Manufacturing and Characterization of Sponge Gourd Fiber

Based Hybrid Polypropylene Composites

by

Md. Sayem Siddiquee (0911022)

Md. NAhian Islam (1711014)

Bachelor of Science in Materials and Metallurgical Engineering

Department of Materials and Metallurgical

Engineering Bangladesh University of Engineering

and Technology Dhaka, Bangladesh

November, 2023
 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT

The following two notes on copyright and the ownership of intellectual property
rights:

i. Copyright in text of this thesis rests with the author. Copies (by any process)
either in full, or of extracts, may be made only in accordance with instructions
given by the author. This page must form part of any such copies made.
Further copies (by any process) of copies made in accordance with such
instructions may not be made without the permission (in writing) of the
author.
ii. The ownership of any intellectual property rights which may be described in
this thesis is vested in the department of Materials and Metallurgical
Engineering of Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology,
subject to any prior agreement to the contrary, and may not be made available
for use by third parties without the written permission of the department,
which will prescribe the terms and conditions of any such agreement.

ii
 APPROVAL

The thesis titled “Manufacturing and Characterization of Sponge Guard

Fiber Based Hybrid Polypropylene Composites” submitted by Md. Sayem
Siddiquee(0911022) and Md. Nahian Islam (1711014) has been accepted for
satisfactory submission in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Materials and Metallurgical Engineering on January2023
term.

(Signature)

Dr. Mahbub Hasan

Professor

Department of

MME BUET,

Dhaka-1000

iii
 CANDIDATES’ DECLARATION

It is hereby declared that no portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been
submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or
any other university or other institute of learning.

Md. Sayem Siddiquee

Student Number 200911022

Md. Nahian Islam

Student Number 201711014

Department of MME

BUET, Dhaka-1000

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First, we are grateful to almighty Allah. Without His blessings, nothing is possible.
There have been difficulties, but with His help we have been able to overcome those.

We are grateful to our supervisor Prof. Dr. Mahbub Hasan, Department of MME,
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology for his valuable guidance and
advice.

We would like to thank all the laboratory specialists for their participation in the
survey who supported our work in this way and helped us get results of better quality.
We are also grateful to the member of class for their patience and support in
overcoming numerous obstacles we have been facing through work.

We would like to thank our fellow classmates for their feedback, cooperation and of
course friendship.

In addition, we would express our gratitude to the staff of the university.

Last but not the least we would like to thank our family for their constant support and
understanding.

v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

PMC Polymer matrix composite

MMC Metal matrix composite

CMC Ceramic matrix composite

PP Polypropylene

HDPE High density polypropylene

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FRPC Fiber reinforced polymer composite

PFRP Plant Fiber reinforced composite

MAgPP Maleic Anhydride grafted polypropylene

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

UTS Ultimate Tensile Strength

vi
ABSTRACT

Polymer matrix composiytes are multi phase materials,which consists of polymer as

the matriz with fibers as the reinforcement resulting in synergesting properties.This
study has investigated the way various fiber reinforcements affect the mechanical,
thermal, water absorption, and biodegradability attributes of PP matrix composites.
Both the production process and inspection procedures were the same. According to
the findings, the composite reinforced with nylon and sheep wool performs better than
the other kind, that is reinforced with WH fiber and wool, in terms of mechanical
qualities. Wool and WH fiber are both natural fibers, however wool has a lesser
strength and less of a bonding impact on the PP matrix. This set of composites'
attributes are thus inferior to those of another group. Additionally, the superior fiber
distribution in the 5% reinforcement makes it more likely to succeed than other
compositions with different percent of fiber loading. The first kind (which contains
WH fiber and wool) offers the best option if the application's goal is to manufacture
biodegradable and water absorbent material. In this instance, larger fiber content
offers the intended attributes in a greater potential, hence, 15% reinforcement delivers
the highest level of these traits. However, in the event of on-field use, the fiber
fraction must be modified to preserve the best mechanical qualities. In addition to
these analyses, thermal tests including FTIR and TGA were carried out. However,
with the fibers added to the PP matrix in different percent of loading, the thermal
characteristics did not change much.

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENT

LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................xi

LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................xiii

CHAPTER 1...................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................1
Background and Motivations............................................................................1
Research Objectives and Overview..................................................................2
Organization of the thesis..................................................................................3

CHAPTER 2...................................................................................................................4

LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................................4
Composite Materials.........................................................................................4
Advantages of Composites.....................................................................4
Limitations of Composites......................................................................5
Applications of Composite Materials.....................................................6
Classification of Composites.............................................................................6
Classification based on reinforcing materials.........................................7
Classification Based on Matrix Materials...............................................8
Phases of Composite Material...........................................................................9
Continuous Phase....................................................................................9
Dispersed Phase......................................................................................9
Matrix Materials and Their Classifications.......................................................9
Metal Matrix...........................................................................................9
Ceramic Matrix.....................................................................................10
Carbon Matrix.......................................................................................10
Polymer Matrix.....................................................................................10
Types of Polymer Matrix......................................................................10
Polypropylene.................................................................................................13
Structure of PP......................................................................................13
Polypropylene Production and Processing............................................15
Crystal Structure of PP..........................................................................16

viii
 Tacticity................................................................................................16
Polypropylene and Polyethylene – Two Stars of Polyolefins...............18
Comparative Study Between PE and PP...............................................19
Types of Polypropylenes.......................................................................20
Properties of PP.....................................................................................20
Application of PP..................................................................................22
Limitations of PP................................................................................22
Impact of Additives.............................................................................23
Reinforcements of Composite Materials.........................................................23
Natural fiber reinforced polymer composite.........................................24
Synthetic Fiber......................................................................................25
Natural fiber vs Synthetic fiber.............................................................26
Hybrid Composite...........................................................................................27
Recycling of Polymers....................................................................................27
Biodegradability of Polymers.........................................................................28
Review of Previous Researchers...................................................................28

CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................................30

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE...............................................................................30
Collection of fiber and polypropylene............................................................30
Manufacturing of Composites.........................................................................32
Testing of Composites.....................................................................................33
Tensile Test...........................................................................................33
Flexural Test.........................................................................................34
Hardness Test........................................................................................36
Water Absorption Test..........................................................................36
Biodegradability Test............................................................................37
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA).....................................................38
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)................................38

CHAPTER 4.................................................................................................................40

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..................................................................................40

Type-I:.............................................................................................................40
Water Hyacinth (WH) and Sheep Wool Fiber Reinforced PP Composite...........40

ix
 Tensile Properties..................................................................................40
Flexural Properties................................................................................43
Hardness Properties..............................................................................44
Water Absorption Characteristics.........................................................45
Biodegradability Test............................................................................46
Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA)............................................................47
4.1.7 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)................................48
Type-II.............................................................................................................50
Nylon and Wool Fiber Reinforced PP..................................................................50
Tensile Properties..................................................................................50
Flexural Properties................................................................................52
Hardness Properties..............................................................................54
Water Absorption Characteristics.........................................................55
Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA)...................................................57
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)................................58

CHAPTER 5.................................................................................................................60

OPTIMIZATION.........................................................................................................60
Mechanical Properties Comparison................................................................60
Water Absorption Properties...........................................................................62
Biodegradable Property Analysis....................................................................63

CHAPTER 6.................................................................................................................64

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS................................................................64

Conclusions.....................................................................................................64
Limitations and Recommendations for Future Works....................................64

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................66

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1 Classification of Polymer composites..........................................................7

Figure 2-2 Classification of composite based on matrix................................................8
Figure 2-3 This is what the monomer propylene really looks like..............................14
Figure 2-4 Molecular Structure of Polypropylene.......................................................14
Figure 2-5 Transformation of structure from monomer to polymer for PP.................15
Figure 2-6 Isotactic PP.................................................................................................17
Figure 2-7 Atactic PP...................................................................................................17
Figure 2-8 Combination of blocks of both isotactic and atactic PP in a single chain..17
Figure 2-9 Structure with mixed properties of isotactic and atactic PP.......................18
Figure 3-1 Polypropylene granules..............................................................................30
Figure 3-2 Stems of water hyacinth.............................................................................30
Figure 3-3 Fiber extraction process..............................................................................31
Figure 3-4 Water hyacinth fibers.................................................................................31
Figure 3-5 Nylon..........................................................................................................32
Figure 3-6 Sheep Wool Fiber.......................................................................................32
Figure 3-7 Hot Press Machine......................................................................................32
Figure 3-8 Mould used in manufacturing.....................................................................33
Figure 3-9 Tensile specimen dimensions.....................................................................34
Figure 3-10 Prepared tensile test samples....................................................................34
Figure 3-11 Flexural test specimen dimensions...........................................................35
Figure 3-12 Prepared flexural test samples..................................................................35
Figure 3-13 Durometer.................................................................................................36
Figure 3-14 Samples buried in the soil........................................................................37
Figure 3-15 TGA machine...........................................................................................38
Figure 4-1 Variation of tensile strength against fiber loading.....................................41
Figure 4-2 Variation of Young’s Modulus against fiber loading.................................42
Figure 4-3 Variation in %elongation with varying fiber loading.................................42
Figure 4-4 Variation of Flexural Strength against fiber loading..................................43
Figure 4-5 Variation of flexural modulus against fiber loading..................................44

xi
Figure 4-6 Variation of hardness against fiber loading................................................45
Figure 4-7 Variation of Water absorption against fiber loading..................................46
Figure 4-8 Pure PP showing no deformation within the time of 30 days....................46
Figure 4-9 Degradation behavior of composites against fiber loading........................47
Figure 4-10 TGA curves of PP matrix composite with (a) 0%, (b) 5%, (c) 10%, (d)
15% WH fiber-Sheep wool (at 1:1) loading................................................................48
Figure 4-11 (a) FTIR spectroscopy for 0% fiber loading............................................48
Figure 4-12 Variation of tensile strength against fiber loading...................................51
Figure 4-13 Variation of Young’s modulus against fiber loading...............................51
Figure 4-14 Change in % elongation with change in fiber loading.............................52
Figure 4-15 Variation of Flexural strength against fiber loading................................53
Figure 4-16 Variation of flexural modulus against fiber loading................................53
Figure 4-17 Variation of Hardness against fiber loading.............................................55
Figure 4-18 Biodegradability Test...............................................................................56
Figure 4-19 Weight reduction of composite materials with time................................56
Figure 4-20 TGA curves of PP matrix composite with (a) 5%; (b) 10%; (c) 15%
Nylon fiber and Sheep wool (at 1:1) loading...............................................................58
Figure 4-21 FTIR spectroscopy for (a) 5% (b) 10% (c) 15% fiber loading.................59
Figure 5-1 Tensile properties comparison for 5% fiber reinforcement........................60
Figure 5-2 Flexural properties comparison for 5% fiber reinforcement......................61
Figure 5-3 Hardness comparison for 5% fiber reinforcement.....................................61
Figure 5-4 Water absorption characteristics of 15% fiber reinforced composite........62
Figure 5-5 Biodegradability characteristics of 15% fiber reinforced composite.........63

xii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1 Difference between polypropylene and polyethylene.................................19

