A Kalkatungu Grammar

PACIFIC LINGUISTICS
Se��e� B - No. 57
A KALKATUNGU GRAMMAR
by
Barry J. Blake
Department of Linguistics
Research School of Pacific Studies
THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
Blake, B.J. A Kalkatungu grammar.

B-57, xii + 210 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1979. DOI:10.15144/PL-B57.cover
©1979 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
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Austral ia.
Copyright (§) B.J. Blake.

First published 1979.
The editors are indebted to the Australian National University for

help in the production of this series.
This publication was made possible by an initial grant from the
Hunter Dougl as Fund.
National Library of Austr a l ia Card Number and ISBN 0 85883 1 9 7 X

TO THE GENERATIONS OF KALKATUNGU, AND TO
MICK AND LARDIE MOONLIGHT WHO TAUGHT ME
THE OUTLINES OF THEIR LANGUAGE THAT I MIGHT
RECORD IT HEHE FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS.

T AB L E O F C O N T E NTS
Page
ABBREVIATIONS x
MAP xii
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
1.1. THE PEOPLE 1
1. 2 . THE LANGUAGE 3
1 .3. PREVIOUS WORK ON THE LANGUAGE 3
1. 4. THE PRESENT DESCRIPTION 4
1. 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4
1 . 6. DESCRIPTIVE FRAMEWORK 5
CHAPTER 2: PHONOLOGY
2 .1. PHONEMES 9
2.2. PHONEMOTACTICS 9
2.3. PHONEME FREQUENCIES 13
2 .4. PRONUNCIATION 15
2 .5. PHONEMIC OVERLAP 16

2 .6. VARIANT FORMS 17
2 .7. CONSONANT ASSIMILATION 17
2.8. VOWEL ASSIMILATION 17
2.9. NASAL-PLUS-STOP DISSIMILATION 18
2 .10. THE VARIANTS OF -jan (CONCOMITANT) AND
-iati (INTRANSITIVISER) 19
2 . 1 1. AUGMENTATION 20
2.12. CLITICISATION 20
2 . 1 3. ELISION AND DELETION 20
2.14. IDIOSYNCRATIC ALTERNATIONS 21
2.15. THE PROBLEM OF THE GLIDES 22
2 . 1 6. LONG VOWELS OR DOUBLE VOWELS 25
2.17. STRESS 25
v
vi
Page
2. 17. 1. Word Stress 25
2. 17. 2. Sentence Stress 26
2. 1 8. PHRASE-FINAL INTONATION 26
CHAPTER 3: NOUNS AND PRONOUNS

3. 1. THE SYNTACTIC CASES 27
3. 2. CASE PARADIGMS 29
3. 2. 1. Regular Nouns 29
3. 2. 2. Irregular Nouns 30
3. 2. 3. Personal Pronouns 31
3. 2. 4. Demonstratives 34
3. 2. 5. Interrogative Pronouns 35
3. 3. CROSS-REFERENCING BOUND PRONOUNS 35
3. 4. CO-REFERENCING BOUND PRONOUNS 38
3. 5. SENTENCES ILLUSTRATING CASE MARKING 41
3. 5. 1. Nominative - 0 41
3. 5. 2. Ergative/Instrumental - i u , -Qku 42
3. 5. 3. Locative I -i i , -pia 42
3. 5. 4. Dative - k u etc. 44
3. 5. 5. Locative II -Q i i 46
3. 5. 6. Causal - i u Q u , - Q kuQu 47
3. 5. 7. Ablative -i i Qu , p i aQu 47
3. 5. 8. Allative I - k u Ua , etc. 47
3. 5. 9. Allative II - Q i i Ua 48
3. 5. 10. Prolocative -uun 48
3. 5. 11. Double Case Marking 49
CHAPTER 4 : THE VERB

