SKN COLLEGE Of AGRICULTURE :JOBNER

(SKN AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITY:JOBNER)

FUNDAMNNTALS OF PLANT PATHOLOGY

(PPATH- 121) (2+1)

Name : ……………………………………………………..
Class : B.s.c(hons.)Agriculture Part I Sem. II
Batch : ………………………………..

College : SKN COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE :JOBNER

……………………………………………………………………
Mobile No. …………………………………………………………..

PRNPARND BY:

TARUN MNNNA & SURAJ KUMAR

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 COURESE CONTENT

1. Importance of plant diseases, scope and objectives of Plant Pathology 1

2. History of Plant Pathology with special reference to Indian work. 3
3. Terms and concepts in Plant Pathology 3
4 .Pathogenesis 2
5. Causes and classification of plant diseases. 1
6. Important plant pathogenic organisms, different groups: fungi,
bacteria, fastidious vascular bacteria, phytoplasmas, spiroplasmas,
viruses, viroids, algae, protozoa, phanerogamic parasites and nematodes 3
with examples of diseases caused by them.
7. Diseases and symptoms due to abiotic causes. 1
8. Fungi: General characters, somatic structures, types of fungal thalli, fungal
tissues, modifications of thallus,
9. Fungi: Reproduction (asexual and sexual)
10. Fungi: Nomenclature, Binomial system of nomenclature, classification of
fungi (key to Domain to Phylum). 3

11 Bacteria and mollicutes: General morphological characters, reproduction

and classification of plant pathogenic bacteria. 2
12 Classification of plant pathogenic bacteria. 2
13 Viruses: nature, structure and transmission. 2
14 Nematodes: General morphology, outline of classification, 2
15 Nematodes: Symptoms and nature of damage caused by plant nematodes
(Heterodera, Meloidogyne and Anguina). 2
16 Role of enzymes and toxins in disease development. 1
17. Defense mechanism in plants. 1

PRNPARND BY:

TARUN MNNNA & SURAJ KUMAR

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 INTRODUCTION

Plant Pathology/Phytopathology(Phyton=plant,Pathos=suffering,ailment,
Logos=study / discourse/knowledge) ie., the study of nature, development
and management of plant diseases.

Definition: A branch of Agricultural science which deals with

cause,etiology,resulting losses and management of plant diseases.

Pathogen: is an entity usually a micro organism that can incite disease in

susceptible plants. It is also referred to as incitant, causal agent or causal
organism.

Plant Disease: (dis-ease ie.,not at ease):It is the malfunctioning of host

cells and tissue that results from continuous irritation by a pathogenic agent
and leads to development of symptoms.

Symptoms: External or internal reactions or alterations of a plant as a

result of disease.

Plant Pathology:
• Plant pathology or phytopathology is the science, which deals with the plant
diseases. It is concerned with health and productivity of growing plants.

Phytopathology (Greek Phyton = plant + pathos - disease, ailments + logos =

discourse, knowledge) is the branch of agricultural, botanical or biological
science which deals with the cause, etiology (aetiology), resulting in losses and
management methods of plant diseases.

Relation to other Sciences

• Plant pathology is related to many other sciences such as virology, mycology,
bacteriology, microbiology, physiology, chemistry, genetics, biotechnology
etc., all of which provide the knowledge required for the correct diagnosis and
management of plant diseases

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Plant Pathology- Definition
Plant Pathology, also known as Phytopathology is a branch of agricultural,
biological or botanical science which deals with the study of diseases in plants -
their causes, etiology, epidemiology, resulting losses and management

Importance of plant pathogens :

• .Plant diseases caused by micro organisms are of param ount
importance to humans because they damage plants and plant
products on which human depend for food, clothing, furniture and
housing.
• Millions of people all over the world still depend on their own plant
produce for their survival.
• Plant diseases reduce the quality and quantity of plant produce.
Eg.Wheat bunt caused by Tilletia sp.
• Results in increased prices of products to consumer.
• . Results in severe pathological effects on humans and animals that
eat plant products.
• Destroy beauty of environment by damaging plants around home,
park, streets and forests.
• The pesticides used to control disease, pollute the water and
environment.
• Reduce crop yields.
• Cause financial loss ie.,the money spent for plant protection c
hemicals.
• Changes agricultural pattern.
• .Influences the industries ie.,lack of raw material .
• .Some plant diseases even change food habits of human population.

Examples of serious diseases that lead to famines:

Irish famine (1845) - lateblight of potato by Phytophthora infestans

destroyed million hectares of potato fields thus people switched over to
other food crops.

Bengal famine - Bipolaris oryzae (1942), West Bengal, India

Coffee rust - Hemileia vastatrix (1868), Srilanka
Wheat rust - Puccinia graminis f.sp.tritici (1940) U.S.A
Southern corn leaf blight - Helminthosporium maydis , U.S.A

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Important Phytopathogenic organisms :
.
1.Fungi: Fungi are eukaryotic, spore bearing, achlorophyllous organisms
that generally reproduce sexually and asexually and whose filamentous,
branched somatic structures are typically surrounded by cell walls
consisting chitin or cellulose or both with many organic molecules.

2.Bacteria: Bacteria are extremely minute, rigid, essentially unicellular

organisms free of true chlorophyll and generally devoid of any
photosynthetic pigment, most commonly multiplying asexually by simple
transverse fission, the resulting cell, being of equal or nearly equal in size.

3.Fastidious vascular bacteria (RLO‘s). Fastidious vascular bacteria are

similar to bacteria in most respects but are obligate parasites or can not be
grown on routene bacteriological media.

4.Mollicutes (phytoplasma and spiroplasma) :

I. Phytoplasma : Phytoplasmas are pleomorphic, wall less prokaryotic
micro organisms, that can infect plants and can not yet to be grown in
culture.
II.Spiroplasma : Spiroplasmas are helical, wall less prokaryotic micro
organisms that are present in phloem of diseased plants, often helical in
culture and are thought to be a kind of mycoplasma and can be cultured
on artificial medium.
5.Virus: A sub-microscopic, obligate parasite consisting of nucleic acid and
protein that multiplies only intracellularly and is potentially pathogenic.

6. Viroids: Small, low molecular weight ribonucleic acids(RNA) that can

infect plant cells, replicate themselves and cause disease in plants.

7.Algae: Algae are eukaryotic,photosynthetic, uni or multicellular

organisms, containing chlorophyll and a few algae mainly green algae
cause plant diseases.

8.Flagellated protozoans :Protozoa are microscopic,nonphotosynthetic,

eukaryotic,flagellate motile,single celled animals.

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 LECTURE:1

Importanoe of plant diseases, soope and obceotives of Plant Pathology

.

Objectives of Plant Pathology:

• To study living, non-living and environmental causes of diseases or disorders of

the plants.
• To study the mechanism of plant disease development.
• To study interaction between host/susceptible and the pathogens.
• To develop systems of management of plant diseases and reducing losses caused
by THEM.

Scope of Plant Pathology :

Plant pathology comprises with the basic knowledge and technologies of Botany,
Plant Anatomy, Plant Physiology, Mycology, Bacteriology, Virology, Nematology,
Genetics, Molecular Biology, Genetic Engineering, Biochemistry, Horticulture,
Tissue Culture, Soil Science, Forestry, Physics, Chemistry, Meteorology, Statistics
and many other branches of applied science.

Importance of Plant Diseases or Plant Pathology

Losses they cause.

About 34% of the crop produce is lost annually due to diseases,

insect-pests and weeds on the global basis (Cramer, 1967); out of
which, 12% is lost due to diseases (caused by fungi, bacteria or
viruses), 11% due to nematodes, 7% due to insect- pests and 3% due
to weeds.

When plant protection measures are not implemented, annual loss

of 30-50% are common in major crops including horticulture
(Encyclopedia Britannica,

Late blight of potato caused by Phytophthora infestans was

responsible for causing Irishfamine in 1845 by destroying the
potato crop, the staple food of the people.

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Hundreds of thousand people died of hunger and disease, and there
was a large scale migration of the population to other countries
including North American continent.

The population of Ireland was 8 million in 1940, which was reduced

to 4 million after the famine.

This single disease forced man to realize the importance of plant

diseases, and brought the science of Plant Pathology to lime
light

Wheat rust epidemics occurred from time to time in many

countries. Wheat rusts forcedfarmers to change their cropping
pattern and wheat was replaced by corn or maize or rye.
Brown spot of rice caused by Helminthosporium oryzae was
responsible for Bengalfamine in 1943, which many people think
one of the reasons for the division of Bengal

Coffee rust caused by Hemileia vastatrix forced to cut down the

coffee plants in SriLanka in 1867.

Powdery mildew of grapevines caused by (Uncinula necator), by

1854, reduced the French wine production by 80 per cent.

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LECTURE:2 cr.hrs. 3
History of Plant Patholoiy with special reference to Indian work.
Plant diseases, other enemies of plants and methods of their control
had been recorded in the ancient books viz., Rigveda, Atharva
Veda (1500-500 BC), Artha Shastra of Kautilya (321-186 BC),
Sushruta Samhita (200-500AD), Vishnu Purana (500 AD),
Agnipurana (500-700 AD), Vishnudharmottara (500-700
AD) etc.

During 11th century, Surapal wrote Vraksha Ayurveda, which is

the first book in India where he gave detail account on plant diseases
and their control. Plant diseases were grouped into two-internal and
external. Tree surgery, hygiene protective covering with paste, use of
honey, plant extracts, oil cakes of mustard, castor, sesamum etc.
are some of the disease management practices recorded in the book.

Symptoms of plant diseases are cited in other ancient Indian

literatures viz. Jataka of Buddhism, Raghuvamsha of Kalidas
etc.

The Europeans started systemic study of fungi in India during 19th

century. They collected the fungi and sent to the laboratory in
Europe for identification. D.D. Cunningham and A. Barclay, during
1850-1875, started identification of fungi in India itself. Cunningham
specially studied on rusts and smuts. K.R. Kirtikar was credited as
the first Indian scientist for collection and identification of fungi in
India.
(v) Edwin John Butler started the systemic study on Indian fungi
and the diseases caused by them. This Imperial Mycologist came to
India in 1901 and initiated the works on fungi at Imperial Agricultural
Besearch Institute established by the British Government of Pusa
(Bihar). The first and most classic book in the field of plant pathology
of India i.e. Fungi and Diseases in Plants was written by him based
on the exhaustive study on Indian fungi. He left India in 1920 and
joined as the first Director of Imperial Mycological Institute in
England. He is regarded as the Father of Indian Plant Pathology.

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Jahangir Ferdunji Dastur (1886-1971), a colleague of Butler, was
the first Indian plant pathologists to made detail study of fungi and
plant diseases. He specially studied the diseases of potato and castor
caused by genus Phytophthora and established the species P.
parasitica from castor in 1913. In recognition of his command in
Plant Pathology, he was promoted to the Imperial Agricultural
Science in 1919.