Table 4-1 Tensile properties of polypropylene matrix composite reinforced with

water hyacinth fiber and sheep wool for different fiber loading..................................41

Table 4-2 Effect of fiber loading on Flexural Properties of the prepared composite..43

Table 4-3 Effect of variation in fiber loading on hardness values of the produced
composite.....................................................................................................................45

Table 4-4 Water absorption behavior with changing fiber content.............................46

Table 4-5 Tensile Properties of PP matrix composite reinforced with sheep wool and
nylon fiber....................................................................................................................50

Table 4-6 Effect of fiber loading on Flexural properties of PP matrix composite

reinforced with sheep wool and nylon fiber.................................................................53

Table 4-7 Change in hardness with increasing fiber loading......................................54

Table 4-8 Water absorption property of manufactured composite with different fiber
loading..........................................................................................................................55

xiii
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Background and Motivations

Many of the technologies used today require materials with unusual combinations of
properties that are not available in typical ceramics, metal alloys, or polymeric
materials. This is especially important for items used in aerospace, automotive, and
industrial settings. For example, there are various industries searching for materials
that may be used in consumer goods without having a major negative impact on the
environment, and there are aircraft engineers searching for materials with low
densities but great strength and stiffness.

Natural fiber reinforcements have emerged as a leader in the manufacturing and

application of composite materials for applications that demand environmentally
acceptable materials. Because of natural fibers' low cost, high specific strength, non-
abrasive nature, and ability to decompose naturally, researchers, engineers, and
scientists are becoming more and more interested in using them for reinforcement
instead of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites. The tensile properties of
natural fiber reinforced polymers (including thermoplastics and thermosets) are
largely dependent on the interfacial adhesion between the matrix and the fibers.

Natural fibers are made of cellulosic materials made of lignin and hemicellulose
arranged in an amorphous matrix containing microfibrils. The fibers get the required
strength and stiffness from the hydrogen bonds and other linkages. As a result, the
degree of adherence between the natural fiber and the matrix has a significant impact
on the mechanical properties of natural fiber-reinforced composites. Generally
speaking, there are two types of fibers depending on where they are produced:
synthetic (man-made) fibers and natural fibers. Conversely, natural fibers, which are
derived directly from living things like plants (like cotton) or animal fur, are made by
humans through chemical synthesis. They are the outcome of a great deal of scientific
research into the replication of naturally occurring fibers from plants and animals.
Synthetic fibers that are frequently used include nylon, polyurethane, and acrylics.

1
Natural fiber can now be divided into two categories according to the types of sources
it comes from: plant-based fiber and animal-based fiber [2].

Sponge gourd is a common plant-based fiber in Asian countries specially including

Bangladesh, India, and Thailand. Sponge gourd, or Luffa aegyptiaca, also known
as Egyptian cucumber or Vietnamese luffa, is an annual vine species native to
South and Southeast Asia that is grown for its fruit.Their fibers are useful as
reinforcement material in polymercomposites due to their high cellulose content
and small cellulose diameter.

The Luffa Acutangula, or sponge gourd, has a relatively high carbohydrate

content (68.20%), lignin (14.70%), hemicelluloses (15.80%), and cellulose
(37.70%); moderate moisture (9.30%), and ash (10.40%), according to a
proximate analysis of the leaves. It is a poor source of protein (0.90) and
lipid (0.30). [3].
A family of synthetic polymers made up of polyamides—repeating units connected by
amide links—is referred to as nylon in general. Usually derived from petroleum,
2
 nylon is a silk-like thermoplastic that can be melted and formed into sheets, films, or
other shapesIt is possible to achieve a wide range of property variations by mixing
nylon polymers with different additives. Significant commercial uses for nylon
polymers can be found in fabric and fibers (such as flooring, rubber reinforcement,
and apparel), in shapes (such as molded parts for electrical equipment, cars, and other
devices), and in films (primarily for food packaging). [5].

A useful and promising composite material can only be produced by carefully selecting the
matrix in addition to the reinforcements. Because of its essential characteristics, polypropylene is
the thermoplastic that can be blended with other materials to improve their properties the easiest.
Many industries, including the chemical, electrical, automotive, household, textile, agricultural,
packing, and transportation sectors, use polypropylene extensively.
Research Objectives and Overview

Research aims to analyze and adjust various polypropylene thermoplastic properties, particularly
its mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties. Two distinct hybrid composite types have been
created in order to analyze the variation in property modification. The study was carried out
using the two different hybrid reinforcements listed below.

3
 Type I : Natural Fiber reinforcement
2 types of natural fibers have been employed:
one is plant-based: Spong gourd, another is also plant-based: Sugarcane
bagass fiber.
 Type II: Combination of Natural and Synthetic Fiber reinforcement
As synthetic fiber, Nylon was employed while sponge gourd was used here
aswell, as a natural based fiber.

To the best of the authors' knowledge, neither of those fibers had ever been used as
hybrid fibers to create composites. Two types of hybrid composites were produced
using a hot press machine, which combined sponge gourd-Sugarcane bagasse and
nylon-Sponge gourd fibers in a polypropylene matrix.. While hybrid fiber ratios were
kept at 1:1, total fiber loading was varied between 0 and 5 weight percent and 10 and
15 weight percent. Many tests of prepared hybrid composites were then conducted to
examine the effect of two types of hybrid fiber and their loading.
Organization of the thesis
This book apparently contains six sections- Introduction, Literature Review,
Experimental, Results and Discussion, and Conclusion.
Chapter 1 - Introduction: This chapter provides the overall outline of the research
including the background, motivations, objectives and expected outcomes.
Chapter 2 - Literature Review: This part focuses to compile all literature relevant to
this investigation. It upholds a description of definition, types, applications, and
reinforcement of composite material.
Chapter 3 – Methodology: It describes stages of manufacturing & testing composites.
Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion: All the obtained experimental results and
relevant explanations are summarized here.
Chapter 5 – Optimization: This section covers the comparative analysis among the
obtained results as functions of fiber loading and type of reinforcement.
Chapter 6 - Conclusions and Future Work: Finally, a conclusion section has been
drawn from the main experimental results, along with its potential to bring a novel
outcome to this field of study.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE

4
REVIEW

5
 Composite Materials

A composite material is characterized as a mixture of two or more materials that

produces properties that are superior to those of the separate parts when utilized
separately. Unlike metallic alloys, each material in these composites keeps its unique
mechanical, chemical, and physical characteristics. Therefore, the main objective in
the creation and use of composite materials is to get a performance out of the
composite that cannot be obtained from the individual components or from other
materials. A composite material is typically made up of fillers, flakes, fibers, and/or
particles of reinforcement embedded in a matrix of polymers, metals, or ceramics.
While the reinforcement enhances the matrix's overall mechanical properties, the
matrix retains the reinforcement to create the desired shape. Composites can
incorporate core materials, fillers, additives, and surface finishes in addition to fiber
reinforcements and matrix to offer special performance characteristics. [6].

Advantages of Composites

High Strength: Composites, such as steel or aluminum, can be made to be stronger than
traditional metals. Metals have the same strength in every direction. Nonetheless, composites
can be created and engineered to have a particular strength.
.
Light Weight: In comparison to most metals, composites are lightweight. Their light weight is
significant for aircraft because it improves fuel efficiency (more miles per gallon) with less
weight. The new Boeing 787 Dreamliner is one of the modern aircraft that uses more
composites than metal in its construction.

Strength Related to Weight: The strength-to-weight ratio measures a material's mass in

relation to its weight. Unlike conventional metals like steel, composites can be strong without
being heavy. For this reason, composites are used in the construction of airplanes, which
require materials with extremely high strengths at the lowest possible weight. [1].
Design Flexibility: Designers are able to replicate any surface texture and create nearly any
shape because composites and their surfaces can be molded into complex shapes more easily
than most other materials.
Dimensional Stability: When composites are wet or dry, hot or cold, they maintain their size
and shape. They are incorporated into airplane wings to ensure that they maintain their size
and shape regardless of altitude changes.

6
Corrosion Resistance: Composites are resistant to weather-related damage as well as the
kinds of harsh chemicals that degrade other materials. They withstand extreme weather
conditions and drastic temperature swings outside.
High-Impact Strength: Composites can be designed to withstand sudden force impacts, such
as explosions or bullets. Composite materials are used in explosion shields, bulletproof vests,
and panels because of this characteristic.
Low Thermal Conductivity: Composites are good at insulating because heat or cold cannot
easily pass through them. They are utilized in buildings for windows, doors, and panels that
require additional weather protection.
Durable: Composite-based structures are long-lasting and require little upkeep. Since many of
the original composites have not yet reached the end of their useful lives, we are not even sure
how long composites last. Several composites have been in use for fifty years. [7].

Limitations of Composites

 Delamination: Since composites are often constructed of different ply layers into a
laminate structure, they can delaminate between layers if they are weaker.
 High Cost: They are a relatively new material, and as such have a high cost.
 Complex Fabrication: The fabrication process is usually labor intensive and complex,
which further increases cost.
 Damage inspection: Delamination and cracks in composites are mostly internal and
hence require complicated inspection techniques for detection.
 Composite to metal joining: Metals expand and contract more on variations in
temperature as compared to composites. This may cause an imbalance at joinery and
may lead to failure [6].

With the exception of a few drawbacks, composite materials are nearly ideal for a variety of
structural applications. The current issues might also be managed with more research on
composite material damage control.

Applications of Composite Materials

Some applications of composite materials from distant past to present age:

7
Body Armor: An aramid fiber called Kevlar is used as body armor because of its useful
properties like strength and light weight [8].
Mechanical Application: Carbon is a carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic, which is used to make
chassis in motorsport applications, especially in racing cars. This composite is extremely light
and highly robust at the same time [9].
Civil Engineering: Fiber-reinforced composites are used as an alternative to galvanized steel
in different constructions including swimming pools.
Aerospace Engineering: Different composites are used based on the property requirement
including high specific strength and wide spectrum of flexibility [10].
Packaging: Paper-coated aluminum is used for beverage packaging.