4. 1. VERB CLAS SES 51
4. 2. TENSE AND ASPECT SUFFIXES 54
4. 2. l. Present - 0 54
4. 2. 2. Past - oa 54
4. 2. 3. Future -m i 54
4. 2. 4. Imperfect I - m i oa 55
4. 2. 5. Imperfect II maoi i 55
4. 2. 6. Habitual - pc a Q u 56
4. 2. 7. Purposive - pc a a j a 56
4. 2. 8. Imperative -ja 57
4. 2. 9. (a) Perfect (b) Sequential -mpa 58
4. 2. 10. Participle -pin 59
4. 2. 11. Possibility -m i a 60
4. 2. 12 -ma 61
4. 2. 13. -mu 61
vii
Page
4.3. THE FAVOURITE CONSTRUCTION 62
4.4 . THE "LEST" CONSTRUCTION 68
CHAPTER 5 : OTHER FUNCTION MORPHEMES

5.1. INTRODUCTION 77
5.2. NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY 77
5.2.l. - j a n Concomitant 77
5.2.2. - i t i Privative 78
5.2.3. - Q U (with Dative Stems) 78
5.2.4. - Q U (with Adverb Stems) 79
5.2.5. - Q u j an 79
5.2.6. - p c i r Nominaliser 79
5.2.7. Number Marking with Nominals 80
5.2.7.l. Dual -wat i 80
5.2.7.2. Plural -m i a 80
5.2.7.3. K inship Terminology and Related Morphology 81
5.3. VERBAL MORPHOLOGY 84
5.3 .1. - p un i Transitiviser 84
5.3.2. - m a Verbaliser 85
5.3.3 . - �a t i I ntransitiviser 85
5.3.4 . - n t a Intransitiviser 86
5.3.5. - t i Reflexive and Reciprocal 86
5.3.6. -n t i Transitiviser 87
5.3.7. -pc a m a Transitiviser 89
5.3.8. - n i i t i Verb Pluraliser 92
5.3.9. - pc a an i Continuing 92
5.3.l0.l. - n�u Motion Away from the Speaker 92
5.3.10.2. - u Motion Towards the Speaker 92
5.4. ADVERB MORPHOLOGY 92
5.4.l. Adverb Inflection 92
5.4.2. -na Adverb Forming 93
5.4.3. -m i n Q u 93
5.5. REDUPLICATION 94
5.6. COMPOUNDING 94
5.7. - J a n a CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTION 95
5.8. - wa , - j a LIGATIVES 95
5.9. PROSODIC SUFFIXES 95
5.9.l. - ka 95
5.9.2. - pa 96
5.10. FREE FORM FUNCTION MORPHEMES 96
5.10.1. - l u u Intensive Particle 96
viii
Page
5. 10. 2. p a - Definitiser 96
5. 10. 3. i n i Auxiliary Verb 96
5. 10.4. p a p c a Intensive Verb 97
5. 10.5. I) u p c a , .I)u p c a p un i
' to mi s s , to fai t ' 97
5. 10.6. I) am p u ' comp t et e ty ' 97
5. 10. 7. uca 'jus t ' 98
5. 10. 8. lam u 'might ' 98
5.10. 9. k un t u Negative 98
5.10. 10. wan t a Negative with Imperatives ( ' don ' t ' ) 99
5. 10.11. miar 'very ' 99
5. 10. 12. kia ' "li ke' 99
5.10. 13. k i a l) u ' t his way ' 100
5.10. 14. puj u 'if' 100
5. 10.15. mutu 'together ' 100
5.1l. I) U RELATIVE/TEMPORAL PARTICLE 100
5. 12. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES 103
5. 13 . INDEFINITES 105
CHAPTER 6: WORD ORDER AND THEMATIC STRUCTURE
6.1. WORD ORDER IN THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 107
6. 2. NOUN PHRASE lOa
6. 3. VERB PHRASE 109
6. 4. CO-ORDINATION OF NOUN PHRASES 110
6.5. COMPLEX SENTENCES 110
6.5.1. Independent Clauses as P 110
6.5. 2. Word Order in Complex Sentences 111
6. 6. COMPOUND SENTENCES 112
6. 7. THEMATIC STRUCTURE 114
6. 8. DELETING A AND P 116
CHAPTER 7 : KALKATUNGU IN COMPARATIVE/HI STORIC AL PERSPECTIVE