(G.S. Kulkarni, a student of Butler, generated detail information on

downy mildew and smut of jowar and bajra. Another student S.L.
Ajrekar studied wilt disease of cotton, sugarcane smut and ergot of
jowar.
Karam Chand Mehta (1894-1950) of Agra had contributed a lot to
Plant Pathology of India. He first joined Agricultural College as a
demonstrator at Kanpur. His outstanding contribution in the
discovery of the life cycle of stem rust of wheat in India and reported
that barberry, an alternate host, does not play any role in
perpetuation of the rust fungus in India. He published two
monographs entitled “Further Studies on Cereal Bust in India” Part I
(1940) and Part II (1952) and also established three laboratories for
rust works at Agra, Almora and Shimla.

Raghubir Prasad (1907-1992) trained under K.C. Mehta,

contributed to the identification of physiological races of cereal rusts
and life cycle of linseed rust. Subsequently, L.M. Joshi at IABI
conclusively studied various aspects of wheat rusts viz., chief foci of
infection of rusts, dissemination of rust pathogens in India. Later on
S. Nagarajan and L.M. Joshi developed most useful mathematical
models in 1978 to predict appearance of stem and leaf rust of wheat.

Manoranjan Mitra was considered as one of the most critical plant

pathologist worked on Helminthosporium. He first reported Karnal
bunt of wheat in 1931 from Karnal in Haryana.

S.R. Bose was taxonomist, mainly worked on the classification of

Polyporaceae and isolated “polyporin” from Polyporus.

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B.B. Mundkur was the second mycologist trained under Butler and
worked with Mehta and Mitra. He worked on control of cotton wilt by
using resistant varieties and became successful in reducing yield loss
in Maharashtra. His significant contribution is the establishment of
Indian Phytopathological Society (IPS) in 1948 with its journal Indian
Phytopathology. In the same year, he published a text book Fungi
and Plant Diseases which was the second book of Plant Pathology
after the classic book of Butler.

Notable contribution in the field of Mycology was made by M.J.

Thirumalachar (1914-1999). He created 20 new genera and 300
new species of fungi, monographed genera of Uredinales of the world
and Ustilaginales of India. Similarly many Hyphomycetes particularly
Fusarium were elaborated by C.V. Subramanian in 1971.

Works on fundamental plant pathology, especially the biochemistry

of host-parasite relationship were started at Lucknow and Madras
(Chennai) lead by Sachindra Nath Dasgupta (1904-1990) and T.S.
Sadasivan (1913-2001), respectively. Dr. Dasgupta initiated the works
on leather mycology, paper pulp mycology and predacious fungi. Dr.
Sadasivan’s school developed the concept of vivotoxin and reported
the production of fusaric acid by Fusarium vasinfectum that causes
wilt diseases in cotton.

T.S. Ramakrishnan, a mycologist to Madras Government

cultivated ergot diseased rye for toxin production. He published two
books entitled Diseases of Millets (1963) and Diseases of Rice (1971).
Benowned plant pathologists viz., G Bangaswami and B.
Bamakrishnan were his students.

Plant Bacteriology in India got a shape with the effort of Makanj

Kalyanji Patel (1899-1967). He established a school of Plant
Bacteriology at College of Agriculture, Pune. M.K. Hingorani reported
about the complex nature of tundu disease of wheat caused by a
bacterium and a nematode in 1952 and also he confirmed the causal
agent of ring disease of potato as Pseudomonas (=Ralstonia)
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 solanacerarum. J.P. Verma (1939-2005) contributed many valuable
findings on bacterial blight disease of cotton.

Plant virus research in India was started particularly at IABI, New

Delhi under the leadership of B.S. Vasudeva (1905-1987), S.P.
Baychaudhury (1916-2005) and Anupam Varma. Considering the
importance of plant viral diseases, IABI established some Begional
Besearch Stations at Shimla for temperate fruits (1952), at Pune for
fruits and vegetables (1952) and at Kalimpong (West Bengal) for large
cadamom,

HISTORY:
Mycology (Mycetology- Greek grammer): It is the Science which deals
with study of fungi.

Term Mycology derived from 2 Greek words. Mykes= mushroom /

fungus, logos= discourse or study.

Term Fungus is derived from a Latin word fungor = to flourish.

Study of fungi started with study of mushrooms because of their
macroscopic size and brilliant color.
.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENTISTS:

1.PIER ANTONIO MICHELI ;

Italy botanist , recognised as ‘Founder and father of mycology’.

He published a book in 1729 ‘ Nova Plantarum Genera’ in latin- a

classic in mycology in which he gave 1900 descriptions in latin.

Out of which 900 were of fungi, which include Mucor, Aspergillus niger,
Botrytis, Tuber, Polyporus etc.

He also proved that,if spores are placed on a freshly cut piece of a fruit,they
grow in to new thallus of a fungus.

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2.MATHIEU TILLET ;
French botanist, In 1755 published a paper on bunt or stinking smut of
wheat.Established role of fungi in plant disease.
He proved that wheat seeds that contained black powder on their surface
produced more diseased plants than clean seeds.
He emphasized contagious nature of wheat bunt disease .He believed that
the disease was caused by some toxin produced by the black powder.
He reported that the chemical treatment of seeds with common salt and
lime inhibited the contagious activity.

3.BENEDICT PREVOST :
French scientist ,first proved that diseases are caused by micro-organisms.
Proved Tilletia caries as causal organism of wheat bunt, observed
germination of bunt spores & discovered life cycle of bunt fungus.
Studied and confirmed Tillet’s findings .Suggested control of bunt disease
by seed treatment with Cu so4 solution.

Published classic paper ‘memoir on the immediate cause of bunt or smut of

wheat and of several other diseases of plants and on preventives of bunt’ in
1807. Studied fungicidal and fungistatic properties of chemicals .

4.CHRISTIAN HENDRIK PERSOON :

South African .First published observations Mycologicae.
In 1801 published ‘Synopsis Methodica Fungorum’ for nomenclature of
uredinales,ustilaginales and Gasteromycetes.
In 1822 published ‘Mycologia Europica’.
He gave the name ‘Puccinia graminis’to wheat rust fungus in 1794. .

5.ELIAS MAGNUS FRIES ;

He published three volumes of ‘Systema Mycologicum’ for the
nomenclature of Hymenomycetes and Ustilaginales.
Persoon and Fries first time introduced binomial system of nomenclature
to classify the fungal organisms.

6.PIER ANDREA SACCARDO :

Professor at Padua university in Italy.
Developed spore group system for Ascomycotina and Deuteromycotina
fungi in 1899.Wrote a book in 1882 Sylloge Fungorum Omnium Hucusque
Cognitorum in 25 volumes.

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7.E.F.SMITH (U.S.A):
He gave the final proof of the fact that bacteria could be causal organisms of
plant diseases.In 1920 wrote a book ‘Bacterial diseases of plants.’
He also worked on the bacterial wilt of cucurbits and crown gall disease.
He is also called as “Father of Phytobacteriology”.
In 1981, he demonstrated for the first time that budding or grafting could
be another method of transmission of plant viruses.He showed the
contagious nature of peach yellows.

8.T.J.BURRILL (U.S.A): First scientist to relate bacterium as cause of

plant disease. He proved for the first time that fire blight of apple and pear
was causedby a bacterium, Erwinia amylovora .

9.M.K PATEL:
started plant bacterial research at pune. – 1948.
Beported about 40 bacterial plant diseases.
Introduced post of “ plant bacteriologist “ at IABI, in 1955

10.M.W.BEIJERINCK (Dutch):Father of virology.More extensively

studied Tobacco Mosaic disease. He proved that the virus causing Tobacco
mosaic is not a living microorganism.
He named the infectious agent as ‘contagium vivum fluidum’ (infectious
living fluid).Subsequently called the agent as ‘virus.’

11.W.M.STANLEY (U.S.A): Initiated ‘Biochemical nature of virus’.

In 1935,he proved that viruses can be crystallized .

He was awarded Nobel prize.He treated the sap from diseased leaves of
tobacco with ammonium sulphate and obtained a crystalline protein which
,when placed on healthy tobacco leaves ,could reproduce the disease.

Isolated proteinaceous crystalline substance from diseased tobacco

plants.Considered it as globular protein.

He finally proved that viruses are not living microorganisms because no

living form can be chemically treated and crystallized and still remain
viable.

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12.F.C.BAWDEN (plant virologist) and N.W.PIRIE (Biochemist)
(Britain):
Established complete chemical nature of Tobacco Mosaic Virus. Purified
TMV. Characterised TMV chemically as Nucleoproteins containing Nucleic
acid 5 %, proteins 95%.Also worked on Turnip mosaic virus &Tobacco
bushy stunt virus.

13.DOI :In 1967,Doi and his colleagues in Japan observed

mollicutes.,i.e.,wall –less mycoplasma like organisms in the phloem of
plants exhibiting yellows and witches’ broom symptoms.

First identified phytoplasmas as causal agent of Aster yellows and Mulberry

dwarf in phloem sieves .

They showed that the mycoplasmas like organisms and symptoms

disappeared temporarily when the plants were treated with tetracycline
antibiotics.

14.DIENER:Discovered the potato spindle tuber was caused by small

naked ssBNA which he called as viroid.

15. HOWARD TAYLOR RICKETTS:

1916- First discovered Bickettsia.In 1972 first observation in phloem of
clover and periwinkle causing clover club leaf disease.In 1973 observed in
xylem causing pierce’s disease of grapes.

16.BOVE:Bove et al.,in 1968 first time identified spiroplasmas as causal

agent of corn stunt.

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Lecture:3 Terms and concepts in Plant Pathology

Definitions and Concepts

• Disease: According to Horsfall and Diamond (1959), disease may be
defined as a malfunctioning process that is caused by continuous irritation
by a pathogen and/or environmental factor resulting in some suffering
producing symptoms.

• Disorder: The diseases caused by the deficiency of nutrients or

unfavourable environmental are sometimes termed as disorders or
physiological disorders.

• Pathogen: It is the agent responsible for inciting ‘pathos’ i.e. ailment or damage.

• Parasite: Organisms which derive the materials they need for growth from living
plants (host or suscept) are called parasites.

• Biotrophs An organism that can live and multiply only on another living
organism. They always obtain their food from living tissues on which they
complete their life cycle.They were earlier also called obligate parasites,
e.g., rusts, smuts, powdery mildews etc.

• Saprophytes/saprobes are the organisms which derive their nutrition from the
dead organic matter. Some parasites and saprophytes may have the faculty or
(ability) to change their mode of nutrition.

• Facultative saprophytes are ordinarily parasites which can grow and reproduce
on dead organic matter under certain circumstances. They are also called
hemibiotrophs which attack the living tissues in such a way as biotrophs but
continue to grow and reproduce after the tissues is dead.

