Materials Today: Proceedings 45 (2021) 4150–4156

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Development of fabric-reinforced polymer matrix composites

using bio-based components from post-consumer textile waste
Mihai-Paul Todor a, Imre Kiss b,⇑, Vasile George Cioata b
a
University Politehnica Timisoara, Doctoral School, Timisoara/Hunedoara, Romania
b
University Politehnica Timisoara, Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara, Department of Engineering and Management, Revolutiei 5, 331128 Hunedoara, Romania

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Textile waste fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites are usually reinforced with fiber, bands, fab-
Received 30 October 2020 rics, tows, woven and non-woven textiles, it is also possible to combine different types of materials in
Received in revised form 16 November 2020 one composition. Individual textile plies of a polymer matrix component can be reinforced. This is a rea-
Accepted 24 November 2020
son why the different textile waste are increasingly use it as a bio-based components in structural mate-
Available online 22 January 2021
rials like sandwich structure composites with multiple layers bound in a monolith by a polymer matrix
material. Also, hybrid sandwich structure composites can be manufactured, combining different textile
Keywords:
waste plies with carbon fiber and/or glass fiber reinforcement. Having in view that a cotton fibers (i.e.
Sandwich structure composites
Fiber-reinforced composites
denim or chambray weave) and bast fibers (i.e. jute, flax or hemp hessian fabric), as woven textile mate-
Polymer matrix rials, destined to the textile waste fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites are highly mouldable,
Woven textile materials (denim fabric, lightweight and tough, several possibilities for industrial applications, sustainable material for architec-
hessian fabric bags) tural and consumer products along with other custom production make this bio-based products unique.
Textile waste In our research, polymer matrix based composite structures were studied by using different natural-
reinforcements from eco-friendly, breathable, biodegradable and recyclable post-industrial and post-
consumer waste (woven fabrics made of cotton fibers – like denim textile fabric and bast fibers – like jute
hessian fabric bags).
Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 8th International Con-
ference on Advanced Materials and Structures - AMS 2020.