7. 1. CLASSIFICATION BY LEXICOSTATISTICS 117
7. 2. THE PATTERN OF BORROWINGS 129
7.3. KALKATUNGU AND COMMON AUSTRALIAN 131
7. 4. SOME PHONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMEN TS IN THE 131
HISTORY OF KALKATUNGU
7. 5. PRONOUNS 136
7. 6. BOUND PRONOUNS 139
7. 7. CASE SYSTEMS 145
7. 8. OTHER MORPHOLOGY 149
TEXTS:
'MY WIVES AND CHILDREN' M-i.c.k. Moo n.Ug h.t 151
ix
Page
'MY RACEHORSES' MiC/Z. Mo 0 ntig h.t 152
'MAGPIE' La�die M o o ntig h.t 154
'HOW I WAS BORN' LaAdie Mo o ntig h.t 155
'PLANTING' Mic k and La�di e M o o ntig h.t 156
'COOKING BY THE CREEK' Mick a nd La�di e M o o ntig h.t 158
'THEN AND NOW' Mi.ck Mo 0 nUg h.t 159
REFERENCES 161
GLOSSARY 167
SUBJECT INDEX 197

A B B R E V I AT I ONS
A AGENT Intr Intransitiviser

Abl Ablative Lig Ligative
Adv Adverb LM Lardie Moonlight
All Allative Loc Locative
Alp Anti-passive MM Mick Moonlight
C Consonant N Nasal
C. A. Common Australian Nom Nominative
Cau Causative Nom Nominaliser
Caus Causal P PATIENT
CC Charlie Caldwell Part Participle
Comp Complementiser Perf Perfect
Con Concomitant Pl Plural
Conj Conjunction Poss Possibility
Contin Continuing Purp Purposive
Dat Dative Re Reciprocal/reflexive
Du Dual Rel Relative particle
Erg E rgative S Stop
Habit Habitual S·1- INTRANSITIVE SUBJECT
Imp Imperative Seq Sequential
Imperf Imperfect Sing Singular
Instr Instrumental Tr Transitiviser
Int Intensifier V Vowel
# word boundary
0 Indicates (in glosses) a morpheme without referential
content e. g. -ka . See §5.9.l.
1 First person
2 Second person
3 Third person
> (a) acting on, e. g. 1>3 first person acting on third.
(b) is realised or pronounced as
x
xi
Note on gloss e s
Where a morpheme has n o apparent meaning i t i s glossed as zero.

A transitive verb in an independent clause is normally marked by
-j i. This element appears to have no function with independent verbs.
It is left unglossed and is not separated off from the stem in order
to simplify the glossing. In subordinate clauses - j i is significant,
being an anti-passive marker.
xii
Gulf uf Ctlr/lc'utaria
MAYIKULAN
z
<>:
'"
:t:
f
<>:
o
NGAWUN
z
I
WAKAYA
MAYITHAKURTI
YARUWINGA CLONCURnY
I
KALKATUNGU WUNUMARA
(
• Duchess
WARLUWARA
GUWA
Woonamoo Waterhole
YANDA
QUEENSLAND
o 50 100km
'-' ----' , -- '-'