• A parasite is called necrotroph when it kills the host tissue in advance of

penetration and then lives saprophytically, e.g. Sclerotium rolfsii and Pythium
species. Similar to necrotrophs are facultative parasites which live as saprophytes
but under favourable conditions they can attack living plants and become parasites.
The necrotrophs are also known as perthotrophs or perthophytes.

• Pathogenicity is the ability of the pathogen to cause disease

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• Parasitism is a phenomenon by which a plant parasite becomes intimately
associated with the plant; it draws nutrition and multiplies and grows at the
expense of the plant host.

• Virulence is a measure or degree of pathogenicity of an isolate or race of the

pathogen. Theterm aggressiveness is often used to describe the capacity of a
pathogen to invade and growin the host plant and to reproduce on or in it. This
term like virulence is used as measure of pathogenicity.

• Immunity of a plant against a disease is absolute quality. It denotes the freedom

of plant from disease, when the pathogen cannot establish parasitic relationship
with the host. High resistance and low susceptibility approach immunity.

• Disease resistance is the ability of an organism to overcome completely or in

some degree the effect of a pathogen or other damaging factor; whereas
susceptibility in the inability of the plant to resist the effect of the pathogen or
other damaging factor.

• Hypersensitivity Excessive sensitivity of plant tissues to certain pathogens.

Affected cells are killed quickly, blocking the advance of obligate parasites

.• Infection is the establishment of the parasitic relationship between the pathogen

and host following entry or penetration.

• Incubation period is the time elapsing between penetration and completion of

infection i.e. development of the disease symptoms.
. • Single cycle disease (Monocyclic): This type of disease is referred to those
caused by the pathogen (fungi) that can complete only one life cycle in one crop
season of the host plant. e.g. downy mildew of rapeseed, club root of crucifers,
sclerotinia blight of brinjal etc.

•Multiple cycle disease (Polycyclic): Some pathogens specially a fungus, can

complete a number of life cycles within one crop season of the host plant and the
disease caused by such pathogens is called multiple cycle disease e.g. wheat rust,
rice blast, late blight of potato etc.

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•Alternate host: Plants not related to the main host of parasitic fungus, where it
produces its different stages to complete one cycle (heteroecious).
•. Collateral host: The wild host of same families of a pathogen is called as
collateral host.

• Predisposition: The effect of one or more environmental factors which makes a

plant vulnerable to attack by a pathogen.
• Physiologic race: One or a group of microorganisms similar in morphology but
dissimilar in certain cultural, physiological or pathological characters.
• Biotype: The smallest morphological unit within a species, the members of
which are usually genetically identical.
. Symbiosis: A mutually beneficial association of two or more different kinds of
organisms.
• Mutualism: Symbiosis of two organisms that are mutually helpful or that
mutually support one another.
• Antagonism: The counteraction between organisms or groups of organisms.
• Mutation: An abrupt appearance of a new characteristic in an individual as a
result of an accidental change in genes present in chromosomes.
• . Cop Damage: It is defined as any reduction in the quality or quantity of yield or
loss of revenue resulting from crop injury.
Sign: The pathogen or its parts or products seen on a host plant.
Symptom: The external or internal reactions or alterations of a plant as a
result of a disease.
Syndrome: The set of varying symptoms characterizing a disease are
collectively called a syndrome.
Deficiency: Abnormality or disease caused by the lack or subnormal level
of availability of one or more essential nutrient elements.
Effects of DiseaseThe diseased plants do not function or look normal
showing structural abnormality and /or physiological disorder and can not
grow, develop and reproduce to its geneticpotential.

Inoculum potential: The energy of growth of a parasite available for

infection of a host at the surface of the host organ to be infected (or) The
resultant of the action of environment, the vigour of the pathogen to
establish an infection, the susceptibility of the host and the amount of
inoculum present

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 Lecture:4 Pathoienesis***
Pathogenesis: The term pathogenesis means step by step development of a
disease and the chain of events leading to that disease due to a series of changes in
the structure and /or function of a cell/tissue/organ being caused by a microbial,
chemical or physical agent. The pathogenesis of adisease is the mechanism by
which an etiological factor causes the disease. The term can also be used to
describe the development of the disease, such as acute, chronic and recurrent. The
word comes from the Greek pathos, "disease ", and genesis, "creation".

There are several chemical weapons secreted by pathogens that are utilized as they
carry out their activities. These weapons include enzymes, toxins, growth
regulators and polysaccharides.

1.Symptoms of Plant Diseases Due to the Character and Appearance of

Visible Pathogen and Organs
i. Mildews
• Mildews consist of white, grey, brownish or purplish pathogen growth on the
host surface.
• Downy mildew is characterized by a tangled cottony or downy growth mostly on
the lower surface of the leaves or other plant parts.
• Powdery mildew consists enormous number of spores are formed on superficial
growth of the fungus giving a dusty or powdery appearance on the host surface.
Black minute fruiting bodies may also develop in the powdery mass.

Ex: Grapevine downy mildew ex: Pea powdery mildew

ii. Rust
• Bust appears as relatively small pustules of the spores, usually breaking
through the host epidermis.

• Pustule is a small blister-like elevation of the epidermis, often opening to

exposespores. The pustules may be dusty or compact, and red, brown,
yellow or black in colour.
ex: Pea rust

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iii. Smut
• Smut means a sooty or charcoal like powder.
• The affected parts of the plants show black or purplish black dusty areas.
• Symptoms usually appear on floral organs, particularly the ovulary areas.
• The pustules on the leaves and stems are usually larger than those of rusts.

iv. White Blister:

• White blister-like pustules appear on the leaves and other parts of cruciferous
plants which break open the epidermis and expose powdery masses of spores.

• Such symptoms are called ‘white rust’, although there is nothing common with
themand the rusts.
Ex: White blisters on a crucifer

v. Blotch
• It consists of superficial growth giving the affected plant parts i.e., fruits and
leaves smoky (blotched) appearance, e.g. sooty blotch of apple.

vi. Sclerotia
• A sclerotium is a compact, often hard mass of dormant fungus mycelium.

• Sclerotia are mostly dark in colour and are found mixed with the healthy grains
as in the case of ergot of wheat and rye.

vii. Exudation
• Mass of bacterial cells ooze out on the surface of the affected organs where they
may be seen as a drop or smear in several bacterial diseases such as bacterial blight
of paddy, gummosis of stone fruits and fire blight of apple and pear.
• They form crusts after drying.

viii. Mycelial growth

• Appearance of white cottony, mycelial growth of the fungi like Dematophora
necatrix on affected roots of apple is an important diagnostic feature of white root
rot in the field.

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II. Symptoms Resulting from Internal Disorders in the Host Plants

i. Colour change

• Discolouration is change of colour from normal. It is one of the most common

symptoms of plant diseases. The green pigment of leaves disappears entirely
and is replaced by yellow pigments

• Etiolation is yellowing due to the lack of light.

• Chlorosis is yellowing due to low temperature, lack of iron, excess of the lime or
alkali in soil and infection by viruses, fungi and bacteria.

• Albilinism is the phenomenon in which the leaves become devoid of any

pigment and look bleached or white

• Chromosisis change of colour to red, purple or orange.

ii. Overgrowths or hypertrophy

• Hypertrophy is the abnormal increase in the size of the plant organs due to
increase in the size of the cells of a particular tissue, whereas

• Hyperplasia is the abnormal increase in the size of the plant organs due to
increase in the number of cells of which the tissue or organ is composed, owing to
increased cell division. The overgrowths cause galls, curl, pockets or bladders,
hairy root, witches’ broom, intumescence etc.

iii. Atrophy or Hypoplasia or Dwarfing

• Atrophy is inhibition of growth and thereby showing stunting and dwarfing
effectmon the plants.

• The whole plant may be dwarfed or only certain organs are affected. e.g. rice
dwarf, phony peach etc.

20
III. Necrosis
• Death of the cells, tissues and organs occurs as a result of parasitic activity.
• The characteristic appearance of the dead areas differs with different hosts,
hostorgans and with different parasites.
• Necrotic symptoms include spots, streaks or stripes, canker, blight, damping off,
burn, scald or scorch and rot.

IV. Wilt
• Characterized by drying of the entire plant.
• Leaves and other green or succulent parts loose their turgidity, become flaccid
and droop down
.• Usually seen first in some of the leaves.
• Later, the young growing tip or the whole plant may dry up.
• May be caused by injury to the host system or the conducting vessels.
• Wilting due to disease is different from the physiological wilting where the plant
recovers as soon as the supply of water is retained.

V. Die-back or Wither Tip

• Symptoms are characterized by drying of plant organs, especially stems or
branches, from the tip backwards.
• It is also a form of necrosis caused directly by the pathogen or its toxins.

21
 LECTURE: 5. Causes and classification of plant Diseases

Classification of Plant Diseases

1.Based on plant part affected

• Localized, if they affect only specific organs or parts of the plants.
• Systemic, if entire plant is affected. Or They can be classified as root diseases,
stem diseases, foliage/foliar diseases, etc.

2.Based on perpetuation and spread

• Soil borne -when the pathogen perpetuates through the agency of soil.
• Seed borne -when the pathogen perpetuates through seed (or any propagation
material).
• Air borne -when they are disseminated by wind e.g. rusts and powdery mildews.

2.Based on the signs and symptoms produced by the pathogens

• Diseases are classified as rusts, smuts, powdery mildews, downy mildews, root
rots,wilts, blights, cankers, fruit rots, leaf spots, etc. In all these examples, the
disease arenamed after the most conspicuous symptom of the disease appearing on
the host surface.

3.Based on the host plants affected

They can be classified as cereal crop diseases, forage crop diseases, flax diseases,
millet diseases,plantation crop diseases, fruit crop diseases, vegetable crop
diseases, flowering plant diseases,etc.

4..Based on major Causes

They can be classified as fungal diseases, bacterial diseases, viral diseases,
mycoplasmaldiseases, etc.

5.Based on Infection Process

• Infectious -All the diseases caused by animate causes, viruses and viroids can be
transmitted from infected host plants to the healthy plants and are called infectious.
• Non-infectious- Non-infectious diseases can not be transmitted to a healthy
plant. Alsoreferred as non-parasitic disorders or simply physiological disorders,
and are incited byabiotic or inanimate causes like nutrient deficiency or excess or
unfavorable weatherconditions of soil and air or injurious mechanical influences.

22
 Disease triangle: The interaction of the host, the pathogen and the environment
results in disease development. It is generally illustrated by a triangle, also called a
disease triangle.