Classification of Composites

The strengthening mechanism of a composite material is largely determined by its

reinforcement system. Thus, it makes sense to categorize composites based on the properties of
the reinforcement, like length, orientation, etc. The reinforcements are held in place by the
matrix within the composite. Thus, composites can be categorized according to the matrix
material and the reinforcements that are used. [11].

Classification based on reinforcing materials

8
 Reinforced Plastics

Fibre Reinforced Particle

Plastics Reinforced
Polymers

Random Preferred Single- layer Multilayer

Orientation Orientation Composites Composites

Continuous Continuous
Fibre-reinforced Laminates Hybrids
Polymers Fibre-reinforced
Polymers

Unidirectional Bidirectional Random Preferred

Reinforcementt Reinforcement Orientation Orientation

Figure 2-1 Classification of Polymer composites [12]

Fiber Reinforced Composite

The primary load-bearing element is the fiber. The material's strength, stiffness, and fracture
toughness are all enhanced by the dispersed phase in the form of fibers. If fibers are oriented in a
specific direction, strength increases [13]. When stacked parallel to one another, fibers can be
long and continuous, or they can be short and discontinuous when aligned in an irregular or
specific orientation [14].

Particle Reinforced Composite

The matrix of a particle-reinforced composite is made up of particles that are dispersed. The
particles have a diameter of a few microns on average. The component that bears the load is the
particle. The size and shape of particles can differ.

9
Polymer Matrix Composite

A polymer (resin) matrix and reinforcements in the form of fiber in a dispersed phase combine to
form a polymer matrix composite (PMC). Because of their low cost and straightforward
fabrication techniques, polymer matrix composites are highly popular. There are two types of
polymer matrix: thermoset and thermoplastic [18].

Metal Matrix Composite

Although they are currently attracting a lot of attention from the scientific community, metal
matrix composites are not as commonly used as their plastic equivalents. Metal matrices offer
superior strength, fracture toughness, and stiffness compared to their polymer counterparts. Most
alloys and metals function well as matrices [19].

Ceramic Matrix Composite

Ceramics are solid materials that, in most cases, show very strong ionic bonding and, in rare
instances, covalent bonding. For applications requiring a structural material that doesn't give way
at temperatures above 1500ºC, ceramic-based matrix materials are preferred due to their high
melting points, good corrosion resistance, stability at elevated temperatures, and high compressive
strength. For applications requiring high temperatures, ceramic matrices are best option.

10
Phases of Composite Material

Composites generally have two phases:

Continuous Phase

Matrix refers to the main phase that is continuous in nature. It is typically less hard and more
ductile. The matrix performs two crucial tasks.
It distributes stress to the high modulus fibrous constituent and deforms to hold the fibrous phase
in place when a force is applied.

Dispersed Phase

The matrix contains an embedded dispersed phase. This phase can withstand compressive and
tensile loads and is stronger than matrix. If it is a phase added for strength, it is sometimes
referred to as reinforcement; if it is added for other reasons, it is sometimes referred to as filler.
Additionally, a phase known as the interface may exist to forge a connection between layers or
phases.
Matrix Materials and Their Classifications

Carbon, ceramics, metals, and polymers are the four categories of matrix materials. The four
types' attributes are very different from one another. The properties of the composites that use
them are significantly impacted by these variations. We look at the essential components of each
class's materials in this section.
Metal Matrix:

The MMC metal matrix is a single, continuous piece of material that the reinforcement is
embedded in. Aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and their alloys are the main matrix materials
used in MMCs. These matrices offer greater toughness and transfer strength, but they are also
more prone to corrosion and interfacial degradation at the fiber/matrix interface. [21].

Ceramic Matrix

11
Alumina, silicon nitride, silicon carbide, and different cements are the main ceramics used as
CMC matrices. High compressive strength, elastic modulus, low density, and—most
importantly—the capacity to tolerate temperatures above 2000°C are among the characteristics
of ceramics. However, because of its brittle nature, measuring the modulus of rupture or tensile
and flexural strength is challenging.
Carbon Matrix

Carbon is an amazing substance. The various carbon manufacturing processes yield carbon
matrices that are typically weak, brittle materials. High heat absorption capacity, chemical
inertness, high thermal conductivities, remarkable frictional properties at high energy levels,
and a low coefficient of thermal expansion are all provided by this kind of matrix. [22].

Polymer Matrix

Thermoplastic or thermoset resin matrices are used in polymer-matrix composites. While

thermosets become cross-linked and do not soften when heated, thermoplastics soften and can
be reshaped. Issues with the application of polymer matrix materials are [21]:

• Limited temperature ranges of using.

• Susceptibility to environmental degradation due to moisture and radiation.

• Atomic oxygen (in space)

• Low transverse strength

• High residual stress due to large mismatch in coefficients of thermal

expansion of both fiber and matrix
• Polymer matrix cannot be used near or above the glass transition temperature.

Types of Polymer Matrix

A polymeric solid material is made up of numerous chemically bonded components or units that
come together to form the solid itself. It is a chemical compound, or mixture of compounds,
formed through the polymerization process from repeating structural units. Stronger secondary
bonds or comparable covalent bonds hold the atoms in repeating molecules together. These
bonds are typically covalent. Plastics can be classified according to the way they are chemically
and structurally bonded.
into the following two classes:

• Thermoplastics
• Thermosetting plastics (Thermosets)

12
Thermosetting Plastic
Polymer materials that cure irreversibly are called thermosetting plastics. It is a prepolymer
that, upon curing, transforms irreversibly into an insoluble, infusible polymer network from a
soft solid or viscous state. Either heat, the right kind of radiation, or both can be used to induce
curing. The molecules that make up thermosetting plastics are strongly cross-linked lines. A
stiff molecular structure is produced. Even though they are initially heated and shaped, they
eventually become inflexible and solid. They are unchangeable in shape [31]. A network of
covalently bonded carbon atoms forms the majority of thermosets, which are stiff solids.
Occasionally, covalent bonds between atoms of nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, or other elements
form a thermoset network structure.

13
Thermoplastic
Heat is necessary for thermoplastics to become pliable and to hold their shape after cooling.
These materials retain their properties even after being repeatedly heated and reshaped into
different shapes. The majority of thermoplastics are made of extremely long carbon atom main
chains that are joined by covalent bonds. In the main molecular chain, atoms of nitrogen,
oxygen, or sulfur can occasionally be covalently bonded. Covalent bonds bind pendant atoms
or groups of atoms to the atoms that make up the main chain. Secondary bonds hold the long
molecular chains of thermoplastic together.

Typically, thermoplastics are ductile and soft. High-molecular weight polymers make up the
majority of thermoplastics. In polyethylene, these chains bind together through weak Vander
Waals forces; in nylon, they do so through stronger dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen
bonding; in polystyrene, they even stack aromatic rings together. A large number of
thermoplastic materials are addition polymers, such as polypropylene and vinyl chain-growth
polymers.

The long molecular chains that make up thermoplastics clump together like lumps
of entangled spaghetti because most thermoplastics have weak Van der Wall forces.
Candle wax-like flexibility is a property of thermoplastic polymers due to their
lengthy molecular chains.

Thermoplastic materials offer excellent toughness and resistance to delamination.High

chemical resistance, low toxicity, low absorption of moisture, and damage tolerance.
14
 Some Common Thermoplastics are:

 Polyethylene
 Polystyrene
 Polyamides
 Nylons
 Polypropylene

Thermoset vs Thermoplastic

As previously mentioned, thermoplastics can be repeatedly heated to a soft state and cooled to a
hard state. The fact that thermoplastics don't need to be refrigerated for storage is one of their
many advantages over thermosets. They are also more resistant to damage, the environment, fire,
recycling, and the possibility of quick processing. The main justification for using thermoplastics
is how inexpensively they can be processed.
 The three reasons listed below [32] also contribute to the increased use of
thermoplastics:
 • Since no curing reaction is needed, processing times for thermoset
composites may be shortened.
 All that is needed to create thermoplastic composites are heating, shaping,
and cooling.
 They have excellent chemical resistance due to the semi-crystalline polymers,
low moisture absorption, and an appealing high delamination resistance and
damage tolerance.

15
• There are additional benefits to thermoplastic composites in light of environmental concerns.
Because they don't contain any reactive chemicals, they are low in toxicity and have an
endless shelf life.
• Thermoplastic has a high impact resistance and produces finishes that are more
aesthetically pleasing.
Polypropylene

16
The tough, stiff, and crystalline thermoplastic polypropylene (PP) is made from the propene
(also known as propylene) monomer. Its chemical formula is (C3H6) n, designating it as a
linear hydrocarbon resin. Among all commodity plastics, it is the lightest polymer, has a low
density, resists stress cracking, and the list goes on. After polyethylene, it is the second most
produced volume plastic worldwide.

PP has emerged as the material of choice, particularly when searching for a

polymer with better strength (compared to Polyamide, for example) in
engineering applications or when seeking cost-effectiveness and good mechanical
properties in blow-molded bottles (in contrast to PET). The range of PP family
structures and their competitive qualities with polyethylene can therefore make it
difficult to determine which PP grade is best for a given application. Reference
[25]

Polyolefin is another name for polypropylene. PP is a highly versatile polymeric

material that can be procured as a plastic or as a fiber. Polypropylene is an all-
purpose thermoplastic that is lightweight, extremely durable, and translucent. Its
surface is slick, its density is low, and its coefficient of friction is low. It also has
outstanding resistance to chemicals, heat, electricity, weariness, and organic
solvents. For PP, stress-cracking is not a problem because it exhibits good
corrosion resistance.

Furthermore, because of its high tensile strength, polypropylene can support heavy
loads despite being lightweight. Because of its durability, resistance to biological
influences, ability to be colored, and affordability, it is widely used in many different
fields.
Polypropylene can crystallize when propylene gas is treated with polyethylene
catalysts and technology. It can also be co-polymerized to improve the toughness and
flexibility of the material (usually with ethylene). Polypropylene, like other
thermoplastic materials, is recyclable because it can be melted and reformed into
plastic pellets for use in the production of new goods.(26]

Structure of PP

Polypropylene belongs to a larger class of materials called polymers. A polymer

is a large molecule made up of several simple chemical building blocks known as
structural units or monomers. Between 5,000 and 20,000 polypropylene
macromolecules are present in monomer units.

17
Each secondary carbon atom's joined methyl group can have a different steric
arrangement. The development of crystalline segments is facilitated by the

18
stereoregular structure. Molded parts can have 50–70% crystallinity, depending on the
processing parameters. Because the molecular chains contain non-isotactic parts, they are
unable to crystallize and are rarely fully integrated to the crystalline segments. Therefore, those
chains are referred to as "partially" crystalline. Amorphous, disorganized segments are still
very mobile, but the crystalline structure is very rigid and resistant to forces.