B-57, xii + 210 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1979. DOI:10.15144/PL-B57.cover
CHAPTER 1
I NTR ODU CTI ON
1.1 . T H E P E O PLE
l
The Kalkat ungU (or Kalkadoons as t hey are generally c a l l e d )
i nhabi t at ed a n area of what i s now west ern Queens land , a n area t hat
embraces t he pres ent day t owns of Mt . Is a and C loncurry . It is rocky ,
hi l ly count ry on t he wat ershed between the rivers that flow north t o
t h e Gulf o f Carpent aria , and t h o s e t hat f low s outh t hrough the ' Chann e l
C ountry ' t o the inland l a k e s of Sout h Australi a .
The first Europ e ans t o ent er Kalkat ungu territory mus t have been
member s of the Burke and Wi l l s e xpedition who pas s e d t hrough their
t e rrit ory i n 1 8 6 1. However , no cont act was made . The first Europ e an
s e t t lement began in the e i ghteen s i x t i e s and with it the first conf l i ct .
The first not able incident oc curred in 1 8 7 8 when a new s e t t l e r ,
Malvo , and t hree companions were ki l led a t t h e Woonamoo wat e rho l e on
Sulieman C re e k . This led t o t he mount ing of a p unit ive e xp e dition of
nat ive police under Inspect or Ernest Eglint on . Eglinton ' s main c laim
to fame , iron i c a l ly enough , l i e s in the fact t hat he s upp l i e d our s o le
s ourc e for the ext inct Yanda l anguage with t he vocabulary he c ont ribut e d
t o Curr ( 1886 : II , 360-3) . He a l s o contribut e d a vocabulary of P i t t a-Pitt a
( i d . :364-5 ) and one of Yalarnnga ( i d . : 3 4 6 - 9 ) . The e xpedit ion r e s ulted
in the k i l l ing of a number o f Kalkatung u . T h e k i l ling of Malvo and
h i s p arty was considered to be murder and s ome y e ars lat er when the
Kalkatungu had be en ' t amed ' and were living on c at t le s t at i ons and i n
t owns , a t ri be sman who w a s s aid t o b e one of t ho s e respons ible for t h e
k i l l ing o f Malvo ' s party w a s made t o wear a breastp lat e around h i s
neck ins cribed ' Woonamoo murdere r ' .
l
The name has been recorded as [ka l keduQ ( u) , ) [ka l kaduQ ( u») and [ka l kuduQ ( u»), the
last vers ion suggesting the name is really Kalkutungu and that [e) and [a) repres ent
the neutralisation of unstressed e and unstres s ed u. However, s ince I have heard
slow versions with [e), I believe Kalkatungu i s a legit imate variant along with
Kalkutungu and I will use the former.