Causes of Plant Diseases

Plant diseases are caused by pathogens. Hence a pathogen is always associated
with a disease. In other way, disease is a symptom caused by the invasion of a
pathogen that is able to survive, perpetuate and spread.
Further, the word “pathogen” can be broadly defined as any agent or factor that
incites 'pathos or disease in an organism or host. In strict sense, the causes of plant
diseases are grouped under following categories:

1. Animate or biotic causes: Pathogens of living nature are categorized into the
following groups.
(i) Fungi (v) Algae
(ii) Bacteria (vi) Phanerogams
(iii) Phytoplasma (vii) Protozoa
(iv) Rickettsia-like organisms (viii) Nematodes

2. Mesobiotic causes : These disease incitants are neither living or non-living, e.g.
(i) Viruses (ii) Viroides

3. Inanimate or abiotic causes: In true sense these factors cause damages (any
reduction in the quality or quantity of yield or loss of revenue) to the plants rather
than causing disease. The causes are:

(i) Deficiencies or excess of nutrients (e.g. ‘Khaira’ disease of rice due to Zn deficiency)
(ii) Light
(iii) Moisture
(iv) Temperature
(v) Air pollutants (e.g. black tip of mango)
(vi) Lack of oxygen (e.g. hollow and black heart of potato)
(vii) Toxicity of pesticides
(viii) Improper cultural practices
(ix) Abnormality in soil conditions (acidity, alkalinity)

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 Lecture:6
Important plant pathogenic organisms, different groups: fungi, bacteria, fastidious
vascular bacteria, phytoplasmas, spiroplasmas viruses, viroids, algae, protozoa,
phanerogamic parasites and nematodes with examples of diseases caused by them.

Plant diseases are classified on the basis of type of pathogenic or non-

pathogenic causes of the disease.The classification is based on the
plant pathogenic organisms as follows.

A. Parasites: They include both biotic and mesobiotic agents. The

diseases are incited by parasites under a set of suitable environment.
Association of definite pathogen is essential with each disease.

i. Biotic agents: They are also called as animate causes. They are living
organisms. Biotic agents include
1. Prokaryotes

a. True bacteria or bacteria (Facultative parasites) : e.g. Citrus canker.

b. Bickettsia-like bacteria (BLB): e.g. Citrus greening, Pierce's disease of grape
c. Mollicutes or wall-less prokaryotes
d.. Mycoplasma-like organism (MLO) e.g. Sesame phyllody, egg plant little leaf.
e.. Spiroplasma : e.g. Corn stunt, Citrus stubborn

2. Eukaryotes
a. Protists (Unicellular, coenocytic or multicellular with little or no
differentiation of cells and tissues).
i. Fungi e.g. wilt of cotton
ii. Protozoa e.g. heart rot of coconut
iii. Algae e.g. red rust of mango

b. Plants - Parasitic flowering plants or phanerogamic

parasites - Broomrape of tobacco.

c. Animals (Multicellular, extensive differentiation of cells and

tissues) e.g. Nematodes - Boot knot nematode

ii. Mesobiotic agents: They include viruses and viroids. They are
infectious agents. They can be crystallized and are considered non-living.

24
But their multiplication in the living plants ensures that they are living.
Hence they are called as mesobiotic agents.

Viruses e.g. yellow mosaic of blackgram

Viroids e.g. spindle tuber of potato

B. Non-parasites or Abiotic agents: They are also called as non-

infectious or physiological disorders. When no pathogen is found, cultured
from or transmitted from a diseased plant, then the disease is said to be
caused by a non-living or environmental factor. These diseases occur
because of disturbances in the plant system by the improper environmental
conditions in the air or soil or by mechanical influences.
They are listed below.

i. Too low or too high temperature.

ii. Lack or excess of soil moisture
iii. Lack or excess of light.
iv. Lack of oxygen.
v. Air pollution (Toxic gases in the atmosphere etc
vi. Mineral deficiencies or toxicities
vii. Soil acidity or alkalinity
ix. Improper agricultural practices.

viii. Toxicity of pesticides

FUNGI
Fungi are eukaryotic, achlorophyllous organisms that may reproduce
sexually and asexually and whose filamentous branched somatic structures
are typically surrounded by cell walls containing chitin or cellulose.

VIROIDS
Viroids are small low molecular weight ribonucleic acids that can infect
plant cellsreplicate themselves and cause disease. They are also called as
mini viruses. e.g. Potato spindle tuber, Chrysanthemum stunt, Coconut
Cadang cadang

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BACTERIA
Bacteria are microscopic, unicellular prokaryotes, which lack chlorophyll.
These microorganisms are with a primitive nucleus lacking a clearly defined
membrane. The bacteria are smaller than fungi and measure about 0.5 to
1.0 x 2.0 to 5.0 µm in size. More than 1,600 bacterial species are known.
Majority of them are saprophytes. Several species cause diseases in
human beings and animals. About 200 species of bacteria cause diseases in
plants.

First report of plant disease by bacteria was made by T.J. Burrill of the
University of Illinois. He showed that fire blight of apple and pear is caused
by a bacterium, Erwinia amylovora. Bacteria have been
defined by Clifton as "extremely minute, rigid essentially unicellular
organisms, free of true chlorophyll and generally devoid of any
photosynthetic pigments; most commonly multiplying asexually by simple
transverse fission, the resulting cells being of equal or nearly equal size".

SPIROPLASMA
Spiroplasma is helical, wall-less prokaryotes requiring cholesterol for
growth and cause diseases in plants, insects and rats. They are insensitive
to penicillin and sensitive to erythrocin and tetracycline. e.g. corn stunt,
citrus stubborn.

Fastidious vascular bacteria (Rickettsia-like bacteria – RLB)

Fastidious vascular bacteria are otherwise called Bickettsia - Like bacteria,
Bickettsia like organisms (BLO), or fastidious prokaryotes or rickettsia -like
walled bacteria. They are small bacteria with a cellular ultrastructure of
typical gram- negative bacteria.

They are very exacting in their nutritional requirements, refusing to grow

on routine bacteriological media. They have a cell wall unlike MLO and
spiroplasma. MLO is restricted to phloem tissues where as BLB are
restricted mostly to xylem or phloem.

A common habit for both is the insect body fluid (haemolymph). Both the
groups are dependent on insect vectors for transmission. Non-tissue
restricted BLB have also been observed in plant diseases. They reproduce
by binary fission. Mostly insect vectors transmit them.

26
Nematode (Xiphinema index) also helps in transmission of
BLB (yellow disease of grapevine). Mechanical inoculations (as in Pierce's
disease of grapevine, almond leaf scorch and alfalfa dwarf) or vegetative
propagation also reproduce disease symptoms. They produce phytoalexins,
which induce characteristic symptoms of the disease.

They are cultured in artificial media e.g., Pierce's disease of grapevine,

almond leaf scorch, phony disease of peach and plum leaf scald. Xylem
restricted BLB can be more successfully cultured than limited-limited
bacteria.Penicillin is effective against BLB. Sulpha drugs also inhibit them.
The BLB can be divided into three groups. 1 Xylem-limited BLB
2 Phloem-limited BLB and 3 Non-tissue restricted BLB

PROTOZOA
Protozoa (trypanosomatid flagellates) belonging to the class Mastigophora,
order Kinetoplastida and family .
Trypanosomatidae have been known to parasitize plants.
Protozoa attacking plants move by flagella. Protozoa or trypanosomatid
flagellates belonging to the class Mastigophora, order:
Kinetoplastida and family
Trypanosomatidae have been known to parasitize plants.
The Mastigophora, or flagellates, are characterized by one or more long
slender .flagella at some or all stages of their life cycle.
The flagella are used for locomotion and food capture.They are also used as
sense organs.

The body of the flagellates has a definite long, oval or spherical form, which
is maintained by a thin, flexible membrane cover.In some groups it may be
armoured. Flagellates reproduce by longitudinal fission.
Flagellates apparently cause the phloem necrosis disease of coffee, the heart
rot disease of coconut palm and the Marchitez suppressive (sudden wilt or
wither) disease of oil palm, Marchitez suppressive is one of the important
diseases in oil palm. Phytomonas staheli was described from sieve tubes of
coconut and oil palm.

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ALGAE:
Algae are eukaryotic, unicellular or multicellular organisms and mostly
occur in aquatic nvironments. Many algae thrive as terrestrial or
subterranean algae.
The size of algae rangesfrom 1.0mm to many centimetres in length. They
contain chlorophyll and are photosynthetic. They reproduce by asexual and
sexual processes.
The study of algae is called phycology or algology.

PHYTOPLASMA
Phytoplasma lack cell wall and are bounded by a unit membrane. They are
pleomorphic. They lack cell wall. They have fried egg appearance of colony.
They are filterable through 450 nm membrane. They have both DNA and
BNA. They cannot be grown on artificial media.

They produce symptoms like little leaf, phyllody, spike, yellows, stunting,
witches’ broom etc. They are mostly transmitted by leafhoppers. They are
insensitive to penicillin and sensitive to tetracycline.
e.g. phyllody of sesame, little leaf of brinjal.

VIRUS : Viruses are ultramicroscopic, nucleoprotein entities, which are

infectious agents and obligately parasitic pathogens, which are less than
200 mµ in size. They are devoid of enzymes and depend on the host protein
synthesis machinery (ribosomes).

They have only one type ofnucleic acid viz., BNA or DNA. Most of the plant
virus is having BNA. e.g. TMV. Few viruses contain DNA. e.g. Cauliflower
mosaic virus, banana bunchy top virus, maize streak virus and sugar beet
curly top virus.

28
 Lacture:7 Diseases and symptoms due to abiotic causes.

Abiotic factors are referred to non-living things such as temperature, water,

minerals, wind flow, polluted air etc. Abiotic affect the productivity of
agricultural crops as well as the microbial activity in soil.

TYPES OF ABIOTIC FACTORS

1. Mineral Nutrients
2. Air pollution
3. Water
4. Temperature
5. Light

2.1. Effects of Mineral Nutrients in Plant

Mineral nutrients are one of the abiotic factors, have an important role in plant life. Mineral nutrients
are mainly two types about their importance and quantity. These are macro elements and micro
elements.
MINERALS FUNCTIONS EFFECT OF DEFICENCY
GROUP 1. (NUTRIENTS THAT ARE PART OF
CARBON COMPOUNDS)
N. Function as constituent of amino acids, Chlorosis disease, stunted growth.
amides, proteins, nucleotides,
coenzymes, hexoamines, etc.

It is the main component of cysteine, Curling of leaves, chlorosis is noted

S. cysteine, methionine, and proteins.
Constituent of lipoic acids, coenzyme A,
thymine, pyrophosphate, glutathione,
biotin, adenosine-5‟- phosphate, and 3-
phosphoadenosine
first in younger leaves, stems
become hard and woody. Juicy
content of Citrus is reduced.

29
GROUP 2. (NUTRIENTS THAT ARE Leaves are dark green. It promotes
IMPORTANT IN ENERGY STORAGE leaf fall and delays flowering.
OR STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY)
Component of sugar phosphates‟, nucleic
P. acids, nucleotides, coenzymes, phosphor
lipids, phythic acid etc. Has a key role in
reactions that involve ATP. Damage cell wall formation.