One of the market's most adaptable thermoplastic polymers is polypropylene. It performs the
functions of both a fiber and a plastic. Furthermore, because of its low cost and high
consumption, it is categorized as a commodity among polymers.

Each of the three structural units in Cuyolen is connected to the other two. A linear polymer is
the end product. The polypropylene's structural unit is asymmetrical.

Figure 2-3 This is what the monomer propylene really looks like.

Figure 2-4 Molecular Structure of Polypropylene

19
Polypropylene is made from polymerization of propene monomer (an unsaturated organic
compound - chemical formula C3H6) by:

 Ziegler-Natta polymerization or
 Metallocene catalysis polymerization

Figure 2-5 Transformation of structure from monomer to polymer for PP

Upon polymerization, PP can form three basic chain structures depending on the position
of the methyl groups:

 Atactic (aPP) – Irregular methyl group (CH3) arrangement

 Isotactic (iPP) – Methyl groups (CH3) arranged on one side of the carbon chain
 Syndiotactic (sPP) – Alternating methyl group (CH3) arrangement

Polypropylenes can be hard or soft, opaque or transparent, light or heavy, insulating or

conductive, neat or reinforced with inexpensive mineral fillers, short or long glass fibers, natural
fibers, or even self-reinforced, depending on the used (co)polymerization or mixing process and
formulation [27].

Polypropylene Production and Processing

The two most popular processes for producing polypropylene are gas phase production and bulk
slurry. The monomer, propylene, is subjected to pressure, high temperatures, and a catalyst in
both situations.
Polymerization is aided by bulk slurry processing, which involves adding liquid propylene to the
reactor. This process effectively creates block copolymers and homopolymers.Gaseous propylene
is combined with a solid catalyst in a gas-phase processing vessel.

20
21
Because it is such a flexible polymer, polypropylene can be produced using a range of techniques.
These consist of blow molding, extrusion, general-purpose extrusion, and injection molding. To
make PP suitable for additive manufacturing, some manufacturers are working to blend or
optimize the material. Its severe warping and semi-crystalline structure present a challenge [28].

Crystal Structure of PP

Isotactic polypropylene, which is formed in industrial products, has a high degree of

crystallinity. Between 30% and 60%, roughly. While atactic polypropylene is amorphous (not
crystalline), syndiotactic polypropylene is less crystalline.

There are several crystalline forms of isotactic polypropylene, each with a unique molecular
configuration of polymer chains. The -modification is the most prevalent in PP. These crystals
are made of lamellae shaped like folded chains. The "cross- hatched" pattern of the lamellae
arrangement is a distinguishing characteristic.

As atactic polypropylene is not crystalline, it is amorphous. Because it lacks crystallinity, it is

easily soluble even at moderate temperatures, making it possible to extract it as a by-product
from isotactic polypropylene.

Tacticity

The relative stereochemistry of neighboring chiral centers within a macromolecule is known as

tacticity. The impact of tacticity on the physical characteristics of the polymer determines its
practical importance. The degree to which a macromolecular structure exhibits flexible,
amorphous long-range disorder or stiff, crystalline long- range order depends on how regular it
is. Accurate understanding of a polymer's tactility is also helpful in determining its melting
point, solvent solubility, and mechanical characteristics.

Propylene is structurally similar to polyethylene as it is a vinyl polymer, with the exception

that each carbon atom in the backbone chain has a methyl group attached to it every other time
[25]. Polypropylene synthesis via metallocene catalysis polymerization is being studied.
Polypropylene and other polyolefins can undergo remarkable transformations through
metallocene catalysis polymerization. In particular, it permits polypropylene to be

22
manufactured using various strategies. We use isotactic polypropylene the most often. As a
result, every methyl group is on the same side of the chain, as shown by this:

Figure 2-6 Isotactic PP

Isotactic polypropylene has a high enough melting point that you can put it in your
dishwasher, and it won't come out as a new form of plastic art. But sometimes we use atactic
polypropylene. Atactic means that the methyl groups are placed randomly on both sides of the
chain like the 3D image above or the figure below:

Figure 2-7 Atactic PP

Atactic polypropylene has no commercial application because it's pretty much a gooey, messy
blob. However, by using special metallocene catalysts, it's believed that we can make
polymers that contain blocks of isotactic polypropylene and blocks of atactic polypropylene in
the same polymer chain, as is shown in the picture:

Figure 2-8 Combination of blocks of both isotactic and atactic PP in a single chain

This polymer is rubbery and makes a good elastomer. This is because the isotactic

23
blocks will form crystals by themselves, acting as physical crosslinkers. But because

24
the isotactic blocks are joined to the atactic blocks, the little hard clumps of crystalline
isotactic polypropylene are tied together by soft rubbery segments of atactic polypropylene, as
can be seen in the picture on the right.

Figure 2-9 Structure with mixed properties of isotactic and atactic PP

Without the assistance of the isotactic blocks, atactic polypropylene would, to be honest, be a very
soft rubber that isn't very strong. The rubbery isotactic material is held together by the hard
isotactic blocks, which increases the material's strength. Polypropylene elastomers do not require
chemical crosslinking, in contrast to the majority of rubber types.
This copolymer, known as elastomeric polypropylene, is a type of thermoplastic elastomer. But
this kind of polypropylene won't be sold commercially until the research is finished [29].

Polypropylene and Polyethylene – Two Stars of Polyolefins

While polypropylene and polyethylene are both highly similar, they also have distinct qualities
that can be enhanced based on manufacturing processes and intended uses. Polypropylene is the
second most popular plastic after polyethylene, and both can be made to be lightweight and
durable. Although both polymers are used in many applications, such as gloves and bottles,
polypropylene has excellent mechanical properties and high resistance to fatigue, impact, heat,
and freezing. In general, polyethylene (PE) is strong and lightweight, with good resistance to
impacts and abrasions, while polypropylene is harder and useful for mechanical and structural
applications [25].
Comparative Study Between PE and PP

Due to their many similarities, PE and PP can be easily confused with one another. Selecting
the ideal material can be aided by being aware of the inherent advantages of each.

25
Strength need not be an issue when using these plastics because they are both extremely
malleable and have comparable impact resistance.

Another important characteristic that sets PE apart from PP is density. The density of
polypropylene is constant and only changes when it is filled [15]. However, because there are
several variations in density, choosing a polyethylene grade is heavily influenced by it (Low,
Medium, High). High Poisson In comparison to PP, polyethylene is sometimes more rigid and
is renowned for having a large strength-to- density ratio [25]. The following is the primary
distinction between polypropylene and polyethylene.

Table 2-1 Difference between polypropylene and polyethylene

Polypropylene Polyethylene

▪ Monomer of polypropylene is ▪ The monomer of polyethylene is

propylene
▪ It can be produced optically clear
and also lighter in weight
▪ PP exhibits a high resistance to
cracking, acids, organic solvents, and
electrolytes
▪ It has high melting point and good
dielectric properties
▪ PP is non-toxic
▪ It is stiffer and resistant to chemicals
and organic solvents compared to
polyethylene. PP is more rigid than
polyethylene
ethylene.
▪ Polyethylene can only be made
translucent like a milk jug
▪ Its physical properties allow it to
stand up better in cold temperatures,
particularly when using it as signs
▪ It is a good electrical insulator
▪ PE offers good tracking resistance
▪ Polyethylene is sturdy as compared
to Polypropylene

Types of Polypropylenes

26
There are two main types of polypropylene on the market: homopolymers and copolymers.

Polymer-based The most popular general-purpose grade is homopolymer. All that's present is
semi-crystalline solid propylene monomer. Packaging, textiles, pipes, healthcare, automotive,
and electrical applications are among the main uses.

Polypropylene Copolymer family is further divided into random copolymers and block
copolymers produced by polymerizing of propene and ethane [16]:

Random Polypropylene Ethene and propene are polymerized together to create copolymer. It has
ethene units randomly incorporated into the polypropylene chains, typically up to 6% by mass. Because
of their flexibility and optical clarity, these polymers can be used in products that need to look good
and in applications that call for transparency.

The ethene content in Polypropylene Block Copolymer is higher, ranging from 5 to 15%. Co-
monomer units are arranged in a predictable pattern, or blocks. Therefore, thermoplastic is more
resilient and less brittle than random co-polymer due to its regular pattern. These polymers are
appropriate for use in industrial settings where high strength is required [30].

Properties of PP

It is always helpful to be aware of a thermoplastic's properties in advance. This aids in

choosing the appropriate thermoplastic for a given use. It also helps in determining whether or
not the end use requirement would be met. Key characteristics and

27
advantages of polypropylene are as follows [25]:

i. Melting Point of Polypropylene – The melting point of polypropylene occurs at

a range.
 Homopolymer: 160 - 165°C
 Copolymer: 135 - 159°C
ii. Density of Polypropylene - PP is one of the lightest polymers among all
commodity plastics. This feature makes it suitable for lightweight applications.
 Homopolymer: 0.904 - 0.908 g/cc
 Random Copolymer: 0.904 - 0.908 g/cc

28
  Impact Copolymer: 0.898 - 0.900 g/cc
iii. Polypropylene Chemical Resistance
 Excellent resistance to diluted and concentrated acids, alcohols, and bases
 Good resistance to aldehydes, esters, aliphatic hydrocarbons, ketones
 Limited resistance to aromatic, halogenated hydrocarbons, oxidizing
agents.
iv. PP retains mechanical & electrical properties at elevated temperatures, in
humid conditions and when submersed in water. It is a water-repellent plastic.
v. It is sensitive to microbial attacks, such as bacteria and mould [17].

Table 2-2 Properties of polypropylene [25]

Homo LFRT
Property TPO Impact Coa b
Talc GFc d
SRPPe

0.97- 0.97-
Density, g/cm3 0.9-1 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.2 0.8-0.9
1.25 1.25

Shore hardness,
10-99 45-55 70-80 70-83 75-85 70-88
D

Rockwell
10-45
hardness, M

Stress at
11-28 20-35 35-40 22-28 19-70
yield, MPa

Elongation at 450- 200-

20-700 15-600 20-30 2-30 2
break, % 850 600

Tensile
0.4-1 1-1.2 1.1-1.6 1.5-3.5 1-10 4-8 4-14
modulus, GPa

Notched impact
110- 110-
strength ASTM 60-500 20-60 30-200 38-160
NB NB
D256, J/m

HDT A(1.8
46-57 50-60 50-60 56-75 50-140 160
MPa), °C

Minimum
-40 to -40 to - -20 to -20 to - -20 to -30 to
service
-20 20 -10 10 -5 -5
temperature, °C

UL94 fire rating HB HB HB HB HB HB HB HB

29
 Coa - Copolymer
Homob -
Homopolymer GFc -
Glass Filled
LFRTd - Long Fiber Reinforced
Thermoplastic SRPPe - Self Reinforced
Polypropylene

Application of PP

Because of its special properties and adaptability, polypropylene can be used in a remarkably
broad range of applications.