B-57, xii + 210 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1979. DOI:10.15144/PL-B57.1
2
Over the next few years there were furt her ' inc ident s ' and nat i ve
p o l i c e were s t at i oned at C loncurry under the command of Inspe c t or
Beres ford. However , he and four of his men were k i l led in 1 8 8 3 whi l e
on patrol and h e w a s s uc ceeded by F . C . Urquhart . Urquhart later b e c ame
Commi s s i oner of P o l i c e in Que ens l and and lat er again was appointed
Admini s t rat or of the Northern Territ ory. Urquhart cont ribut ed a
' Kulkadoon ' vocabulary t o Curr ( 188 6 : 11,326-9) and s ome ' legends ' t o t h e
J ournal o f t he Royal Anthropological I n s t i t ut e . He also wrote poems
o f dub ious value , one o f whi ch is re corded in Fysh (1 9 5 0: 1 4 5 - 7 ) . He
led a number of p unit ive expedi t i ons culminat ing in one invo lving a
p i t ched b at t le near the head of Prospector Creek at a s i t e t hat s ub s e
quent ly c ame t o be known as Bat t le Mount ain. It s e ems t hat a compara
t ively l arge numb er of Kalkat ungu were k i l led and it s eems t hat t h i s
incident marked the end of Kalkat ungu re s i s t anc e . The reaft er t hey
were no longer ab l e t o maintain their own way of l i fe . The s urvivors
found their c ount ry ent irely o c cupied and t hey were for c ed to l ive on
the fringes of Europ ean s e t t lement s , accept ing handout s or providing
l abour and rec eiving s ome payment in kind .
The detailed h i s t ory of the early contact period i s not avai lab l e
and what acc ount s a r e avai lab le t e l l only one s ide of the s t ory . Fysh
( 1 9 5 0 ) c ont ains a col ourful acc ount and alt hough his t re atment wi l l irk
readers sympathet ic t o the Aboriginal po int of view , he provides a
c lear ins ight into the s e t t lers ' at t it ude.
Popular writers s eem to have wri t t e n the Kalkat ungu off rat her pre
mat urely. Fy sh (op . c it. 2 0 9 ) s t at e s t hat , " About t he only members of
t h e Kalkadoon t ribe living fift een years ago [ c . 19 1 8 ] were e ight b lacks
on Ye lvert o ft s t at ion , one of t he s e b e ing Princ e Micky , son of the
lat e King and Queen , J immy and N e l ly . " And Holthous e ( 1 9 7 4: 12 1 ) c laims
t hat , " Today it is doubt ful if t he re is one full-b looded Kalkadoon
l e ft alive . " Howeve r , t here are s c ores o f full-blood Aborigines who
i dent i fy t hems e lves as Kalkat ungu , on the bas i s of their father hav ing
b e e n Kalkat ungu .
What has a lmo s t died i s the language . When Gavan Breen and I b egan
working in Quee n s l and in the mid-s ixt i e s t here were no more t han a
dozen people who could speak Kalkat ungu , probab ly no more t han s ix who
were fluent . At t he t ime of writ ing only one fluent speaker remains ,
Lardie Moonlight .
The fluent sp eakers were all very o ld when t hey were first c ont acted
(in t h e ir sixties at least ) with the exception of Lardie Moonlight who
was a lit t l e younger (in her fiftie s ) and none of t hem was born ' in t h e
bush ' i . e . none of t hem w a s born before the t ime the Kalkat ungu were
l iving in or around Europ ean s e t t l ement s .
3
Mick Moonlight , who was the principal s ourc e for the mat erial on
whi ch my e arlier de s cript ion was based ( Blake 19 6 9 ) , was t he proud
p o s s e s s or of a brass breastp lat e ins cribed , " Moonl i ght , King o f t h e
Burke" , which he inhe r i t e d from h i s father . However , I underst and from
Tim Howard of Boulia t hat he was not the " Prince M i c ky " re ferred to by
Fy s h in the quotation c i t e d above . Mick ' inherit ed ' t he Burke whi ch
was Yalarnnga t errit ory not Kalkat ungu country . Today his portrait
hangs in the Boulia l ibrary and Boulia i s in P i t t a-Pit t a t erritory . So
he s eems t o have been a ' prophet without honour in h i s own c ountry ' .
The e lderly sp eakers we consulted were a l l very wi l ling t o b e rec or
ded . They were all fami liar with recording inasmuch a s s ome of their
friends and family owned recorders and t hey s eeme d t o s e e s ome value i n
having t he i r language rec orded knowing t hat t h e y were t h e l a s t sp eakers .
A few Kalkat ungu in t he i r fort i e s and f i ft i e s under s t and s ome of the
language , but the younger people have no knowledge of i t .
1.2. THE L ANG U A G E
Kalkat ungu i s a Pama-Nyungan l anguage c l a s s i fi ed b y O ' Grady , Voegelin

and Voege l in as the s o l e member of the ' Kalkat ungic group ' ( O ' Grady
et a l . 19 6 6 : 4 2, Wurm 1 9 72: 1 3 1 ) . Yalarnnga , the language spoken imm
ediat ely t o t he s out h of Kalkat ungu s hare s s ome lexical and morpho
synt ac t i c mat erial with Kalkatungu but t he two languages are c ertainly
not c l o s e ly relat e d . Detai l s o f the re lat i onship between Kalkat ungu
and other Aus t ralian languages is given in chap t er 7 .
Kalkat ungu emp loys s uffix e s for word derivat ion and for noun and
verb infle c t i on . Nouns and free pronouns operate in an ergat ive p ara
digm . There are a l s o bound pronouns which may c r o s s -referen c e within a
c laus e or co-re ference between c l aus e s or between s en t en c e s . These
operat e in an a c c us at ive s y s t em . Synt a c t i c a l ly t h e language e xhib i t s
a n ergat ive/accusative mixture but i s predominant ly ergat i ve . There i s
a n ant i-pas s ive construct ion .
1.3. P R E V I O U S W O R K ON T H E L ANG U A G E
I first b egan rec ording Kalkat ungu i n 1 9 6 6 during which t ime I was
a res earch f e l low in the Lingui s t i c s Department of Monash Univer s i t y
support e d by the Aus t ra l ian Ins t i t ut e of Aboriginal S t udi e s . T h e only
language dat a avai lab l e on Kalkat ungu at t he t ime con s i s t ed of t wo vo
c abular i e s . One was c o l l e c t e d by F . Urquhart and J. O ' R e i l ly and
app eared in Curr , volume 11: 328 - 9. The s e cond was c o l l e c t e d by W . E .
Roth and appeared in Rot h 189 7 . The l at t er s ourc e a l s o cont ains a l i s t
of kinship t e rms and has a numb e r of Ka lkat ungu words s c at t ered t hrough
4
the t ext . A l l in a l l t h e s e s ourc e s y i e ld about a hundred and fifty