Si. Contributes to cell wall mechanical Failure of root tip formation.

properties, including rigidity and ‘Heart rot’, „stem rot‟ diseases,
elasticity. causes disintegration of internal
B. It helps to involved in cell elongation and tissues.
nucleic acid metabolism.
GROUP 3. (NUTRIENTS THAT REMAIN IN
IONIC FORM)
It required as a cofactor for more than 40 Stalks are turned into very weak,
K. enzymes. Principal cation in establishing dark necrotic lesions.
cell turgor and maintaining cell electro
neutrality.

Ca. Constitute of middle lamella of cell Deficiency symptoms are more

walls. Act as a second messenger in noticed in young tissues.
metabolic regulation.

\ Mg. Constitute the chlorophyll molecule. It causes degeneration of young

fruits near the blossom in tomatoes
i.e. “blossom end”.

Cl. Required for the photosynthetic reactions
involved in O2 evolution.
Mn. Involved with other cation-activated
enzymes and photosynthetic O2
evolution.
Leaf tips and margin turned
upward. Reduced growth, wilting,
necrotic spots etc.
Causes disorganization of thylakoid
membrane. “March spot” of pea.

Na. Involved with the regeneration of

phosphoenolpyruvate in C4 and CAM Decrease evolves of PEP enzymes.
plants.

30
GROUP 4. (NUTRIENTS THAT ARE
INVOLVED IN REDOX REACTION)

Fe. It constituent of cytochromes and non- Leaf turned into yellow in color,
heme iron proteins involved in chlorosis noticed in young leaves.
photosynthesis, N2 fixation, and
respiration.

Zn. Constituent of alcohol dehydrogenase, Causes stunted growth, decrease of

glutamic dehydrogenase, carbonic seed formation.
anhydrase, etc.

It acts as an activator of several enzymes Leaves are discolored, leaves may

Cu. such as lactase, oxidase, and be lost, wilted whole plant body.
phosphoenoloxidase. Synthesis ascorbic
acid.

2. Effect of Air Pollution

Air pollution refers to the release into the atmosphere of materials in
concentrations that are harmful to man, other animals and plants. Major
sources of air pollution are fossil fuels and industries.

Air pollution is another abiotic source for plant disease. We are all known
that without CO2 the photosynthesis could not occurred but when the limit
of CO2 concentration break there are occurred various types of disorder in
plant life.

3. Effects of Water
Water has most important role in whole plant life. It act as human blood in
plant life , it is the media of cell to cell contact and also bears mineral
nutrients to all the body i.e. transporter substance.

But sometimes that water give stress in plant physiological function by

various processes i.e. called abiotic water stress.

31
Physiological Responses Biochemical Responses Molecular Responses

a. Loss of turgor and osmotic
adjustment
b. Decrease in stomatal conductance
to CO2.
a. Decreased efficiency of Rubisco. a. It gives response gene expression.
b. Accumulation of stress metabolites b. Increased expression in ABA
like Glutathione, biosynthetic genes.
Polyamines, and α-tocopherol.

c. Decrease in photochemical c. Synthesis of specific proteins like

c. Decline the net photosynthesis efficiency. dehydrins

4. Effect of Temperature
We are all known that temperature had an important role in plant
physiological function such as seed germination, enzyme activity, bud
dormancy, growth of plant parts etc.

The temperature at which the amount of CO2 fixed by photosynthesis

equals the amount of CO2 released by respiration in a given time is called
temperature compensation point.
ACTION OF EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE

A. HIGH 1. Water deficit i.e. high amount of water loss by evaporation as

TEMPERATURE result plants are dry off as result rate of photosynthesis decrease.
2. When temperature compensation point cross inhibited the
respiration and photosynthesis.
3. At high temperature leaf burn disease may be noticed.
4. Each plant(s) had a capacity to tolerate thermal effect but
when it crossed, plants died which is known as “heat killing
temperature”.
5. When temperature reached on 60-70 0C enzyme activity failed
or destroyed.

1. Cell membrane properties damaged.

B. LOW OR 2. Inhibit protein synthesis.
CHILLING
TEMPERATURE
3. Ice crystal formation and protoplast dehydration kill cells.
4. When temperature reached very low temperature then the
enzyme activity stopped.
5. Some bacteria that are live on leaf surfaces increase “frost
damage”

32
5.Effects of Light
Light is an abiotic factors has an important role from seed germination to
whole life as various activity. But sometimes it gives stress to plant for
effects of low light or high light at a time.

1. Physiological Effects by Low Light

I. Increase in cotyledonary leaf area.
II. Increase in leaf area expansion.
III. Increase in shedding of fruiting parts.
IV. Decrease in biomass production
V. Decrease in specific leaf weight. (SLW)

2. Physiological Effects by High Light

1. UV light increase with the gain of sunlight that causes photo synthesis
decrease because PSI and PSII wave length crossed.
2. Also noticed solar injury.
DISEASES NAME CAUSE OR SYMPTOMS
FACTORS
Browning of Leaf Tissue Frost Injury Leaves are turned into brown in color.
Damaged or Cracked Fruit Frost Injury Fruits are small in size, cracked the outer wall of fruit.
Scorch Injury Hot Climate Rate of transpiration occurred abnormally. Water
transport system damaged.
Bitter Pit of Apple Calcium problem Black points spots noticed on fruit. Fruit hard in
nature.

Blossom End Rot of tomato Calcium problem Burn dry spot on tomato.
Oedema UV radiation Gall like protrusions on leaves and callus like growth
on stems, petioles, and midveins. Abnormal cell
growth.
Leaf Pleating Increase Humidity Curling leaf tip, abnormal needle leaf of pine.
level.

Sunburn High Temperature Burning spot on leaf .

33
 Lecture:8 Fungi: General characters, somatic structures, types of fungal
thalli, fungaltissues, modifications of thallus,Fungi

FUNGI: Fungi are eukaryotic, spore bearing, achlorophyllous,

heterotrophic organisms that generally reproduce sexually and asexually
and whose filamentous, branched somatic structures are typically
surrounded by cell walls containing chitin or cellulose or both with many
organic molecules and exhibiting absorptive nutrition.

Morphology
• Mycelium: A filamentous vegetative body.
• Hypha (pl. hyphae): Individual branch of mycelium which are generally
uniform in thickness, usually about 2-10 μm in diameter. The hyphae may be
septate or aseptate
• Coenocytic hyphae - The aseptate or non-septate hyphae having the nuclei
scattered inthe cytoplasm.
• Septate hyphae- The hyphae have septa having perforations through which
cytoplasmic strands, containing nuclei can migrate from one cell to the other.
• A characteristic dolipore septum is formed in certain basidiomycetes.
• Diameter of hyphae may be as narrow as 0.5 μm and as wide as 100 μm.
• The vegetative thallus may consist of only one cell or may even be naked,
amoeboid, multinucleate plasmodial mass without cell wall or a system of strands
of varying diameter called rhizomycelium.
• In some fungi, hyphae form aggregates and develop various kinds of structures.
These may be:
• Rhizomorphs: thicker root like aggregates.
• Sclerotium: a hard roundish or amorphous structure and has a hard rind
surrounding a soft interior i.e. medulla.
• Stroma: some fungi also develop mat like structures which contain the fruiting
bodies.
• Rhizomorphs and sclerotia help the fungus to survive from one cropping season
to the other and also function in initiating the disease as a primary inoculum.
• Pseudoparenchyma: Sometimes the hypahe aggregate to form tissue like
structure called
plectenchyma. In cross section, it appears like parenchymatous cells of the higher
plants.This is called pseudoparenchyma and consists of rounded fungal cells.
• Prosenchyma: Less compact structures consisting of hyphae made of elongated
cells.

34
General characters of fungi

0.Fungi are the eukaryotic, achlorophyllous, and unicellular or multicellular

organisms, which may reproduce by asexual and sexual spores.

1. All are eukaryotic - Possess membrane-bound nuclei (containing chromosomes)

and a range of membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles (e.g. mitochondria,
vacuoles, endoplasmic reticulum).

2. Most are filamentous - Composed of individual microscopic filaments called

hyphae, which exhibit apical growth and which branch to form a network of
hyphae called a mycelium.

3. Some are unicellular - e.g. yeasts.

4. Protoplasm of a hypha or cell is surrounded by a rigid wall - Composed

primarily of chitin and glucans, although the walls of some species contain
cellulose.

5. Many reproduce both sexually and asexually - Both sexual and asexual
reproduction often result in the production of spores.

6. Their nuclei are typically haploid and hyphal compartments are often
multinucleate – Although the oomycota and some yeast possess diploid nuclei.

7. All are achlorophyllous - They lack chlorophyll pigments and are incapable of
photosynthesis.

8. All are chemoheterotrophic (chemo-organotrophic) - They utilise pre-existing

organic sources of carbon in their environment and the energy from chemical
reactions to synthesize the organic compounds they require for growth and energy.

9. Possess characteristic range of storage compounds - e.g. trehalose, glycogen,

sugar alcohols and lipids.

10. May be free-living or may form intimate relationships with other organisms i.e.
may be freeliving, parasitic or mutualistic (symbiotic).

35
Somatic structures:
Thallus/ Soma Commonly called as vegetative body or fungal body. A
thallus( pl. thalli) is a simple, entire body of the fungus devoid of
chlorophyll with no differentiation into stem, roots and leaves lacking
vascular system.

Hypha (hypha=web) ( pl. hyphae) : Hypha is a thin, transparent,

tubular filament filled with protoplasm.It is the unit of a filamentous
thallus and grows by apical elongation.

Mycelium( pl. mycelia): A net work of hyphae ( aggregation of hyphae)

constituting the filamentous thallus of a fungus.It may be colourless i.e.,
hyaline or coloured due to presence of pigments in cell wall.The mycelium
may be ectophytic or endophytic.

Types of fungal thalli:

1.Plasmodium (plasma = moulded body): It is a naked,multinucleate

mass of protoplasm moving and feeding in amoeboid fashion .
Eg. Plasmodiophora brassicae.

2.Unicellular thallus:consisting of a single cell.

Eg.Chytrids, Synchytrium

3.Multi cellular or filamentous thallus: Majority of fungi i.e., a true

fungi arefilamentous, consisting of a number of branched, thread like
filaments called hyphae.
Eg.Many fungi,Alternaria.

Fungal tissues:

Plectenchyma :( plekein=to weave+enchyma=infusion)

Fungal tissues are called plectenchyma i.e., mycelium becomes organized

into loosely or compactly woven tissue. This tissue compose various types
of vegetative and reproductive structures.

36
Types of plectenchyma:

1.Prosenchyma: It is a loosely woven tissue. The component hyphae

retain their individuality which can be easily distinguishable as hyphae and
lie parallel to one another.Eg. Trauma in Agaricus.