1. Introduction Composites are used to manufacture thousands of products that

Composite materials have emerged as a substitute for classical
materials in the desire to provide materials with superior proper-
ties and easier to achieve [1–5]. Also, the composite materials were
born out of a desire to obtain alternatives for classical raw materi-
als given that they are based on depleting resources over time, that
there is an exponential development of production due to the
increased need for various products and that technical and eco-
nomic development must be viewed in a sustainable context
[1–13]. Today these materials are present in all fields of activity
(transportation, building and construction, automotive-,
aerospace-, marine-, aircraft related industries, infrastructure, con-
sumer products, sports equipment or furniture) thanks to the fact
that they can be tailored individually according to the properties
required by the final destination of the composites to be made
[1–1].
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: imre.kiss@fih.upt.ro, redactie@fih.upt.ro (I. Kiss).
fall into three broad categories: consumer, industrial and advanced
composites [1–13]. By designing them according to the proper
requirements, the properties of these materials are significantly
superior to those of each component taken individually by acting
that synergy of an integer. Constituent materials maintain their
separate identity (at least at macroscopic level) in the composite
material, yet their combination generates all properties and char-
acteristics different from those of their component materials. Com-
posite materials allow to obtain lightweight and durable materials
at the same time, antagonistic properties in the case of classical
materials where resistant also meant massive or robust [1–5,14–
18].
As we mentioned above, the big advantages of composites are
that they can be tailored according to the external loads and that
single step manufacturing is possible [1–13]. To fully use these
two properties, composite design is an integrated process involv-
ing concepts, materials and manufacturing processes (Fig. 1). Due
to integrated design, the product can be optimised in terms of
costs, manufacturing time, weight, etc. according to market
demand.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.11.927
2214-7853/Ó 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 8th International Conference on Advanced Materials and Structures - AMS 2020.
Mihai-Paul Todor, I. Kiss and Vasile George Cioata
Fig. 1. The integrated process of composite design.
Fibres reinforced composites are hybrid materials made of a
polymer resin reinforced by fibres, combining the high mechanical
and physical performance of the fibres and the appearance, bond-
ing and physical properties of polymers [1–13]. Composites are the
best materials for lightweight structures, because they can be tai-
lored to specific applications. The biggest advantage is the wide
choice of polymer-matrix and reinforcement materials, where the
reinforcement is what mainly determines the mechanical proper-
ties/weight ratio. To optimise the composites, we need to start
by defining the different reinforcements, their orientation and
the number of layers required for all zones of a composite as a
function of the desired properties (including low weight) [1–13].
By changing the direction of the fibres (or products in the form
of fibres, yarns, fabrics, knits or unconventional materials) in the
resin-matrix, the composite properties can be tailored to the exter-
nal loads. To optimise the composite construction multiple
adjusted layers can be used to form a laminate [1–13].
Due to the wide variety of available manufacturing processes,
each resulting in their own characteristic products, the design pos-
sibilities are numerous. Consequently, a composite product and its
manufacturing process can be chosen to best fit the environment in
which the products will be made and used [1–5,14–18]. Besides
the technical feasibility, manufacturing of composites becomes
also financially feasible when using handy materials, including
from recycling, in combination with simple manufacturing
processes.
In the case of polymeric composites with textile reinforcements,
reinforcement systems can be obtained using all textile technolo-
gies (weaving, knitting, crocheting), by processes for non-woven
materials or by sewing several textile layers [1–13]. The criteria
used in the choice of the technological process for the manufacture
of reinforcement refer to the dimensional stability, the mechanical
properties imposed on the composite, as well as the draping/-
formability properties of the reinforcement system used [1–13].
2. About the textile recycling & challenges
Globally, textile waste accounts for 5% of the total amount of
waste generated and its recycling rate is very low. Although,
according to statistics, 95% of textile waste can be recovered
(through reuse, repurchase or recycling), most of this waste is
taken to cement plants for incineration [6–13]. Globally, only
about 20% of textiles are collected separately from the rest of the
waste and we reuse only 15% of textile waste. Unfortunately, it is
chosen to throw the textiles in the trash, along with the other
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Materials Today: Proceedings 45 (2021) 4150–4156
waste, thus making it impossible to save and recycle them [6–
13]. According to specialists, the fashion industry wastes between
10 and 20% of the materials it processes, and thus tons of products
are sent to the landfill. To the impact of the clothes used, the
impact of unused materials or articles shall be added. Experts esti-
mate that between 10 and 20% of the textiles produced are wasted.
In this context, waste is a major problem, and the quantities of
such waste are generally increasing. Unlike other areas, the recy-
cling of textile waste is not very promoted in our country [6–13].
On the other hand, there are numerous initiatives internationally
that try to keep textiles away from landfills. In recent decades, con-
sumption of textile products has increased tremendously, and this
has significant implications for the global economy. It is three main
categories, namely clothing, household and household materials,
and textiles for the activity of different industries [6–13].
Incineration is not the best solution for this waste, but it is pre-
ferred to store it at the landfill [6–13]. Thus, the main ways of dis-
posing of textile waste are by storage or incineration. Incineration
and disposal by storage should be the latest methods used for tex-