words glos s e d fairly ac curat e ly but i n a phonet i c a l ly inac curat e form .
Short ly be fore I began work , C. Os borne and Ken Hale made bri e f re cor
dings of P o l ly Wi l s o n .
M y own writing s o n Kalkatungu are l i s t ed in t h e bi bliography . The
principal one ( Blake 1 9 6 9 ) c ons i s t s of a bri e f d e s c ri p t i on mos t ly of
the morphological s y s t em . The pre s ent work i s int ended t o s upersede
t h i s earlier de s c rip t i o n . Everything in t he earlier work h a s been
retaine d , but the morpho- synt a c t i c mat erial has be en greatly e xpanded
and a number of e rrors , mos t ly in t he notation of part i c ular word s , have
been correct e d .
1.4. T HE P R E S E NT D E S C R I P T I ON
The pres ent des cription of Kalkat ungu i s bas ed on a corpus of over
e ighty hours of t aped mat erial p lus a smal l amount of mat erial taken
down i n not e s . Most of the mat erial was re corded by the author , but
about twelve hours was rec orded by Gavan Bre e n . The main sp eakers con
sulted were the lat e Mick Moonlight and Lardie Moonlight but s ubs t ant ia l
quant it ie s of valuable informat ion were a l s o re corded from Po l ly Wi l s on
and Char l i e Caldwe l l . SmRll amount s of mat erial were provided by Lulu
Luca s , Mrs. Louie Hunt er , Mrs . Noby C l ay , Wi l ly Mal c o lm and Top sy
Harry ( the last three being recorded only by Gavan Breen ) and D o l ly
Douglas ( re corded by Peter Sutton ) .
The c orpus cons i s t s large ly of words , phra s e s and s ent enc e s e li c i t e d
as t rans lat ions of Engli s h . Some mat erial was given by way o f des crip
t i on of the environment or of pic ture s . There i s s ome dialo gue , a
fair amount of mono logue , mo st ly remini s c e nce , a s o l i t ary tradi t ional
s t ory given in three vers ions , and a good deal of non-e l i c i t e d mat erial
o f various kinds cons i s t i ng of i s olated s ent enc e s or grcup s of s e nt en
c e s usual ly int erspersed with Eng l i s h .
E l i c itation was c arried out in Eng l i s h . A l l the informant s spoke
Eng l i s h i n mo st s i t uat ions , s ome of them us ing a fair admixt ure of
Pidgin feat ure s .
1. 5. A C KNOW L E D G E M E N T S
I would l i ke t o re cord my app reciat ion of the pat ience of the

