it moves
through the tube bank. This could lead to an overprediction of the
heat transfer rate if we use ΔT = Ts – T∞.

◼ We will show in the heat exchanger section that the appropriate

method to estimate ΔT is based on the log-mean temperature
difference (ΔTlm), which considers the surface (Ts), inlet (Ti) and
outlet (To) temperatures:

Tlm =
(Ts − Ti ) − (Ts − To )
 Ts − Ti 
ln 
 Ts − To 

Convection (External flow) 24

Flow across a bank of tubes
Heat transfer rate
◼ If the outlet temperature is unknown (required to determine ΔTlm),
it can be estimated using the following:

Ts − To  DN h 

= exp − 
Ts − Ti  V N S C 
 T T P 
◼ where N is the total number of tubes and NT is the number of tubes
in the transverse plane (i.e., in the column that is normal to flow).
◼ Finally, the heat transfer rate per unit length (q’) can be calculated:

W
(
q'   = N h  D Tlm )
m

Convection (External flow) 25

Flow across a bank of tubes (Example)

◼ Pressurized water is often available at elevated temperatures and is used

for space heating or industrial applications. In such cases, it is customary to
use a tube bundle in which the water is passed through the tubes, while air
is in cross flow over the tubes. Consider a staggered arrangement for which
the tube outside diameter is 16.4 mm and the longitudinal and transverse
pitches are SL = 34.3 mm and ST = 31.3 mm. There are seven rows of
tubes in the airflow direction and eight tubes per row.

◼ Under typical operating conditions, the cylinder surface temperature is at

70°C, while the air upstream temperature and velocity are 15°C and 6 m/s,
respectively.

◼ Let’s determine the air-side convection coefficient and the rate of heat
transfer for the tube bundle.

Convection (External flow) 26