It can be used as a material for solvent containers because of its chemical resistance.
Polypropylene plastic's shape retention and fatigue resistance allow for the creation of living
hinges. Polypropylene is also used as an electrical insulator in electronic components.
Polypropylene is also frequently used in ropes, carpets, concrete reinforcement, food
containers, flexible and rigid packaging, piping, and clear plastic bags. Diapers and clothes are
made of polypropylene fibers [18].

Polypropylene is an economical material, and polypropylene products can be seen in every

industrial and commercial application area today. Those include the automotive sector,
textiles, medical sector, consumer goods, and industrial applications [28].

Limitations of PP

 Poor resistance to UV, impact, and scratches

 Embrittles below -20°C
 Low upper service temperature, 90 - 120°C
 Attacked by highly oxidizing acids, swell rapidly in chlorinated solvents
and aromatics.

30
 Heat-aging stability is adversely affected by contact with metals.
 Post moulding dimensional changes due to crystallinity effects – this can
be solved with nucleating agents.
 Poor paint adhesion.

31
However, polypropylene is gradually optimized for its performance by improving its
properties using different additives [28].

Impact of Additives

Commercial grades of polypropylene are available for a variety of commodity and engineering
applications, ranging from unreinforced to glass reinforced, flame retardant, and high melt
strength materials. The physical and/or mechanical properties of PP can be further improved
by adding polymer additives such as clarifiers, flame retardants, glass fibers, minerals,
conductive fillers, lubricants, pigments, and many more additives, which can also overcome
the drawbacks mentioned above. For instance, PP is not as UV resistant as unmodified
polypropylene, so additives like hindered amines stabilize light and lengthen the product's
useful life.

In addition, reinforcements (glass fiber, carbon fiber) and fillers (clays, talc, calcium carbonate)
are added to achieve important properties related to processing and end- use application.
Additionally, the monomaterial concept, low density, good or excellent mechanical properties
with high impact resistance, weight savings due to the combination of low densities and good
mechanical properties (possibly up to 50% less weight than equivalent glass-reinforced parts),
and ease of recycling are just a few of the general benefits of self-reinforced polypropylene
composites [25].

Reinforcements of Composite Materials

In a composite material, reinforcement serves primarily to enhance the mechanical properties
of the neat resin system. The load is carried along the fiber's length to give it strength and
stiffness in one direction. To provide specialized qualities, reinforcements can be oriented in
the direction of the loads applied to the product [19]. Because each fiber used in a composite
has unique properties, they all affect the composite's properties differently. The fibers need to
be arranged into some kind of sheet, called a fabric, in order for handling to be feasible in the
majority of other applications. There are many different types of fabrics, each with unique
characteristics, due to the different ways that fibers can be assembled into sheets and the
enormous variety of fiber orientations that are available. Fiber's contribution is determined by
four main factors.
 The fiber's fundamental mechanical properties.
 The interaction of fiber and resin on the surface.

32
  The fiber content of the composite.
 The fibers in the composite's orientation [20].

Natural fiber reinforced polymer composite

A composite material reinforced with natural or renewable fibers, particles, or platelets is called a
natural fiber composite. With its focus on energy efficiency, the "green" economy of the future
will heavily rely on natural fibers. Because they are renewable, natural fibers are good for the
environment [21]. Moreover, they emit no carbon. The amount of carbon dioxide they absorb and
release is equal. During processing, they mostly produce organic wastes, leaving behind residues
that can be used to make environmentally friendly building materials or electricity.

Advantages of natural fiber reinforced composites are mentioned below:

 A decrease in product density.

 Acceptable specific strength, toughness, and stiffness in compared with
glass fiber reinforced composites.
 The ability to create complicated shapes in a single manufacturing process.
 Less energy is used from fiber production to finish composites.
 When compared to glass-based reinforced composites, the
manufacturing methods are quite safe.
 Natural fiber production can be launched with a cheap capital investment and
at a reduced cost due to the large amount of cuttings and waste created
during manufacturing and moulding.

Sugarcane Bagasse Fiber

Sugarcane bagasse is a fibrous material containing cellulose as its main component. It is

produced in large quantities across the world. It is a kind of waste material that comes
from the sugar industry. It is most commonly used in paper industries, but researchers
have suggested that different mechanical and chemical treatments can help to extract
cellulosic fibers, pure cellulose, cellulose nanofibers, and cellulose nanocrystals. These
extracted materials have diverse applications in regenerated cellulosic fiber and
composite material production. This paper will discuss the extraction procedures and
typical applications in composite industries of these extracted materials. And an
assessment will also be done on the production process and the properties of the end
products to find out some common factors which can control the properties of these
extracted material reinforced composites to some extent.

33
 Generally, fibrous materials are most commonly used in the textile sector. But for being
suitable for textile applications, the fibers need certain qualities such as fineness,
crimp, tensile strength, etc.
Sponge gourd Fiber

Plant-derived natural fibers have recently been used as a promising reinforcement in polymer
matrix composites. Fibers from the inner sponge of the luffa cylindrica fruit have been the sbject
of several studies as reinforcement in various polymer resins. However, no research has been
done on the Sponge Gourd Outer Skin Fiber (SGOSF). The present work is aimed to extract and
characterize the chemical and physical properties of novel natural lignocellulosic fiber obtained
from the outer skin (waste material) of the matured Luffa Cylindrica plant fruit.

Characteristic studies on chemical composition, chemical structure, chemical compounds,

thermal stability, and morphology of luffa cylindrica outer skin fibers (SGOSF) were
investigated. The results revealed that SGOSF had cellulose (81.69 wt. %), lignin (10.14 wt. %),
wax (0.22 wt.%), and ash content (1.18 wt. %). The density of the SGOSF was reported as 1.394
g/cm3. Thermal study results indicate SGOSF were withstanding the temperature up to 320°C.
Fourier transform infrared analysis (FTIR) was done to determine the molecular structure of
SGOSFs. The SGOSFs show tensile strength of 438.5 MPa. These results revealed that SGOSFs
could be a sound reinforcement in the polymer matrix composites for various applications.

Synthetic Fiber

Unlike natural fibers, which are derived directly from living things like plants (like cotton) or
animal fur, synthetic fibers are created by humans through chemical synthesis. They are the
outcome of a great deal of scientific research into the replication of naturally occurring fibers from
plants and animals. Synthetic fibers are typically made by extruding materials that form fibers
through spinnerets. We refer to these as artificial or synthetic fibers.

34
Only polymers found in natural gas and petroleum byproducts are used to make synthetic fibers.
The majority of synthetic fibers, which are manufactured by humans, are made from
petrochemicals, which are petroleum-based raw materials. Synthetic fibers that are frequently
used include nylon, polypropylene, acrylics, and polyurethane.
Nylon Fiber

A family of synthetic polymers made up of polyamides—repeating units connected by amide

links—is referred to as nylon in general. Nylon is a silk-like thermoplastic that can be formed
into fibers, films, or other shapes. It is typically derived from petroleum. Numerous property
variations can be achieved by combining nylon polymers with a wide range of additives [32].
Nylon polymers have found extensive commercial use in films, primarily for food packaging,
molded parts for automobiles and other vehicles, and fabric and fibers (apparel, flooring, and
rubber reinforcement) [33].

Melted nylon is forced through tiny holes in a machine known as a spinneret to create nylon fiber;
when the nylon pieces are exposed to air, they solidify into filament. After cooling, these
filaments are shaped into bobbins and stretched.

Natural fiber vs Synthetic fiber

Every type of fiber, synthetic or natural, has benefits and drawbacks. Although synthetic fiber-
reinforced thermoplastic composites exhibit superior mechanical properties compared to
natural fibers, their environmental impact is negligible [34]. Natural fibers have a number of
benefits, including good thermal properties, biodegradability, low density, high toughness,
acceptable specific strength, and reduced abrasion resistance [35]. Composites made of natural
fibers have advantages such as enhanced fuel efficiency, good sound abatement capabilities,
and renewability of the fibers [36] [37]. Conversely, synthetic FRPCs gained a lot of attention
because of their superior strength, longer lifespan, and ability to withstand moisture [38].
Glass, carbon, and aramid are the synthetic fibers that are most frequently used in composites.
Glass fibers are one of the most popular types of synthetic fibers because they are less
expensive than aramid and carbon fibers and have superior physio- mechanical qualities [39].

35
Besides, the greatest problem of using such materials is the convenient disposal of themselves
once they have come to the end of their useful life span.[35]

Hybrid Composite

By combining two or more different types of fibers into a single matrix, hybrid fiber-reinforced
composites are a relatively new material that offers a better overall combination of properties than
composites made of just one type of fiber. Although there are many different fiber configurations
and matrix materials available, the most popular system combines glass and carbon fibers with a
polymeric resin. The low-density reinforcement offered by the carbon fibers is robust, reasonably
stiff, and costly. Compared to carbon fibers, glass fibers are less expensive and less stiff [40].

The two distinct fibers can be blended in a variety of ways, which will ultimately impact the final
characteristics. For instance, the fibers could be closely spaced and blended together, or
laminations could be made up of layers with one kind of fiber alternating with another in each
layer. Anisotropic properties are present in almost all hybrids. When hybrid composites are under
tension, failure is typically not catastrophic—that is, it doesn't happen all at once. Initially, the
load is placed on the glass fibers when the carbon fibers give out. The matrix phase must support
the applied load after the glass fibers fail. The failure of the composite eventually aligns with the
matrix phase.

Principal applications for hybrid composites are lightweight land, water, and air transport
structural components, sporting goods, and lightweight orthopedic components.