s p e akers I consult ed , part i cularly Mick and Lardie Moonlight and also
P o l ly Wi l s on and Char l i e C aldwe l l . I would like t o t hank Gavan Breen
for making s everal recordings for me , for d i s c us s ion of various pOint s ,
for l i s t e ning t o t ap e s t o give a s e c ond opinion on point s of difficulty ,
for checki ng the pres ent manus cript , and for making avai lable e xt ens ive
dat a in numerous other Aust ralian languages .
5
I would a l s o like to t hank Tasaku T s unoda for rec ordi ng s ome vo cabu
lary from Mrs. Louie Hunt er on Palm I s land , and Peter S ut t on for
rec ording D o l ly Douglas , als o on P alm I s land.
Las t ly I would like to t hank Ken Hale for s ending me a copy of a
re c ording he made of P o l ly Wi l s on p lus a trans cript.
My fie ld work was s upp ort e d by the Aust ralian Ins t i t ute o f Aboriginal
Studies (19 6 6 , 1 9 6 7 , 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 7 5 ) and by Mona s h Univers ity (1 9 76 ) .
1. 6 . DES C R I P T I V E F RA M EWO R K
The pres ent des crip t i on recogn i s e s the foll owing case r e la t i o n s or
functions: I NTRANSITIVE SUBJECT ( S ) ' AGENT ( A ) , PATIENT ( P ) , REC I P IENT
i
( R ) ( the tradit i onal indire ct obJect) , DATIVE ( the comp l ement o f certain
int ran s it ive verb s , beneficiary/po s s e s sor) , ALLATIVE , LOCATIVE , ABLA
T IVE , CAUSAL and I NSTRUMENTAL. My o. e s cript ion mus t remain i ncomplet e
through lack of dat a and s ome areas of the grammar are s hadowy and
l i ttle underst ood . A comp l e t e d e s cript ion would perhaps have to recog
n i s e other re lations such as TIME.
The s e case relations are e xpre s s e d via a s et of case forms t hat
inc lude s nominative , ergat i ve , dative and s o on ( s e e §3 . 2.1 . ) .
Each syntacti c a l ly det ermined case relation expre s s e s one or more
s e m a nt i c role s. Thus A expre s s e s the a g e nt of a verb like i ca 'to b i te',
the p e r c e iv e r of Q a p i 'to s e e', and a l s o the a g e nt of thi s s ame verb
s ince it covers the s en s e of 'look at'. S imilarly P e xpre s s e s t he
affected of i c a 'to b i t e', the e f f e ct e d of k i a k a t i 'to make' and t he
neutral of Q a p i ' to s e e , look at'. I n s ome instan c e s a s emanti c role
may b e e xpre s s e d by more t han one case form. Thus the role o f i n d i r e ct
c a u s e or r e a s o n as in 'They fough t over a woman' may be expre s s e d by
the causal or the locat ive. I t is probab l e that thi s role i s e xpre s s e d
by two s eparate c a s e relations , C AUSAL , the re lation typ i c a l ly e xpre s s e d
by t he causal form , and LOCATIVE , the relat i on typ i c a l ly e xpre s s e d by
the l o cative form.
The ne ed to di fferentiat e synt a c t i c a l ly det ermine d c a s e re lations
from morpho logi c a l ly d i s t inct case forms i s fairly c lear. In Kalkatungu ,
as in many Aust ralian l anguage s , t.he
e xpre s s two d i s t inct case �e lations , A and INSTRUMENTAL. This can be
e s t ab li shed on t wo grounds. F irstly , an actant in A funct ion can be
cro s s -referenced by a bound pronoun but not one in INSTRUMENTAL funct ion.
S e c ondly , an actant in INSTRUMENTAL function may r e c e i ve a lternative
e xpre s s ion by marking the verb with nt i ( for deta i l s see §5 . 3 . 6 . ) , an
option not avai lab le for A.
The framework must also a l low for s i t uations such as the following.
(1 . 1 ) and (1. 2) b oth have the s ame meaning ,
6
(1.1 ) c i pa-j i i t i -j i laj i m a r a p a i - t u8u

this- erg man- erg h i t woman- c au s al
'This man hit him beaau s e of a woman ' .
(1. 2) laj i -mant i j i ma r a p a i c i pa-j i i t i -j i
h i t- b e aaus e : of woman t h is -erg man- erg
' This man hit him b eaause of a woman ' .
The re i s a s yntac t i c re lat ions hip b e tween the two s entenc e s inasmuc h as
for every sentence of t he pat tern exemp l ified in (1.1) t here is a c orre s
p onding s e nt enc e like (1 .2). In (1.1) the CAUSAL case form on m a r a p a i
marks the CAUSAL case re lat i on . In (1.2) the case relat i on i s marked
on t he verb by m a n t i . m a r a p a i now app e ars in t he nominative ( the case
form used for S i and p) and s ome wo uld de s cribe m a r a p a i as s t i l l
b e aring t he CAUSAL re lat ion though appe aring i n a morphologi c a l ly
di ffe rent case form . I b e l i eve this vlew i s inc orre ct and that m a r a p a i
in (1.2) i s synt a c t i cally P . One p i e c e of evidence for c l aiming t h i s i s
t he fact t hat a bound pronoun c ou ld b e u s ed in sent e nc e s like (1.2) t o
cros s -reference the put at ive P . Another p i e c e of evidenc e c an b e found
in c a s e s where the c onstruc t ion with - m a n t i is used in c omp lements like
t he fol lowing .
(1. 3) pini p a n t i camat i - n a a - k i n laj i -mant i