tile waste management after reuse and recycling. In this respect,
there are even initiatives to prohibit the incineration and/or stor-
age of unused textile stocks. In order to avoid incineration,
attempts are made to reduce the consumption of such non-
recyclable products and replace them with sustainable alternatives
(if any). The common approach to the disposal of textile waste is
the implementation of waste management strategies, also known
as ‘‘3R”: Reduction, Reuse and Recycling [6–13]. These strategies
aim to achieve the greatest potential benefits from products in
order to extend their life cycle, primarily by avoiding landfilling
[6–13].
However, the reuse of textile waste is a challenge. Clothing and
other textile products may be collected separately from other recy-
clable waste and may be considered reusable. As regards synthetic
fibres, the options are limited. For natural fibres, however, there
are several possibilities for both cotton and bast (vegetable) fibres.
These textile wastes, when they can no longer be donated for
reuse, end up being shredded and reduced to fibre levels [6–13].
This waste can be reused in the form of cleaning cloths, for exam-
ple, and can be cut into smaller pieces. If they cannot be used for
this purpose but are considered recyclable textiles, they will be
converted into textile fibres and used in the manufacture of
thermo- or phono-insulating materials (Fig. 2) [6–13].
Textile recycling is a lesser known and implemented form of
recycling [6–13]. Over time, there have been actions aimed at col-
lecting different types of old clothes, worn out morally or physi-
cally, to be put back into a cycle of use by recycling textiles.
Through highly calibrated recycling techniques, textile waste can
be easily transformed into ideal elements for new products,
depending on the nature of the material and its degree of wear
and fall. Textile waste is in an overwhelming proportion of more
than 90%, reusable in the same form, or as raw material for other
products.
Fig. 2. Thermo- or phono-insulating materials. (a) insulating materials from bast
(vegetable) sources; (b) insulating materials from recycled denim.
Mihai-Paul Todor, I. Kiss and Vasile George Cioata
In recent years, textile waste fiber-reinforced polymer matrix
composites have gained commercial success in different applica-
tions [6–13]. In this sense, the composite industry can have various
sources for their reinforcements in the post-industrial and post-
consumer textile waste (mix of long and/or short, coarse and/or
fine fibers, as well as threads and intact pieces of woven textile
material). Therefore, recycling of textiles is an issue that requires
immediate attention in order to address the management of tex-
tiles derived from household waste, as well as scraps generated
throughout manufacturing textile processes [6–13]. The present
study aimed to produce composites employing thermoset resins
reinforced with recycled cotton textile waste (denim knitted fab-
ric) and recycled hessian jute fabric.
The traditional denim is hard-wearing, high-density fabrics
with a high mass per unit area with a twill weave (denim) and
plain weave (chambray) construction (Fig. 3.a, Fig. 3.b). Denim is
a knitted fabric has certain special characteristics (comfortable,
fashionable, affordable and durable) that make it suitable for creat-
ing a wide range of garments and accessories. Denim is a plain cot-
ton twill fabric, traditionally coloured in indigo blue, being a
lighter cotton textile, easily recognizable because of the noticeable
diagonal weave or texture [6–13]. Chambray is a typically 100%
cotton plain-weave soft fabric made with a white weft and
coloured warp (typically light blue in colour), characterised by
diagonal ridges in a weaving pattern. Chambray is often mistaken
for denim because of its similar weave: a blue warp and a white
weft woven together. While it may look like denim, chambray is
lighter and is woven differently. It has a softer texture than denim
and is thinner in construction [6–13].
Plain linen weave is the simplest of all weaves, having the sim-
plest interlacing but it makes for a very strong and firm fabric
because these interlacings are more frequent than for any other
one (Fig. 3.c). The advantage of this weave is that it is quite strong
and durable and produces very fine good quality fabrics. Hessian is
a rough, coarse, loosely woven natural fabric normally made from
natural plant fibres (jute fibres). Hessian fabric is traditionally used
to make bags for store and transport all types of materials, such as
industrial goods and nearly all types of raw agricultural products.
Today, the hessian fabrics are used in a variety of applications,
for use in all type of industries, including agriculture, construction,
transportation, upholstery, and even for making clothing [6–13].
3. Materials and methods
In order to find possibilities of recycling, the present study
aimed to produce composites employing thermoset resins (epoxy)
reinforced with recycled woven textile materials (denim fabric and
hessian fabric bags). Their possibilities for manufacturing using
compression moulding were evaluated [6–13]. The preliminary
results presented here belong to the manufacturing of vegetal
woven fabric reinforced composites with resin as the matrix and
Fig. 3. Weaving techniques and fabric types. (a) denim, plain cotton twill fabric; (b) chambray, cotton plain-weave soft fabric; (c) hessian fabrics, plain linen weave.
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Materials Today: Proceedings 45 (2021) 4150–4156
recycled cotton and jute derived fabrics [6–13]. While the rein-
forcement fibers or fabrics provide the primary strength for a lam-
inate, the role of the resin, transferring that load to across an array
of fibers, is also paramount to the overall strength and stability of a
part. The properties of the composites can be considered as a com-
bination between the properties of the polymer matrix and recy-
cled cotton and jute derived fabrics in addition to the properties
of interfaces between the inserts and the matrix [6–13]. The pre-
impregnated reinforcement specimens (prepregs) were manufac-
tured using a simple hand lay-up moulding process. Prepregs are
purchased with bi-directional fabric, already infused with the
resin, partially cured [6–13]. The final composites were manufac-
tured by compression moulding, most suitable for secondary struc-
ture, using an original compression press.
3.1. Materials for matrix
Resin types come from a variety of chemical families, each type
designed to offer different advantages, such as economic perfor-