Recycling of Polymers
Recyclable polymer products have to be used instead of being disposed of in landfills. Based
on the degree of preservation of the polymer's chemical structure, recycling of polymers is
classified into four groups. Primary and secondary recycling can help maintain the integrity of
the polymer chain in products that have been recycled. While secondary recycling deals with
polymer waste that has been generated after consumption, primary recycling entails the reuse
of polymer waste generated during the production process. Chemical reduction to lower
molecular weight

36
compounds (e.g., monomers) is referred to as tertiary recycling. Finally, quaternary recycling
is defined as total energy recovery via complete combustion. For instance, waste plastics can
be very effectively used in blast furnaces during the steel-making process. However, not only
is the polymer's chemical structure altered during tertiary and quaternary recycling processes,
but volatile and/or hazardous compounds are frequently produced. An end-of-life polymer
product's environmental performance is maximized if primary and secondary recycling are
encouraged [41].
Nevertheless, their application is limited in a few ways. Since thermosets cannot be reused
without breaking chemical covalent connections, it can only be applied to thermoplastic
polymers [42]. Second, different grades of thermoplastics need to be kept apart because
combining immiscible polymers affects the recovered product's processing and mechanical
qualities negatively [43].

Review of Previous Researchers

In the study conducted by (Saha & Afsar, 2018) [49], the thermo-mechanical and
morphological properties of water hyacinth (WH) fiber reinforced polypropylene (PP) bio
composites were analyzed. With a view to increasing the compatibility between the WH fibers
and polypropylene matrix, raw WH fibers were chemically treated with Benzene diazonium
salt in base media. Composites were manufactured with five different levels of loading (15, 20,
25, 30 and 35 wt%) of both the raw and treated WH fibers. Thermal properties of WH-PP
composites were evaluated by thermogravimetric

37
and differential thermal analyses [50]. To analyze mechanical properties of composites, tests of
tensile strength and stiffness, flexural strength, and stiffness, and Charpy impact strength were
carried out following ASTM standards [51]. It was found that thermal stability and all the
mechanical properties except tensile strength were improved considerably for chemically
treated WH fiber composites in comparison with untreated ones. Water absorption properties
were studied to evaluate the viability of these bio composites under specified conditions [52].

In the research done by (Tusnim, et al., 2018), sheep wool fiber and jute fiber reinforced hybrid
polypropylene composites were prepared and tested by varying the fiber and polypropylene
ratio and then by varying wool and jute fiber ratio keeping the polypropylene quantity
unchanged. Here, 5%, 10% and 15% of the fibers in a ratio of 1:1 was copulated with
polypropylene in a hot press machine. For mechanical characterization, tensile, flexural,
impact and hardness tests were conducted. From these tests, it was observed that the composite
with 15% fiber content had the best properties. For further enhancement, two separate samples
with 1:3 and 3:1 fiber ratio and 85% polypropylene were prepared. It was revealed that the
sample with wool and jute fiber at 1:3 ratio had the best set of properties.

In the study done by (Abraham, et al., 2009) commercial grade of polypropylene (PP) was
reinforced with nylon-6 fibers of three diameters at levels up to 30wt% PP. The addition of the
fibers improves the mechanical properties such as tensile strength and flexural strength.
Attempts are made to improve the interfacial adhesion between the fibers and matrix by
grafting the matrix with maleic anhydride in presence of styrene. The mechanical properties
show significant improvements after these modifications.

38
 CHAPTER 3

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Collection of fiber and polypropylene

Commercial Grade Polypropylene (PP) as shown in Figure 3.1 were used in this study. It is
granular in form. The PP has a melting point of 130-171°C.

wFigure 3-1 Polypropylene granules.

Extraction of Sponge gourd fiber was totally manual. Stems of Sponge gourd (figure 3.2) were
collected. These were cut into small pieces. Finally, fibers were extracted from the fibrous core
of the Sponge gourd stem. The entire process has been summarized in figure 3.3.

Figure 3-2 Stems of sponge gourd.

39
 Figure 3-3 Fiber extraction process.

Stems were cut into number of pieces (top), peels were taken off (bottom), remaining fibrous
core (left), extracted fibers (middle)

Figure 3-4 Water hyacinth fibers.

Fibers from Nylon and sheep wool were bought from local market.

40
 Figure 3-6 sugarcane bagasse Figure 3-5 Nylon

Manufacturing of Composites

Hybrid composites of polypropylene matrix reinforced alternately with fibers from “sponge
gourd + sugarcane bagasse” and “nylon + sponge gourd” in a 150 mm ×150 mm ×5 mm die
was manufactured using a hot press machine with a maximum load of 30 kN and maximum
temperature of 190°C.

Figure 3-7 Hot Press Machine.

All the fibers were cut into lengths of 3–5 mm and weighed based on the specified percentage.
Weighing the polypropylene was done. To facilitate the easy removal of the composite following
the production process, the mould surface was meticulously cleaned and generously sprayed.

41
 Figure 3-8 Mould used in manufacturing.

The lower mold had one layer of polypropylene evenly distributed throughout . Subsequently,
the weighted fibers were equally distributed over the polypropylene layer. After spreading the
leftover polypropylene over the fiber, the upper mold was placed over it.

The Hot Press Machine was filled with the mold. The initial temperature was increased to
150°C, and the fiber and matrix mixture was allowed to press at 30 KN pressure. The
temperature was raised to 165°C and then held there for two to three minutes. The temperature
was then held at 150°C for five to ten minutes. At last, water was added to bring the mold
down to room temperature. The specimen was carefully removed from the mold once the
pressure was released and it had cooled.

Two distinct hybrid composites with a polypropylene matrix were made using two different fiber
compositions. The first set included fiber made from sponge gourd and sugarcane bagasse, a
natural fiber. Sponge gourd fiber and nylon, a synthetic material, were used to make the other set.
The fiber content ranged from 0% to 5%, 10%, and 15% for every set.
Testing of Composites

Mechanical Properties Test

Tensile Test

Tensile tests were conducted according to ASTM D 638-01 [71] using a Universal Testing
Machine (Model: MSC-5/500, Agawn Seiki Company Limited, Japan). The test involves the
application of tension in the workpiece until it fractures. The tensile stress is recorded
according to strain.

42
Specimen Dimensions: Specimen for tensile test was cut out from the composite sample. The
dimension of the specimen used was 130 mm x 15 mm x 3 mm as shown in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3-9 Tensile specimen dimensions.

Figure 3-10 Prepared tensile test samples.

Operation steps: The following steps were performed for the tensile test:

The specimen's dimensions were measured and documented. After the machine was calibrated,
the dimension's data were entered. A crosshead speed of 5 mm/min was selected. A graph of
stress against strain was obtained at the conclusion of the test. Equation (i) was used to calculate
the ultimate tensile strength. Young's modulus was computed using the graph's slope.
= F/A.................................(i)

Flexural Test

For composites whose tensile, compressive, and shear stresses act simultaneously, the flexural
test is typically used. "The depth of support span shall be 16 times the depth (thickness) of the
beam," the statement states. For specimens deeper than 3.2 mm, the specimen width cannot be
greater than one-fourth of the support span [53].
Total length of the specimen is taken as {SP (length of support span= 16d) + 30 mm}

43
 Figure 3-11 Flexural test specimen dimensions.

Figure 3-12 Prepared flexural test samples.

The flexural test specimens were prepared according to ASTM D 790-98 [72] as shown in
Figure 3.7. Then all the dimensions were measured. After that, the rate of crosshead motion
was calculated using the following formula [54],

R= 0.05L2/ 6d ……(ii)

Where, R= rate of crosshead motion, mm/min; d= depth of beam, mm.

The loading nose was positioned halfway between the supports, and the supports and loading
nose were oriented so that the axes of the cylindrical surfaces were parallel. At the designated
crosshead motion, the specimen was loaded, and load-deflection measurements were made
concurrently. When a rupture happened at the test specimen's exterior, the test was stopped. The
following formula was used to determine the flexural stress:
=3 /2bd2....................(iii)

Here,

44
σf = stress in the outer fibers at the midpoint, MPa

45
 P = load, N
L = support span, mm
b = width of the beam, mm
d = depth of the beam,
mm.
Flexural Modulus, = L3m/4bd2……… (iv)
Where, m = slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain curve.

Hardness Test

A shore hardness testing machine was used to determine the composite's level of hardness. The
Shore Durometer is one of several tools used to gauge a material's hardness. Rubbers,
elastomers, and polymers can all have their hardness determined using a Shore Durometer.
For materials with various properties, Durometer comes in a variety of scales. Softer plastics
are on the A scale, and harder plastics are on the D scale. The shore D scale was used to
measure the composites' hardness.

Figure 3-13 Durometer.

Water Absorption Test

The amount of water absorbed under particular circumstances can be ascertained using water
absorption. The kind of plastic, the additives used, the exposure time, and the temperature all have
an impact on how much water is absorbed. The 2.5-inch/1-inch test specimens were cut out of the
composites that had been molded. Samples were left to air dry for a full day. The specimens are
then weighed. After that, these samples were submerged in room-temperature distilled water.
After 24 hours, the samples were removed from the water, and the surface water was
weighed after being cleaned with tissue paper.

46
Water absorption is expressed as the increase in weight% as in the following equation:

Wf − Wi
%Water absorption= × 100
Wi

Where, Wf = final weight (after absorption), Wi = initial weight (before absorption)

Thermal Properties Test

Thermal properties of the manufactured composite sheets were measured by means of

thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) as
described in the following section.

Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

Utilizing a thermogravimetric analyzer (TA instrument TGA Q50, model: V6.4 Build 193), the
samples' thermal stability was assessed. Alumina crucible weighing approximately 30 mg of the
composite was used for a thermogravimetric analysis, which was conducted at room
temperature up to 500˚C with a heating rate of 10˚C min-1 and a nitrogen flow rate of 50
mL•min-1. To gain a better understanding of the number of degradation steps and thermal
degradation, TGA samples with DTG (Derivative Thermogravimetry) curves were obtained.

Figure 3-15 TGA machine

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

For sample screening, sample profiling, and unknown identification, FTIR is a useful
analytical tool. Infrared radiation is passed through a sample in infrared spectroscopy. The
sample absorbs some of the infrared radiation, while some of it passes through (transmits). The
resulting spectrum shows the sample material's molecular absorption and transmission as a
function of wavelength. As chemical bonds absorb infrared energy at specific frequencies (or
wavelengths), the basic

47
structure of compounds can be determined by the spectral locations of their IR absorptions.

In the current investigation, 32 additional scans of the infrared spectra of fiber- reinforced
hybrid PP composites were taken with a SHIMADZU spectrometer. To create a powdered
sample, the pure PP and composite samples were initially scraped. Next, in a mortar and
pestle, potassium bromide (KBr) was combined with them at a ratio of (KBr: Sample = 100:1).
Following the creation of a homogenous mixture, the powder was placed onto a 13 mm
diameter circular dice, and a hand press machine was used to form a pellet. After that, the
transparent circular disc (pellet) was put inside the FTIR apparatus to get the infrared
spectrum. IR spectrum was obtained within the range of 400-4000 cm [57].