2. Pseudoparenchyma:It is compactly woven tissue. It consists of closely

packed cells which are isodiametric or oval in shape resembling
parenchymatous cells of plants and hence the name. The component
hyphae loose their individuality and are not distinguishable as hyphae.

Eg. Sclerotial bodies of Sclerotium and rhizomorph of Armillariella.

A.Prosenchyma B.Pseudoparenchyma

37
 Lecture:9 Fungi: Reproduction (asexual and sexual)
Fungi may reproduce in three ways:
• Vegetative reproduction /Asexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction

I. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction stage is also known as imperfect stage and technically
called as anamorphic stage. There is no union of nuclei /sex cells/ sex
organs. It is repeated several times during the life span of a fungus
producing numerous asexual spores. Hence, it is more important for fungi
than sexual reproduction. Asexual spores are formed after mitosis ,hence
also called mitospores.

Methods of asexual reproduction :

1. Fragmentation 2. Fission. 3. Budding 4. Sporulation ( production of spores)

1. Fragmentation : It is the most common method. Hypha of fungus

breaks into small pieces, each broken piece is called a fragment, which
function as a propagating unit and grows into a new mycelium.The spores
produced by fragmentation are called arthrospores (arthron=joint)
(spora=seed) or oidia.. Eg. Oidium, Geotrichum. Sometimes, the contents
of intercalary cells or terminal cells of hypha rounded off and surrounded
by thick wall and formed as chlamydospores which are thick walled
resistant spores produced either singly or in chains.
Eg. Fusarium oxysporum, Ustilago tritici.

2. Fission / Transverse fission: The parent cell elongates,nucleus

under go mitotic division and forms two nuclei, then the contents divide
into equal halves by the formation of a transverse septum and separates
into two daughter cells. Eg.Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

3.Budding: The spores formed through budding are called blastospores.

Theparent cell puts out initially a small out growth called bud / blastos
i.e.,sprout orout growth which increases in size and nucleus divides, one
daughter nucleus accompanied by a portion of cytoplasm migrates into bud
and the other nucleus remains in the parent cell. Later, the bud increases in
size and a constriction is formed at the base of bud, cutting off completely
from parent cell .

38
Bud, when separated from parent cell, can function as an independent
propagating unit.Sometimes multiple buds are also seen i.e., bud over bud
and looks like pseudomycelium. Eg. Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

4. Sporulation ( spores): The process of production of spores is called

sporulation.
Spore: It is a minute, simple propagating unit of the fungi, functioning as
a seed but differs from it in lacking a preformed embryo that serves in
the reproduction of same species. Spores vary in colour,size,number of cells
and the way in which they are borne.
There are 2 main types of spores.
1. Sporangiospores 2. Conidia

II. Sexual Reproduction

The sexual reproduction in fungi and other similar micro-organisms involves:
• Plasmogamy-. fusion between two sexual cells.
• Karyogamy- fusion of the nuclei. It results in the formation of a diploid nucleus,
which immediately or later undergoes meiosis to form 4 haploid nuclei.
Fungi achieve plasmogamy by a variety of methods:
i.Gametogamy
ii. Gametangiogamy,
iii. Spermatizationiv
iv.. Somatogamy.

i) Gametogamy: It is the fusion (or copulation) between gametes.

• Gametes are naked wall- less sex cells which copulate to form a zygote.
• If two gametes are similar in size, they are called isogametes and their copulation
is called isogamy.
• Copulation between two dissimilar gametes, one smaller (male) and the other
bigger (female) is called anisogamy.
• The fusion between motile male gamete and non- motile female gamete
(oosphere or egg) lying in the oogonium is called heterogamy
.
ii) Gametangiogamy: It is the fusion between gametangia (or the sex organs)
when
gametangia are similar in shape and size, these are called isogametangia and are
designated as (+) and (-) gametangia rather than male and female.
• When the gametangia are different in shape and size,
they are called heterogametangia.

39
• The male is usually smaller and club shaped while the female is bigger and
globular.
• Fusion between two similar gametangia results in a zygote which is called a
zygospore.
• The zygote formed by the fusion between morphologically distinct gametangia is
called oospore and the process oogamy.
• The plasmogamy between them is called gametangial copulation or contact.

• Gametangial copulation is of two types:

The entire gametangia fuse, the intervening wall disappears and their contents
come to lie in the common cell formed by their fusion, e.g., Mucor.
The contents of the male gametangia migrate into the female gametangium
through a pore or fertilization tube and the male gametangium is left empty, e.g.,
Rhizophidium.
• Gametangial contact: The male nuclei and not the cytoplasm of antheridium
migrate into the oogonium through a pore dissolved at the point of contact or
through a fertilization tube formed by the antheridium. e.g. Pythium, Phytophthora,
Albugo.

iii. Spermatization: It occurs in Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.

• Spermatia (sing. Spermatium), minute male gametes, are formed like conidia on
spermatiophores.
• The spermatiophores may be formed exogenously or inside a spermogonium e.g.
Puccnia
.• The spermatium when comes in contact with the female gametangium (or the
receptive hyphae) releases the male nucleus into the female gametangium through
a pore.

iv. Somatogamy:
In this, sex organs are not formed and somatic cells as such act as gametangia and
fuse together. e.g. Agaricus. Somatogamy may occur between cells of the same
hypha (in a homothallic fungus) or between cells of the different thalli (in a
heterothallic fungus).
Anastomosis, which is the fusion of hyphae is frequent in Ascomycota and
Basidiomycota

40
 Lecture:10 Fungi: Nomenclature, Binomial system of nomenclature, classification of fungi
(key to Domain to Phylum***).

Taxonomy : The science of classification. It is concerned with pricnciples

of classification.

Classification: Grouping of organisms into classes,orders,families,genera,

species etc.

Nomenclature : Art of naming living organisms.

Importance of taxonomy and nomenclature;

1. for study of fungi
2. for scientific communication between mycologists and plant pathologists
throughout the world. Binomial system of nomenclature was originally
introduced by Carl Linnaeus for higher plants. Later, this classification
was adopted to fungi by his students C.H.Persoon amd E.M. Fries.

Some important rules of nomenclature :

1.According to International code of Botanical Nomenclature, the names of
organisms should be binomial i.e.,

2 parts.The first part is noun designating genus and the first letter of the
genus name should be in capital. The second name is often an adjective,
describing the noun which denotes the species, and the first letter should be
in small letter. Eg. Puccinia graminis.

2.Binomials are usually derived from Greek or Latin.

3.Binomials when hand written should be underlined and when printed

italicised. Eg.. Puccinia graminis ( hand written) Puccinia graminis ( printed)

4. Citation of authors name: The full name or abbrevation name of scientist

who described fungus first, follows the species name.Eg. Puccinia graminis
Persoon or Pers.

5. Citation of two authors names: If name of species is transferred to

another genus from original ( Botrytis infestans ), the name of first author
who first described species must be kept in parenthesis followed by name of
second author who gave present status of species. i.e., Phytophthora
infestans. Eg. Phytophthora infestans ( Mont.) de Bary.
41
6. The taxa ( groups) used in classification are Kingdom, Division, Class,
Order, Family, Genus and Species.Each category may be sub divided into
sub groupslike Sub- Division,Sub- Class, Sub- Order.

7. Species is the unit of classification or basic taxonomic category ( taxon).

8. Species some times broken into variety / formae speciales ( f.sp.) and
varietiesinto races and races into biotypes.

Standard endings of TAXA:

Division ends with mycota

Sub- Division ends with mycotina
Class with mycetes
Sub- class with mycetidae
Order with ales
Family with aceae
No special ending for genus and species.

TAXA:
Kingdom
Division
Sub-division
Class
Sub-class
Order
Sub-order
Family
Genera
Species

Eg. Puccinia graminis tritici race 1

Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota
Sub-division : Basidiomycotina
Class : Teliomycetes
Order : Uredinales
Family : Pucciniaceae
Genus : Puccinia
Species : graminis
Variety : tritici
Race : 1

42
 Lecture:11

Bacteria and mollicutes: General morphological characters, reproduction and

classification of plant pathogenic bacteria.

Definition:Bacteria are extremely minute,rigid,essentially unicellular

organisms (actinomycetes are filamentous),devoid of chlorophyll ,most
commonly reproduce by transverse binary fission and the resulting cells are
identical in size and morphology.

General Characteristics
Bacteria are second most important organisms which cause plant diseases.

• They are prokaryotic single celled mostly achlorophyllous organisms whose

body is surrounded by cell wall and nuclear material is not surrounded by
membrane.

• They lack membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria or plastids and also
a visible endoplasmic reticulum.

• Most of the bacterial species are saprophytes living on dead organic matter.
There are about 200 bacterial species which are plant pathogenic.

• Morphologically the bacteria are rod shaped (bacilli), spherical (cocci), spiral
(spirilli), coma shaped (vibrios) or thread like (filamentous).

• Streptomyces has a filamentous branched hypha-like structure, sometimes

mistakenly called as ray fungi; and mycoplasma have no definite shape due to lack
of cell wall.

• In young cultures the rod shaped bacteria range from 0.6 to 3.5 μm in length and
from 0.5 to 1μm in diameter (0.6-3.5 x 0.5-1 μm size).

• Single bacterium mostly appears as hyaline or yellowish white under the

compound microscope, when grown on a medium, soon a colony is formed.

• The colonies of most of bacteria have a whitish or greyish appearance but some
of them develop yellow, red or other colours.

43
Gram Staining
Bacterial species are often distinguished from one another by Gram staining.
• In this process, a bacterial smear is heat fixed on glass slide, stained with crystal
violet and mordanted with iodine and finally rinsed with ethanol.
• When the bacteria retain the crystal violet stain after rinsing, the bacteria are
called gram positive; and those which do not retain the stain are called gram
negative.
• The later are then counter stained with pink colour safranin.
• The ability of bacteria to retain crystal violet stain or not, depends upon
fundamental structure of cell wall.

Gram Positive bacteria

1. Cell wall is thicker and homogemous.
2. Contains lower content of lipids (5-10%)
3. Peptidoglycan comprises up to 90% of the cell wall and hence maximum lipid.
4. Techoic acid present.
5. Cell wall has higher amino sugar content (10-20%)
6. Cell wall is simple in shape and is single layered.
7. Mesosomes more prominent.
8. Retains violet dye
9. Examples: Bacillus, Clavibacter,
Streptomyces

Gram Negative bacteria

1.Cell wall is thinner and usually thin layered.

2.Contains higher content of lipids (up to 40%)

3.Peptidoglycan comprises only 10%.