mance, structural or resistance to various factors [6–13]. For com-
posite laminates, there are three main types of resins used in the
production of both parts and moulds: polyester, vinyl ester, and
epoxy [6–13]. Epoxies are compatible with most composites man-
ufacturing processes particularly compression moulding and hand
lay-up, the advantages being the excellent adhesion to reinforce-
ments and the extremely low shrinkage. Also, the composite’s
strength can be increased (or decreased) by altering the proportion
of reinforcement and the layer’s number [6–13].
Applications with the highest mechanical strength/weight
requirements use almost exclusively epoxy resins. They have
excellent resistance, high surface hardness, high temperature resis-
tance. Disadvantages include higher price and difficulties of use
(the quantities of resin and hardener must be measured accurately,
often heat intake is needed for polymerization, etc.).
For the matrix, epoxy resin and its hardener were used (Fig. 4).
Mixing the resin and hardener together prompts a chemical reac-
tion between the two components, transforming them from a liq-
uid into a solid state. Measuring accurately and mixing thoroughly
is essential to making sure the resin cures properly. For the prepa-
ration of each type of composite the base resin was dosed in an
appropriate container and the corresponding proportion of hard-
ener was added to it. The resin matrix keeps all the material bound
and transfers the mechanical loads through the reinforcement
fibres to the rest of the structure. In addition, resin protects the
composite from impact, abrasion, corrosion, environmental factors
and careless handling [6–13]. Therefore, the resin holds the rein-
forcement fabrics together while helping it conform to the desired
shape. Without a hardened resin to provide shape, reinforcement
fabrics are shapeless and can easily be separated. The mixing ratio
has to be very precise, otherwise the epoxy resin will not harden or
it will not work optimally. The components are weighed or dosed
volumetrically in the proportions indicated by the manufacturer
Mihai-Paul Todor, I. Kiss and Vasile George Cioata
Fig. 4. The epoxy resin and its hardener. (a) preparing the resin components, (b) mixing the components (c) final mixing, before the lay-up process.
in the documentation. Weighed each component in a clean con-
tainer with straight walls and bottoms so that it could shave the
material well when mixing. Mix the resin and hardener until
smooth (Fig. 4).
3.2. Materials for inserts
The armature provides the structural performance required for
the finished piece, and have several structural forms contributing
fundamentally to the properties of the composite (rigidity,
strength, etc.). The textile inserts used as reinforcement are ecolog-
ical, non-toxic and biodegradable and they contain bast fibres (flax,
hemp, jute, divided or in combination) or cotton fibres (derived
from denim materials), which can replace glass and/or carbon rein-
forcements commonly used in these polymeric composites. The
fabric samples resulting from the recovery of textile waste, which
serve to obtain nonwoven products, are used in the form of fibrous
layers. These are textile supports, consist of fiber-oriented agglom-
erations or multidirectional [11–18]. Practically, all types of fibre,
including fibres recovered from reusable materials, can be used
as starting materials for technical textiles [11–18].
Two different recycled textile wastes were investigated in the
present study: denim fabric and hessian fabric bags (Fig. 5). These
recycled textile wastes were produced by cutting for fabric-resin
composite fabrications (Fig. 6).
4. Experimental setup
The textiles are prepared separately and are incorporated into
the matrix by simple lay-up process, the synthetic resin matrices
being applied in alternating layers of textile layers (Fig. 7 and
Fig. 8). The process is completed by a compression moulding in
an experimental press, designed specifically for laboratory experi-
ments, in Faculty of Engineering Hunedoara (Fig. 7 and Fig. 9).
Wet lay-up compression moulding (Fig. 8), also called liquid
lay-up compression moulding, is a composites moulding process
where the resin is applied on the fabric layers and compressed
between two heated steel moulds (plate, single or multiple-
cavity configurations). Steel moulds are hardened and sometimes
Fig. 5. Recyclable textile wastes. (a) denim fabric; (b) hessian fabric bags.
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Materials Today: Proceedings 45 (2021) 4150–4156
chrome plated for enhanced durability. The moulds are heated
using steam, hot oil, or electricity.
In wet (liquid) lay-up compression moulding there are the fol-
lowing considerations must be analysed:
- determining the nature of materials used for reinforcements
(unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly oriented fiber
mat or chopped strand);
- determining the nature of materials used for matrix (polyester,
vinyl ester or epoxy resin);
- determining the proper amount of material which will be used
in the lay-up process.
Compression moulding is a high-volume and high-pressure
method suitable for moulding various reinforced polymer compos-
ites, featuring fast moulding cycles and high part uniformity. In
fact, this method is a manufacturing process in which composite
materials are sandwiched between a pair of heated plated or
curved moulds (mounted in large hydraulic presses) under intense
pressure and heat (from 120 °C to 200 °C) until the curing process
(less than a minute to about five minutes, depending on thickness,
size and shape of the composites).
The process parameters includes moulding time, temperature,
and pressure. The process can be automated, this technique being
used to rapidly cure large quantities of simple or complex rein-
forced polymer composites. In addition, the manufacturing costs
are relative low and it provides design flexibility and good surface
finishes are obtainable. Subsequent trimming and machining oper-
ations are minimized in this method.
In compression moulding there are the following considerations
need to be correlated:
- determining the proper amount of material which will be com-
pressed into the mould;
- determining the appropriate heating technique and a proper
temperature range to heat the material;
- determining the minimum time required to heat the material;
- determining the required pressure, to ensure the total compres-
sion and the proper shape.
Mihai-Paul Todor, I. Kiss and Vasile George Cioata Materials Today: Proceedings 45 (2021) 4150–4156