48
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The outcomes are discussed in two segments based on variations in the types of
fiber used to reinforce the polypropylene matrix to facilitate a better understanding
of the work and results. As was previously mentioned, the fiber content ranged for
each type from 0% to 5%, 10%, and 15%.
Type-I:
Sugarcane bagasse and Sponge Gourd Fiber Reinforced PP
Composite
Need to write something later

Tensile Properties

Tensile properties (Tensile strength, young’s modulus, and %Elongation) of the composite
samples were measured for each fiber content of 5, 10, and 15 wt.% sugarcane bagasse and
sponge gourd fiber (1: 1) with the help of stress/strain curves and respective equations. The
mentioned tensile properties of sugarcane bagasse and sponge gourd fiber (1: 1) reinforced
hybrid polypropylene composites at different fiber loadings are summarized in Table 4.1. The
tensile strength values of the composites for different fiber loadings are shown in Figure 4.1
and young’s modulus values of the composites for different fiber loadings are shown in Figure
4.2. The variation in elongation with varying fiber loading is represented in figure 4.3.

49
 Table 4-1 Tensile properties of polypropylene matrix composite reinforced with sponge
gourd and sugarcane bagasse for different fiber loading.

wt% fiber Tensile Strength Young’s Modulus % Elongation

(MPa) (MPa)
0 25.3 834 5.9
5 32.2 1264 8.5
10 19.35 1105 9.9

15 17.825 1064 10

Tensile strength increased with an increase in fiber loading (Figure 4.1(a)). As the
fiber loading increased, the interfacial area between the fiber and matrix increased,
which was weak because of the worsening interfacial bonding between the cellulose-
based hydrophilic filler (Sponge gourd fiber) and the hydrophobic polypropylene
matrix [61]. This consequently decreased tensile strength.. In this case, the result may
be since the external load in the matrix was not reinforced by sponge gourd fibers.

Figure 4-1 Variation of tensile strength against fiber loading.

50
 Figure 4-2 Variation of Young’s Modulus against fiber loading

Young’s Modulus has gradually decreased with increasing fiber content. This can be
due to a very low aspect ratio of the Sponge gourd fibers. Another factor that may
have contributed to this decline in strength and modulus is the increase of porosity in
the composite during processing, due to insufficient wetting of fibers.

Figure 4-3 Variation in % elongation with varying fiber loading.

51
This is very much predictable that since Young’s Modulus has decreased with
increasing fiber content, the composite material will tend to be more elastic and thus
will show a high elongation. This is evident from the above plot. With no fiber
loading, PP’s elongation was 5.83% which has increased to 8.92% for PP+5% fiber.
This further increased to 9.25% when the fiber loading was 15%. A slight decrease in
elongation for 10% fiber-reinforced composite might be due to internal defects such
as porosity, inclusion, and agglomeration, or surface opening of the fibers.

Flexural Properties

The flexural strength and flexural modulus of wool and WH fiber (Wool: WH fiber=
1: 1) reinforced hybrid polypropylene composites at different fiber loadings are
summarized in Table 4.2. The effect of fiber loading on the flexural properties of
sheep wool and WH fiber (Wool: WH fiber = 1:1) reinforced hybrid polypropylene
composites are shown in Figures 4.4 and 4.5.

Table 4-2 Effect of fiber loading on Flexural Properties of the prepared composite

wt. % fiber Flexural Strength (MPa) Flexural Modulus (MPa)

0 31.5 802.8
5 33.6 950.2
10 38.8 1076.3
15 41.7 1107.4

52
Figure 4-4 Variation of Flexural Strength against fiber loading.

53
Flexural strength decreased when fiber loading increased from 0 to 5%. Then flexural
strength increased up to 10% fiber loading (Figure 4.4). This common behaviour was
also found in previous research [65]. General composite theory regards composites as
brittle fibers and ductile–matrix systems [66]. If the fiber content is below its
minimum volume faction, the stress on a composite may be high enough to break the
fibers [67]. These broken fibers can be treated as voids, which reduce the strength of
the composites [68].

Then a significant decrease in flexural strength at 15% fiber represents an excess of

the optimum fiber content that the composite can sustain for the proposed dimension.
Due to the very high amount of fiber loading, fibers are exposed to the surface from
the middle layer penetrating the polypropylene matrix layer and forming a bridge that
connects both faces of the composite. When the load is applied, this bridge promotes
easy fracture leading to very low strength. For the same reason, the Flexural modulus
for 15% fiber loading decreased drastically from 10% (figure 4.5). The initial increase
in flexural modulus up to 10% represents the typical expectation of fiber loading.

Figure 4-5 Variation of flexural modulus against fiber loading.

Hardness Properties

The effect of fiber loading on the hardness of prepared composites is shown in Figure
4.6 which is a graphical representation of table 4.3. The hardness increases when the
material’s resistance to deformation increases. A composite's hardness depends on the
filler's distribution into the matrix [69] [70].
54
 Table 4-3 Effect of variation in fiber loading on hardness values of the produced
composite.
wt. % fiber Hardness (Shore D)

0 67.8
5 76.5
10 78.75
15 79.5

Figure 4-6 Variation of hardness against fiber loading.

Usually, the presence of a more flexible matrix causes the resultant composites to
exhibit lower hardness. Hardness is maximum at 5% fiber loading, then it decreased
up to 15% fiber loading. Hardness increased at 5wt. % because the incorporation of
fiber into the polypropylene matrix reduced the flexibility of the matrix resulting in a
more rigid composite. With 10% and 15% fiber loading, hardness decreased because
of the poor dispersion of the fiber into the matrix with more voids between the matrix
and fiber.

Water Absorption Characteristics

Water absorption test data for polypropylene matrix composite reinforced with WH fiber and
sheep wool are summarized in table 4.4 and a corresponding graphical representation is
presented in figure 4.7. It is expected as well as evidence that with

55
increasing fiber content the amount of water absorbed increased. A similar finding is also
reported in [71].

Table 4-4 Water absorption behavior with changing fiber content.

wt. %fiber % water absorbed

0 0.27
5 1.2
10 4.08
15 5.03

Figure 4-7 Variation of Water absorption against fiber loading.

Thermal Properties Analysis

Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA)

The thermal stability of the fiber-reinforced composites is a very important parameter that
needs to be addressed during the preparation of those composites. TGA curves of various
composites are shown in Figure 4.10.

The sample of pure PP shows a degradation temperature range of 230-460 oC.For all the
composites, moisture loss occurred at below 100oC.

In the composite containing 5% sponge gourd and sugarcane bagasse fiber (at 1:1),

56
thermal degradationoccurred at around 225–390°C. For the composite containing 10% fiber
reinforcement, thermal degradation took place in the range of 250-400oC. For 15% fiber
reinforcement, the composite was thermally degraded at 270-415 oC. As the thermal
degradation occurs after 200°C, it can be said that the safe service temperature should be 200
o
C.

57
58
 Figure 4-10 TGA curves of PP matrix composite with (a) 0%, (b) 5%, (c) 10%, (d) 15% sponge
gourd and sugarcane bagasse(at 1:1) loading.

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

The FTIR spectrum of the PP matrix composites with 0, 5, 10, and 15 wt. % fiber
loading (sponge gourd:bagasse = 1: 1) are shown in Figures 4.11 (a, b, c, and d )

Figure 4-11 (a) FTIR spectroscopy for 0% fiber loading.

59
Figure 4-13 (b) FTIR spectroscopy for 5% fiber loading.

Figure 4-13 (c) FTIR spectroscopy for 10% fiber loading.

Figure 4-13 (d) FTIR spectroscopy for 15% fiber loading.

60
The spectra of all samples showed characteristic C–H stretching vibration around 2915 cm−1
[72]. 3 vibrational bands are unique to all sets of composites at 2840, 1453, and 1021 cm−1,
with the former band attributed to C-H stretching and O-H stretching bond structure that
contains a functional group of alkanes (cellulose and lignin) and carboxylic acids. The peak at
1457 cm-1 is characterized as C-H bending bond from the functional group of alkanes
(cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin), and the peak at 1021 cm-1 is characterized as C-O
stretching bond structure from the functional group of alcohol (cellulose, hemicellulose, and
lignin), carboxylic acids, esters, and ethers [73].

Type-II
Nylon and Sponge gourd Fiber Reinforced PP
In this case, the Sugarcane bagasse fiber (natural) is replaced by nylon fiber (synthetic), and
all otheringredients are kept identical. The same sort of properties as the previous ones have
been tested and discussed in the following section.

Tensile Properties

Although trends focus more on the study of natural fibers as reinforcement, the use of
synthetic fibers in composites remains popular owing to their higher strength compared with
natural fiber. Research continues synthetic fibers intended to improve the mechanical
performance of synthetic fiber-reinforced polymer composites [74]. Tensile properties (Tensile
strength, young’s modulus, and %Elongation) of the composite samples were measured for
each fiber content of 5, 10, and 15 wt.% wool and nylon fiber (Wool: Nylon =1: 1) and are
summarized in Table 4.5. The tensile strength values of the composites for different fiber
loadings are shown in Figure 4.12 and young’s modulus values of the composites for different
fiber loadings are shown in Figure 4.13. The variation in elongation with varying fiber loading
is represented in figure 4.14.

Table 4-5 Tensile Properties of PP matrix composite reinforced with sponge gourd and
nylon fiber.
wt. % fiber Tensile Strength (MPa) Young’s Modulus (MPa) % Elongation
0 25.3 834 7.03
5 27.89 1263 5.97
10 25.95 1312 4.67
15 24.87 1346 4.09

61
The tensile strength of 5% fiber-reinforced composite has increased with respect to
unreinforced PP sheets. This indicates that the load applied to the composite has been
transferred to the inner fibrous layer and this layer successfully ended up sustaining a higher
load before necking. One more essential conclusion from this observation is that the aspect
ratio of both fibers was sufficiently high. This further resulted in a strong bond between them
and the matrix which leads to a higher tensile strength. As the fiber content is increased from 5
to 10%, the curve (figure 4.12) starts falling and so as the strength. This could be due to a
higher amount of fiber increasing the possibility of uneven distribution of fibers all over the
matrix. But the strength is still higher than the unreinforced sheet. At 15% fiber loading, there
were fiber-rich regions that were not bonded by the matrix and were not a continuous phase.
Voids formed in these areas and caused a drastic decrease in tensile strength.

Figure 4-12 Variation of tensile strength against fiber loading.