4.Techoic acid absent.
5.Low content of amino sugars
6.Varying cell wall shape and is tripartite (3-layered).
7;.Mesosomes less prominent.
8,Retains red dye
9,Examples: Erwinia, Pseudomonas,
Xanthomonas, Agrobacterium, Xylella

44
 Reproduction in Bacteria:

Method # 1. Binary Fission:

In binary fission, single cell divides into two equal cells .Initially the
bacterial cell reaches a critical mass in its structure and cellular con
stituents.
The circular double stranded DNA of bacteria undergoes replication, where
both the strands separate and new comple - mentary strands are formed on
the original strands — results in the formation of two
identical double stranded DNA.
The binary fission is a rapid process and cell undergoes division at an
interval of 20-30 minutes. The division becomes gradually
slow after certain time due to accumulation of toxic substance and
exhaustion of nutrients.

Method # 2. Conidia: Conidia formation takes place in

filamentous bacteria like Streptomyces etc., by the formation of a
transverse septum at the apex of the filament .
The part of this filament which bears conidia is called conidiophore. After
detachment from the mother and getting contact with suitable
substratum, the conidium germinates and gives rise to new mycelium.

Method # 3. Budding: The bacterial cell develops small swelling at

one side which gradually increases in size . Simultaneous ly the nucleus
undergoes division, where one remains with
the mother and other one with some cytoplasm goes to the swelling. This
outgrowth is the bud, which gets sepa rated
from the mother by partition wall, e.g., Hyphomicrobium vulgare,
Bhodomicrobium vannielia, etc.

Method # 4. Cysts: Cysts are formed by the deposition of

additional layer around the mother wall. These are the resting structure and
during favourable condition they again behave as
the mother, e.g., many members of Azotobacter.

Method # 5. Endospore:
Spores are formed during unfavourable environmental condition like
desiccation and starvation. As the spores are formed within the cell, they
are called endospores. Only one spore is formed in a bacterial cell. On
germination, it gives rise to a bacterial cell.

45
Lecture:12 Classification of plant pathogenic bacteria

Traditionally bacteria have been included in Plantae kingdom under

Thallophyta; however,
Haeckel in 1966 proposed the kingdom Protista to include all unicellular
organisms and placed
various organisms of Thallophyta plants and Protozoa animals in Protista.
Later, the nucleus character was given more importance. Chatton proposed
the most appropriate conceptual basis for taxa at the highest level by
recognizing two general patterns of cellular organelles as prokaryotes and
eukaryotes in 1937. Stanier (1969) considered prokaryotes as lower protists
including blue green algae, myxobacteria and eubacteria; and eukaryotes as
higher protists including algae, fungi and protozoa. Prokaryotae was
recognised a separate kingdom.
However, the correct concept is that of 5 kingdoms according to Whittaker
(1969) including Plantae,
Animalia, Fungi, Protista and Monera (Prokaryotes).

In ‘Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology’ the

phytopathogenic bacteria have been classified into three divisions:

Division I – Gracilicutes
They include prokaryotes with thin cell walls consisting of outer membrane
with fatty acid glycerol ester-type lipids and are usually gram negative.
They do not form endospores.

Division II – Firmicutes
It included prokaryotes with thick (firm) cell wall consisting of
peptidoglycan and unit membrane but without any outer membrane. Some
of them produce endospore. They are gram positive.

Division III – Tenericutes

They lack cell wall and cells are enclosed by a unit membrane only. They
include mollicutes or mycoplasma like organisms (now called
phytoplasma).

46
Lecture:13 Viruses: nature, structure and transmission.
Introduction
• Viruses are sub-microscopic, intracellular, infectious entities and are
composed of nucleic acid and proteins
.
• Some viruses attack humans, animals or both and cause diseases like
mumps, measles, chicken-pox, polio, rabies etc; some others attack plants.

• In plants, tulip breaking was reported in 17th century.

• Adolf Mayer in 1886 first proved that the sap from tobacco leaves infected
with mosaic could transmit the disease to healthy leaves.

General characteristics
Characteristics of viruses which separate them from other causes of plant
pathogens are:
• They are acellular.
• They are sub-microscopic and intracellular.
• They lack lipid membrane system and energy production.
• They use host machinery for their replication.

Sturcture of virus
• Virion is a technical term used for the virus particle. A virion consists of
nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat.
• The nucleic acid is called ‘nucleoid’ which may be either de-oxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid BNA (mostly BNA in plant viruses), but
never both; and forms the genome.
• The protein coat is called ‘capsid’. It consists of many subunits which are
similar and occasionally dissimilar, and these subunits are called
capsomeres.
• The combined genome and the capsid are called ‘nucleocapsid’.
• Some viruses possess an envelop around the protein coat which is made of
virus proteins and host cell lipids. These viruses are called ‘enveloped
viruses’.
• In many groups of viruses, there is an additional protein layer between the
capsid and the nucleoid. This is called ‘virus core’.
• In addition to the typical nucleoprotein composition, some viruses have
carbohydrates/ lipids / enzymes.

47
Transmission of Viruses
• Viruses must be brought in contact with the contents of living host cells.
They achieve this quite effectively by transmission from an infected plant to
a healthy plant in a number of ways.

Through vegetative propagation

• The viruses are transmitted from the infected plant parts to the healthy
ones of the same generation and it results in only primary infection and
occurs in monocyclic diseases.
• Examples are mosaics and leaf roll of potato, and sugarcane viruses.

Mechanical transmission through sap

• Some viruses can transmit from diseased to healthy plants through the
mechanical transmission of the infected sap by touch.
• Virus infected sap adhering to tools, implements, insect mouth parts, and
body, hands, clothes of man etc. can transmit viruses to the wounded plant
cells.
• This type of mechanical transmission is wide spread in Tobacco mosaic
virus (TMV), Potato virus X, etc.

• Seed transmission: Majority of seed transmitted viruses are carried

internally.
• Virus may be carried to the seed from the infected ovule or the pollen.
• A small percentage show seed transmission.
• Examples are muskmelon mosaic virus in watermelon, barley stripe
mosaic virus, tobacco ring spot virus in soybean, common bean mosaic
virus.
Pollen transmission
• Pollen transmission of virus occurs in sour cherry infected with Prunus
necrotic ring spot
virus.

Insect transmission
• Aphids, leaf hoppers, white flies, mealy bugs and scale insects constitute
the insect vectors. However, aphids and leaf hoppers transmit a larger
number of viral diseases and
are most important .

• The viruses can be classified as:

48
a) Stylet borne viruses (mostly aphid transmitted), which do not go into
the system of insects and remain near the tip of the stylet and are lost after
one or two visits. They are also called ‘non-persistent viruses, e.g.,
Cucumber mosaic virus, Papaya ring spot virus, etc.

b) Circulative viruses, mostly vectored by leaf hoppers, which take them

into their system and after circulation, they are returned to the stylet,
mixed with the saliva and are transmitted to healthy plants they visit, e.g.,
Maize streak virus
• Some viruses of circulative nature may multiply inside the insect body and
are called as ‘propagative viruses’. Leaf hoppers transmitted viruses are
mostly circulative and propagative in nature, e.g., Tomato spotted wilt
virus.

c) Persistent viruses, which are acquired by leaf hoppers and are

incubated for 1-2 weeks and become viruliferous. Once they start
transmitting viruses, they remain infective for long periods or even for rest
of their life, e.g., Banana bunchy top virus.

d) Transovarial transmission, in which the viruses once acquired are

transferred to their following generations.

Examples of other Insects transmitting viruses:

• Green peach aphid transmits potato virus Y (Potyvirus) and potato leaf
roll virus (PLBV)
• Leaf hoppers transmit rice stunt virus, aster yellow virus etc.
• White flies can transmit Papaya leaf curl virus, Yellow vein mosaic virus,
Tomato leaf curl virus
• Mealy bug transmits Swollen shoot of cocoa
• Thrips transmit Tomato spotted wilt virus
• Beetles transmit Squash mosaic virus, Cowpea virus.

Mite transmission
Mites transmitting viruses have piercing and sucking mouth-parts.
1. Examples are Wheat streak mosaic virus, Peach mosaic virus and
viruses of sterility disease of pigeon pea.

49
Fungus transmission: Three major classes of fungi can transmit viruses.
(a) Chytridiomycetes- Olpidium brassicae transmits Lettuce big vein virus;
and Synchytrium endobioticum transmits Potato virus X and Potato mop
top virus .
(b) Plasmodiophoromycetes- Polymyxa graminis transmits Wheat soil
borne mosaic virus, Spongospora subterranea transmits Potato mop top
virus.
(c) Oomycetes- Pythium ultimum transmits Pea false leaf roll virus.

Nematode transmission:
2. NEPO viruses- Longidorus and Xiphinema species are shown to
transmit several polyhedral viruses, such as Grapevine fan leaf virus,
Tobacco ring spot virus, Cherry leaf roll virus and Tomato black ring
virus.

3. NETU viruses- Species of Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus transmit

tubular viruses, like Pea early browning and tobacco rattle virus.

Dodder transmission:
4. Plant viruses are also transmitted from one plant to another through the
bridge formed between two plants by twining stems of the parasitic plant
dodder (Cuscuta sp.)

5. Most commonly involved species are C. campestris transmitting

Cucumber mosaic virus,Tomato bushy stunt virus and Tobacco mosaic
virus; and C. subinclusa is known to transmit Sugar beet curly top virus.

50
Lecture:14 Nematodes: General morphology,outline of classification**
Definition of Phylum Nematoda: Phylum Nematoda are un-
segmented vermiform animals with ante rior lateral chemosensory organs
or amphids and with a persistent blastocoel or pseudocoelom;
dorsal and ventral nerve cords in epidermis and excretory system of
renette cells or tubules.

General Characteristic Features of Phylum Nematoda:

1. Body of Phylum Nematoda is unsegmented, bilaterally sym metrical,
elongated and tapering at both ends.

2. Triploblastic animals with perivisceral cavity is more extensive than that

of Platyhelminthes.

3. Body of of Phylum Nematoda is generally covered with thick, flexible

multi-layered collagenous cuticle and often bears cuticular setae (hairs),
spines or annulations.

4. Cuticle moulted periodically.

5. Epidermis or hypodermis syncytial; i.e., the nuclei are not separated

from each other by cell membranes.

6. Only longitudinal body-wall muscles; no circular body-wall muscles.

7. Body cavity of of Phylum Nematoda is pseudocoel filled with parenchyma

in most cases.

8. Alimentary canal provided with distinct mouth and anus (complete

digestive tract). Muscular pharynx and the inner surface of the gut usually
not lined by cilia. Extracellular digestion.

9. Mouth of of Phylum Nematoda is surrounded by six lips.

10. Blood vascular system and respiratory system are absent in of Phylum
Nematoda.

11. Haemoglobin sometimes present in the pseudocoelomic fluid.

51
12. Excretory system without nephridia and flame cells. In the class
Adenophorea glandular renette cells with a duct or in the
class Secernentea excretory canal system without flame cells act as
excre tory system.

13. Dorsal and ventral nerve cords in the epidermis.

14. Chemosensory organs are small cuticular projections called amphids

which are situated on the lips, derived from cilia and opening to the
exterior through a small pore, and lined with modified non-motile cilia
called sensillae.