Fig. 6. Textile fabric reinforcement samples. (a) denim fabric samples; (b) hessian fabric bags samples.

Fig. 7. The experimental setup (schematic). (a) the simple lay-up process components; (b) the compression moulding.

Fig. 8. The wet lay-up process. (a) alternating first textile layers; (b) applying the resin matrix; (c) alternating the next textile layers; (d) applying the resin matrix, again;

5. Results & discussions

The research on the construction of composite constructions is

intended to develop innovative composite construction solutions
to be made mainly from polymer composite materials, as well as
the presentation of technologies for obtaining them. Following
the establishment of the design of the modular assembly, the resis-
tance structure of the modular assembly was carried out which
was analyzed to ensure the safety of the construction. At this stage
of the research, the materials used and the technology to obtain the
components of the assembly were presented.
The inserts are weaves, which are pre-impregnated with resin
and heated to a certain working temperature (40 °C), so that the
Fig. 9. The experimental press.
resin partially polymerizes. When reheated in the projected press
(pressed at high temperature at 40–200 °C, the so-called ‘‘stage
B” of polymerization), the resin becomes liquid again, the resin
If the last of these considerations can be adjusted in the func-
insert takes the form of the cavity of the mould and finally, com-
tioning of the press with which the compression is performed,
pletely polymerizes.
the first three depend on the design of the composite and the cor-
The following technological steps are decisive in achieving a
responding choice of the constituent materials of the future
good compression (Fig. 10):
composite.

- Step 1, consisting of heating of the moulds (heating process),

ensuring the desired moulding temperature;