62
Figure 4-13 Variation of Young’s modulus against fiber loading.

63
Reinforcing has increased the young’s modulus to a significantly higher level with the
maximum for 5% fiber loading. The reasons are same as mentioned earlier while describing
strength. With increasing fiber content it decreased continuously but it still remained
remarkably higher than that of unreinforced sheets.

Figure 4-14 Change in % elongation with change in fiber loading.

Typically, elongation is inversely proportional to young’s modulus. Since the fiber- reinforced
composite sheets have higher modulus, their ductility will be, as per rule, lower than
unreinforced sheet. And as a result, they will give lower elongation which is evident from the
plot (figure 4.14). Furthermore, increasing fiber content leads to more

64
brittleness. So, the curve declines continuously.

Flexural Properties

The flexural properties (flexural strength and flexural modulus) of wool and nylon fiber (Wool:
Nylon = 1: 1) reinforced hybrid polypropylene composites at different fiber loadings are
summarized in Table 4.6 which are further represented in Figures 4.15 and 4.16.

Table 4-6 Effect of fiber loading on Flexural properties of PP matrix composite

reinforced with sheep wool and nylon fiber.

wt. % fiber Flexural Strength Flexural Modulus

(MPa) (MPa)
0 31.5 802.8
5 41.6 992.0
10 49.7 1478.9
15 54.6 1676

Figure 4-15 Variation of Flexural strength against fiber loading.

65
 Figure 4-16 Variation of flexural modulus against fiber loading.

The change in flexural strength and modulus as function of fiber content shows similar pattern.
From 0 to 5% increase in fiber loading, we get a maximum for both the properties which is
significantly higher than the unreinforced values. Then with further increase in fiber fraction,
strength, and modulus decrease. Initially, the reinforcing effect of fibers workout to improve
flexural properties by enhancing the ability to sustain more bending load before a fracture
occurs. The load is potentially carried by the inner fibrous layer. But with a further high
amount of fiber, the properties fall because of uneven distribution of fibers and insufficient
bonding with matrix since the fraction of matrix decreases with increasing fiber content.
Besides being short fiber composite, some tails of fibers were open to the surface which often
leads to easy crack propagation degrading the properties.

Hardness Properties

The hardness of the manufactured composite as a function of fiber fraction is shown in Figure
4.17 which is a graphical representation of table 4.7. The hardness increases when the
material’s resistance to deformation increases.

Table 4-7 Change in hardness with increasing fiber loading.

wt. % fiber Hardness (Shore D)

0 67.8
5 79.5
10 81
15 81.5
66
 Figure 4-17 Variation of Hardness against fiber loading.

The hardness of unreinforced PP sheet was 67.83 which increased to 77.5 (in shore D scale)
when it is reinforced with 5% sponge gourd and nylon fiber (1:1). It changed up to 10 percent
towards 80.5. Finally, with 15% fiber loading, it increased to 81.5. The reinforcing effect of
fiber is evident from this result.

Water Absorption Characteristics

The ability of absorbing water of a polypropylene matrix composite reinforced with nylon
fiber and sponge gourd are summarized in table 4.8 from water absorption test data and a
corresponding graphical represent[‘ation is presented in figure 4.18. It is expectedand supported
by this evidence that the amount of water absorbed increased as the fibercontent rose. The
same conclusion has been outlined in [71].

Table 4-8 Water absorption property of manufactured composite with different fiber
loading.
wt. % fiber % water absorbed
0 0.27
5 0.8
10 0.94
15 0.98

67
Figure 4-18 Water absoprption Test

68
Thermal Properties Analysis

Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA)

The thermal stability of the fiber-reinforced composites is a very important parameter for
manufacturing, processing, and application of these composites. TGA curves of various
composites are shown in Figure 4.20.

For all the composites, moisture loss occurred at below 100 oC. From the discussion of
previous type, the sample of pure PP shows a degradation temperature range of 230- 460oC.

 In the composite containing 5% sponge gourd and nylon fiber (at 1:1),
thermaldegradation occurred at around 250–410°C.
 For the composite containing 10% fiber reinforcement, thermal degradation
took place in the range of 250-450oC.
 For 15% fiber reinforcement, the composite was thermally degraded at 260-
425oC.

69
 Figure 4-20 TGA curves of PP matrix composite with (a) 5%; (b) 10%; (c) 15%
Nylon fiber and sponge gourd (at 1:1) loading.

It may be claimed that the safe service temperature for this composite should be within 200°C
because thermal degradation starts to occur after 200°C. Additionally, the

70
temperature at which the produced composite degraded thermally was higher when fiber
loading increased from 5% to 10%.

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

The FTIR spectrum of the PP matrix composites with fiber loading of 0, 5, 10, and 15 wt. %
(sponge gourd: Nylon = 1: 1) are shown in Figures 4.21 (a, b, and c respectively).

71
 (a) 5% fiber loading.

(b) 10% fiber loading.

(c) 15% fiber loading

Figure 4-21 FTIR spectroscopy for (a) 5% (b) 10% (c) 15% fiber loading.

72
Based on the FTIR spectra above, the spectra around 2914, 2852, and 2835 cm -1 describe C-H
stretch while the peak around 1453 and 1375 cm -1 are specific spectra of polypropylene
containing CH2 deformation and symmetric CH3 deformation [75].

73
 CHAPTER 5

OPTIMIZATION

In the previous chapter, we discussed two types of composites which are:

Type I: PP matrix composite reinforced with Sugarcane bagasse fiber and Sponge
gourd.
Type II: PP matrix composite reinforced with Nylon fiber and sponge gourd.

In this chapter, we will analyze and thus optimize the Mechanical properties and Water
absorption characteristics to look for the best between these two.

Mechanical Properties Comparison

For both types, the 5% reinforcement has come out to be more consistent and promising.
That’s why properties of this category have been compared to seek for the best in applications
where mechanical properties are a headache. The comparisons are represented below.

Figure 5-1 Tensile properties comparison for 5% fiber reinforcement.

It is obvious that composite reinforced with synthetic fiber will possess notably enhanced
properties when compared with composite made of natural fiber. They are

74
solid, smooth, and straight in structure unlike a natural fiber which is hollow. Hence, they
promise much better properties. This is evident from the above and following plots. In case of
composite reinforced with nylon (synthetic) and sheep wool both the tensile strength and
young’s modulus are significantly higher with respect to that made of WH fiber (natural) and
sheep wool. We see that the strength with nylon fiber is nearly doubled while the modulus
increased 4 times.

Figure 5-2 Flexural properties comparison for 5% fiber reinforcement.

Figure 5-3 Hardness comparison for 5% fiber reinforcement.

75
Similar comments can be made in case of flexural properties. Both the flexural strength and
flexural modulus have increased more than 1.5 times for nylon fiber reinforced composite in
comparison with the composite reinforced with WH fibers.

Surprisingly, the hardness value obtained for both the composites are identical.

Water Absorption Properties

Water absorption is one of the most important properties of natural fibers, which determines
strength, elongation, and many other end-product properties. The constituents of these fibers,
especially the cellulose (chemical composition rich in cellulose) being glucose, have hydroxyl
groups (-OH). The presence of hydroxyl makes them a polar group, which is liable for water
absorption, and thus hydrophilic in nature [76]. In general, synthetic fibers are highly strong,
which suggests that they have a strong intermolecular force of attraction, implying that they
have a very narrow intermolecular gap and a small gap for water absorption. So, they absorb
very little water.

Our first type of composite contains two natural fibers, i.e., WH fiber and sheep wool. Both
promote high water absorption. On the other hand, the second type is composed of nylon fiber,
which is synthetic, and sheep wool. So, it absorbs a very small amount of water during the
experimental time [77]. Besides, the higher the fiber content the larger amount of water it
absorbs as evident from the previous chapter. The composite with 15% fiber reinforcement
absorbs more water than the other compositions. The result is graphically represented in figure
5.4.

76
77
Figure 5-4 Water absorption characteristics of 15% fiber reinforced composite.

78
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORKS

Conclusions

In this study, the effect of different fiber reinforcement on the mechanical, thermal,
water absorption, and biodegradability properties of PP matrix composite has been
explored. The manufacturing route was identical and so as the testing methods. The
results explain that, when we are concerned with mechanical properties, the nylon and
sheep wool reinforced composite outperform the other type which is reinforced with
WH fiber and wool. WH fiber and wool both being natural fiber possess lower
strength and a less bonding effect with the PP matrix. As a result, properties of this set
of composites are lower than the other. Besides, the 5% fiber reinforcement gives
more promising result than the higher additions due to better fiber distribution. When
the purpose of the application is to make biodegradable and water absorbent material,
the first type (containing WH fiber and wool) becomes the ultimate choice. In this
case, higher fiber content results in more ability to show the targeted properties and
hence 15% reinforcement gives the highest of these properties. But in case of on-field
application, the fraction of fiber must be adjusted so that optimum mechanical
properties are maintained. Apart from these analysis, thermal tests including FTIR
and TGA were done as well. However, the thermal properties didn’t vary much with
the addition of mentioned fibers to PP matrix.

Limitations and Recommendations for Future Works

Composite materials are highly chemical resistant and manufactured at a lower cost as
compared to steel and concrete hence an alternative to engineering materials
economically. But growing environmental awareness forced researchers to look for
recyclable, biodegradable, low density, and low-cost green composites also known as
natural fiber composites, although mechanical properties of these fibers are low, but
stiffness is comparable to synthetic fibers. Development of new composite products
from the easily renewable natural materials has a strong potential to deliver novel
biodegradable and/or readily recyclable materials suitable for the automotive,
packaging industry and all other applications. Hybrid composite reinforced with
natural
79
and synthetic fibers provide biodegradable products, easy way of recycling in
conjunction with balanced pursuit of properties.

In this present research, WH and wool fiber were used with polypropylene matrix in
type I while synthetic fiber Nylon and natural fiber wool were reinforced to PP in
type
II. Different types of combination can be possible in different ways for manufacturing
new composites with respect to its application and the research field in this sector is
widespread.

• Matrix modification can be carried out to enhance compatibility. Composites

containing only one fiber ratio (WH: Wool = 1:1 and Nylon: Wool = 1:1) were
prepared and they gave different properties. Composites can be prepared with
different fiber ratio to study the change of the properties.
• To enhance compatibility, matrix modification can also be carried out.

• In this research, composite was prepared by reinforcing fibers, but fiber

orientation was random. To obtain different combination of properties fiber
orientation can be changed.

• Tests such as wearing or weathering can be conducted to observe its long-time

exposure characteristics.
• Effect of fiber aspect ratio and length must be investigated.

• Fracture properties should be investigated using SEM images.

80
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