15. Sexes of of Phylum Nematoda are separate (gonochoristic).

16. Tubular gonads are present in of Phylum Nematoda.

17. Amoeboid sperm cells.

18. Fertilization is internal in of Phylum Nematoda.

19. Determinate cleavage (mosaic).

20. Phylum Nematodaare eutelic animals.

21. Generally complex life history.

22. They are free-living or phytoparasitic or zo oparasitic.

52
Lecture:15 Nematodes: Symptoms and nature of damage caused by
plant nematodes (Heterodera, Meloidogyne and Anguina).
Most of the plant parasitic nematodes affect the root portion of plants
except Anguina spp., Aphelenchus spp., Aphelenchoides spp.,Ditylenchus
spp, Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus and Bursaphelenchus xylophilus.

Nematodes suck the sap of the plants with the help of stylet
and causes leaf discolouration, stunted growth, reduced leaf size and fruits
and lesions on roots, galls, reduced root system and finally wilting.

Symptoms of nematode diseases can be classified as

I. Symptoms produced by above ground feeding nematodes

II. Symptoms produced by below ground feeding nematodes

I. Symptoms produced by above ground feeding nematodes

1.Leaf discolouration: The leaf tip become white in rice due to rice white
tip nematode Aphelenchoides besseyi, yellowing of leaves oin
Chrysantyhemum due to Chrysanthemus foliar nematodes, A. ritzemabosi.

2.Dead or devitalized buds: In case of straw berry plants infected with

A. fragariae, the nematodes affect the growing point and kill the plants and
result in blind plant.

3.Seed galls: In wheat, Anguina tritici larva enter into the flower
primordium and develops into a gall. The nematodes can survive for longer
period (even upto 28 years) inside the cockled wheat grain.

4.Twisting of leaves and stem: In onion, the basal leaves become

twisted when infested with D. angustus.

5.Crinkled or distorted stem and foliage: The wheat seed gall

nematode. A tritici infests the growing point as a result distortions in stem
and leaves take place.

53
II. Symptoms produced by below ground feeding nematodes
The nematodes infest and feed on the root portion and exhibit symptoms
on below ground plant parts as well as on the above ground plants parts
and they are classified as
a. Above ground symptoms
b. Below ground symptoms

a. Above ground symptoms

Stunting: Beduced plant growth, and the plants can not able to withstand
adverse conditions. Patches of stunted plants appears in the field. (eg.) in
potato due to Globodera rostochiensis, in gingelly, due to
Heterodera cajani and in wheat by Heterodera avenae.

1.Discolouration of foliage: Patchy yellow appearance in coffee due to

Pratylenchus coffeae, G. rostochiensis infested potato plants show light
green foliage. Tylenchulus semipenetrans induce fine mottling on the
leaves of orange and lemon trees.

2.Wilting: Day wilting due to Meloidogyne spp. i.e. In hot weather the
root – knot infested plants tend to droop or wilt even in the presence of
enough moisture in the soil. Severe damage to the root system due to
nematode infestation leads to day wilting of plants.

B. Below ground symptoms

1.Root galls or knots: The characteristic root galls are produced by
root – knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. false root galls are produced by
Nacobbus batatiformis on sugar beet and tomato. Small galls are produced
by Hemicycliophora arenaria on lemon roots.
Ditylenchus radicicola cause root galls on wheat and oats. Xiphinema
diversicaudatum cause galls on rose roots.

2.Root lesion: The penetration and movement of nematodes in the root

causes typical root lesions eg. Necrotic lesions induced by Pratylenchus spp
on crossandra; the burrowing nematode, Radopholus similes in banana.

Similarly Pratylenchus coffeae and Helicotylenchus multicinctus

cause reddish brown lesion on banana root and corm. The rice root
nematode also cause brown lesions on rice root.

54
3.Coarse root: Paratrichodorus spp. infestations arrest the growth of
lateral roots, and leads to a open root system with only main roots without
lateral roots.

4.Stubby roots : The lateral roots produce excessive rootless

(eg.P.christei)

5.Curly tip: In the injury caused by Xiphinema spp. the nematode retard
the elongation of roots and cause curling of roots known as “Fish book’
symptom.

6.Root proliferation: Increase in the root growth or excessive branching

due to nematode infestation. The infested plant root produced excessive
root hair at the point of nematode infestation. (eg.) Trichodorus christei,
Nacobbus spp., Heterodera spp. Meloidogyne hapla and Pratylenchus spp.
etc.

7.Root – rot: The nematodes feeds on the fleshly structure and resulting
in rotting of tissues (eg.) Yam nematode Scutellonema bradys and in potato
Ditylenchus destructor cause root rot.

8.Root surface necrosis: The severe injury caused by T. semipenetrans

on citrus leads to complete decortications of roots and results in root
necrosis.

9.Cluster of sprouts on tubers: On the tubers, clusters of short and

swollen sprouts are formed due to D. dipsaci infestation in many tuber
plants.

55
Lecture:16 Role of enzymes and toxins in disease development.

1. Enzymes are generally large protein molecules that catalyze organic

reactions in living cells and in solutions.

Cutinases, cellulases, pectinases and lignases are often secreted by the

pathogenic organism. Fungi, nematodes and bacteria are all known to
produce one or more of the above enzymes in specific pathogen-host
combinations.
Viruses and viroids are generally not considered to secrete enzymes,
although some viruses may encapsidate an enzyme in their particle.

Pathogenic organisms either continually secrete enzymes or upon contact with the
host plant.

The cell wall is comprised of cellulose, which makes up the structural framework
of the wall, along with the matrix molecules hemicellulose, glycoproteins, pectin
and lignin. Thus, penetration into living parenchymatous tissues and degradation of
middle lamella is due to the action of one or more enzymes which
degrade these chemical substances.

Cutinases degrade the cutin on the cuticle layer presoftening

the tissue for mechanical penetration or as a first step in tissue degradation. Studies
have shown that several fungi and at least one bacterial species produce cutinases.

Pectic substances comprise the middle lamella and also form an amorphous gel
between the cellulose microfibrils in the primary cell wall. Pectin degrading
substances often termed pectinases or pectolytic enzymes include
pectin methyl esterases (PME).

polygalacturonases (PG) and pectin lyases or transeliminases.

Pectin methyl esterases remove small groups such as methyl groups (CH3) often
altering solubility and thus affecting the rate of chain splitting by
polygalacaturonase and pectin lyase.

56
Plant Substances and Their Enzymatic Degradation
• Aerial plant part surfaces consist primarily of cuticle and/or cellulose,
whereas root cell wall surfaces consist only of cellulose.
• Cuticle consists of cutin, wax and covering of layer of wax
• The lower part of cutin contains pectin, cellulose lamellae and a thin layer
of pectic substances; below that there is a layer of cellulose.

Microbial Toxins in Plant Disease

• Toxins are extremely poisonous substances and are effective in very low
concentrations.
• Fungi and bacteria may produce toxins in infected plants as well as in
culture medium.
• Toxins injure host cells either by affecting the permeability of the cell
membrane or byinactivating or inhibiting enzymes and subsequently
interrupting the corresponding enzymatic reactions.
• Certain toxins act as antimetabolites and induce a deficiency for an
essential growth factor.

Toxins as Chemical Weapons of Pathogens

Toxins have been implicated in plant disease as far back as deBary who
advanced a theory of plant disease often termed the “toxin theory”. A
primary tenant of the toxin theory is that a toxin elaborated by a pathogen
may produce all of the symptoms of the disease.

Some toxins are active on a wide range of plant species (non-host-

specific) or in some cases, as with the toxin victorin (host-specific).
Non-Host Specific Toxins
Tabtoxin---Pseudomonas syringae p.v. tabaci
Phaseolotoxin---Pseudomonas syringae p.v. phaseolicola
Tentoxin---Alternaria alternate

Tabtoxin
This is the toxin involved in the “wildfire disease of tobacco”. In this
disease, leaves exhibit necrotic spots surrounded by a yellow halo.

Identical symptoms of the disease may be induced by culture filtrates of

the organism or purified toxins with symptoms identical to that of wildfire
of tobacco.

57
Phaseolotoxin
This is the toxin involved in one of the bacterial bean blights called "halo
blight". Symptoms of the disease incited by the bacterium can be produced
by the toxin alone.

Tentoxin
This is the toxin produced by Alternaria alternata. The disease induced by
this organism is primarily a seedling disease in a wide range of plant
species. Seedling death results when greater than one-third of the leaf area
become chlorotic, and reduce vigor with less than that amount of leaf
chlorosis.
The toxin is a cyclic tripeptide that binds to and inactivates a
chloroplast-coupling factor protein involved in energy transfer and also the
inhibition of light dependent phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP.

T-Toxin
This is another good example of a host-specific toxin. The toxin is produced
in common corn disease "Southern Corn Leaf Blight" incited by the fungus
Cochliobolus heterostrophus formerly known as Helminthosporium maidis.
T-toxin is produced by race T of the fungus that first appeared in the United
States in 1968.

The toxin, chemically, is a mixture of linear, long polyketols with 35 to 45

carbon atoms. The toxin specifically affects mitochondria of susceptible
cells where ATP synthesis is inhibited.

Hc-Toxin
One other example of a host-specific toxin in the HC-Toxin produced by the
fungus Cochliobolus (Helminthosporium) carbonum which incites a leaf
spot disease in corn. The toxin is specific to only certain maize (corn) lines.

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LECTURE:17. Defense mechanism in plants.

Mechanical Defenses
The ¹rst line of defense in plants is an intact and impenetrable barrier
composed of bark and a waxy cuticle. Both protect plants against
herbivores. Other adaptations against herbivores include hard shells,
thorns (modi¹ed branches), and spines (modi¹ed leaves).

Theydiscourage animals by causing physical damage or by inducing rashes

and allergic reactions. Some Acacia tree species have developed
mutualistic relationships with ant colonies: they o·er the ants shelter in
their hollow thorns in exchange for the ants’ defense of the tree’s leaves.

Acacia collinsii: The large thorn-like stipules of Acacia collinsii are

hollow and o·er shelter for ants, which in return protect the plant against
herbivores.

Modidfed leaves on a cactus: The spines on cactus plants are modifed

leaves that act as a mechanical dFefense against predators.

Chemical Defenses
A plant’s exterior protection can be compromised by mechanical
damage, which may provide an entry point for pathogens. If the first line
of defense is breached, the plant must resort to a diferent set of
defense mechanisms, such as toxins and enzymes.

Secondary metabolites are compounds that are not directly derived from
photosynthesis and are not necessary for respiration or plant growth and
development.

Foxgloves: Foxgloves produce several deadly chemicals, namely

cardiac and steroidal glycosides. Ingestion can cause nausea, vomiting,
hallucinations, convulsions, or death.

PREPARED BY: TARUN MEENA &SURAJ KUMAR

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