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Mihai-Paul Todor, I. Kiss and Vasile George Cioata
- Step 2, consisting of pre-heating of the layers without applying
any load (the textile insert was put inside and upper platen was
closed quickly), above the melting point of the thermoplastic
matrix (pre-heating process);
- Step 3, consisting of consolidation of resin between the rein-
forced textile layers (the curing process), under loading and
heating the press;
- Step 4, consisting of cooling of the final formed composite,
under loading and cooling the press (the cooling process).
In fact, the manufacturing processes involved the impregnation
of fibers with resin, consolidation to remove excess resin and solid-
ification of polymer in the required shape. The obtained composite
(laminates) have a sandwich structure with separate layers bound
in a monolith by a matrix material. Plates made of fabric-
reinforced polymer matrix composites (Fig. 11) can be processed
with conventional machining methods.
6. Conclusions
A major direction of research concerns the development of
environmentally friendly technologies and materials, with a focus
on the design and complete characterization of composite materi-
als obtained from recycled waste. The unique properties of poly-
mer composite materials with textile inserts, as well as the
possibility of adapting them to the application needs, have led to
the expansion of their use in all areas of human activity. From an
applicative point of view, this direction is an extremely interesting
one, the materials and technologies developed can be used in dif-
ferent areas of interest. The results achieved so far in the field of
obtaining composite materials obtained through waste recycling
and environmentally friendly technologies together with the gen-
erous research opportunities offered by these topics has led us to
continue and develop them. The novelty of the present study lies
in exploring the combination of naturally available woven fabrics
and polymer matrix combination.
Based on these preliminary findings and the inherent attributes
of denim and jute fabrics, we use these materials to design new
products. The results of the whole process yield a first approach
to configure future experiments using combinations of denim
scrap and used jute fabrics with polymers in order to use them
in new product development. The growing interest of use different
scraps as raw material to design and develop alternate products
has led them to new ways of processing them. The present
Fig. 10. The main steps in the compression moulding process of woven fabrics composites. (a) heating of the moulds; (b) preheating; (c) consolidation of resin between the
layers; (d) cooling of the composite.
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Materials Today: Proceedings 45 (2021) 4150–4156
research arises from our interest on making an effort to reuse the
denim scrap and used jute fabrics to manufacture a different kind
of composite product. These composites are formed from densely-
packed layers of fabric suspended in thermosetting plastic (resin or
epoxy), using our own installation for compression of the studied
composites
Following the analyses carried out, the research on the develop-
ment of competitive technologies for processing textile waste into
products with high added value (such as composite materials)
proves to be feasible and fully justified. With a knowledge of the
various factors and influences discussed above, product prototypes
can be produced from different material configurations, using dif-
fering forming speeds, mould temperatures, blank clamping meth-
ods and tooling arrangements. Offering a combination of high
strength-to-weight ratio, chemical resistance and relatively
straightforward processing, these composites, in general, are grow-
ing in popularity across a number of sectors where light weighting
and short cycle times are key targets.
Reduced weight, along with their enormous availability, make
the recycled fabrics, such as denim jeans, promising substitutes
for e-glass or carbon fibres. The reason for this replacement lies
in their easier recyclability and in their possible coupling with var-
ious polymers, with the idea of producing new composites, as tex-
tile reinforcements. In particular, the success of fabric for
composite’s component production is likely to be eased by the pos-
sible improvements in mats and/or fabrics fabrication, which will
have a further positive effect on properties of the new reinforced
materials. The moulding equipments used for manufacturing
fabric-reinforced polymer matrix composites using bio-based com-
ponents from post-consumer textile waste are relatively cheaper
as there is no need to rise till very high temperature and pressure.
Most household textiles and clothing can be recycled, regard-
less of quality and wear. Denim materials are the most used cloth-
ing in the world, and they are elaborated by one of the most
commonly used natural textile fibers—cotton. The use of waste or
recycled materials for creation of the new raw materials for the
composite manufacturing is a topical issue, with a promising
future. Also, the composites are a growing and innovative industry
and the global demand for composites is accelerating across all key
sectors thanks to the unique properties and benefits they offer. In
fact, the fiber-reinforced composites growth is the subject of sev-
eral exciting technology innovations in all areas, in diverse applica-
tions. Besides a favourable life cycle analysis, research and
development of bio-based products like denim fabric and hessian
fabric bags should consider the limits that will maintain sustain-
Mihai-Paul Todor, I. Kiss and Vasile George Cioata
Fig. 11. Plates made of fabric-reinforced polymer matrix composites (prototypes). (a) denim-reinforced polymer matrix composites; (b) jute fabric-reinforced polymer
matrix composites.
able development. Therefore, fabrics are directly used in composite
manufacturing in different proportions with different manufactur-
ing techniques to obtain different characteristics according to the
required properties. Starting from the idea that it is not cost-
effective to use new raw material for the production of high
value-added products, they can be obtained on the basis of waste,
by making efforts in competitive textile recycling technologies.
From an economic point of view, the solutions adopted are feasible,
in the variants of waste use. So the cost-benefit ratio thus meets
the condition of economic profitability.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mihai-Paul Todor: Investigation, Methodology, Writing - origi-
nal draft. Imre Kiss: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodol-
ogy, Supervision, Writing - original draft, Writing - review &
editing. Vasile George Cioata: Investigation, Visualization, Writing
- original draft.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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Materials Today: Proceedings 45 (2021) 4150–4156
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