you te L L : on - past c omp-you h i t -beaaus e : of
' You ' dobbed ' so that he wou Ld h i t ( him ) over y ou ' .
Thi s rather ob s cure sentence re fers t o a s i t uation where a woman t e l l s
her husb and of the advanc e s o f a would-be lover s o that t h e husband w i l l
hit t he lover . In comp lements of t h e type found in (1.3) normal l y only
one bound pronoun appe ars suffixed to the c omplement i s e r a - . The
cho i c e o f whi ch actant is to be encoded as a bound pronoun is not det
ermined by synt actic function but by the relative person of the A and
P actant s , first person taking precedence over s e c ond and t hird , and
s e cond t aking precedence over third . In (1.3) it is the s e c ond person
which c omp l e t e s succ e s s fully with the third for the bound pronoun s l o t .
Note however t hat t hi s s e c ond person i s not t he semant i c P but our
p utat ive syntac t i c P . And note t hat the rule det ermining whi c h actant
is to be enc oded by a b ound pronoun ope rat e s in pure synt act ic t erms .
The case form c an only be det ermined aft er a compari s on of a synt act i
cally de t e rmined A and a syntac t ic al l y determined P .
One way to hand le this si tuat ion i s t o recogni s e diffe rent s trat a
as in Relat i onal Grammar . In (1.2) m a r a p a i would be a ll ot t ed a CAUSAL
case re lation in an init ial s t ratum and a D I RECT OBJECT r e lat ion (my
P ) in t he final s t ratum . Simi larly in (1.3) the s e c ond person actant
would appe ar as a C AUSAL in the initial stratum and be advanced t o
7
D IRECT OBJECT in the final s t rat um.

Kalkatungu under t hi s view would b e h e l d t o s anct ion the advanc ement
of LOCATIVE , INSTRUMENTAL and C AUSAL to P with the change of re lat ion
regi s t ered in the verb by the suffix - n t i � - m a n t i . It also s an c t i ons
the advancement of t he DATIVE relat ion to P w it h the add i t ion of
-p c a m a t o the verb. The indire c t obj e c t b ehaves as in Eng l i s h. It
may appear in t he al lat ive or as a direct obj e c t . One could d e s cribe
the RECIP IENT (in my t erms ) b e ing advanced t o P , but it i s not c l e ar in
this case t hat one pattern is bas i c and the other derived.
In the pres ent de s crip t i on s t at ement s referring to the case marking
of P are to be taken to inc lude those instances where P encodes an
under ly ing LOCATIVE , INS'I'RUMENTAL , C AUSAL and DATIVE .
In con s t ruct i ons c orre sponding t o Eng l i s h ' John gave Mary a book ' ,
I shall refer t o the a c t ant corresp onding t o Mary as REC I PIENT. It is
probably true that this act ant i s P j us t as Mary i s syntact i c a lly P in
the sentence j us t c i t e d ( wi t ne s s the p a s s ive : 'Mary was given a book by
l
John ' ) . Howeve r , this cannot be e s t ab lished for c ertain and e ven i f
it could I f e e l it would be c onfus ing t o refer t o it as P , e s p e c i a l ly
s in c e the act ant corre sp onding to 'b ook' wi l l take the s ame c a s e marking.
I will refer to the actant corresp onding to 'bo ok' as P.
There is anot her const ruc t i on t hat presents a prob lem for ac curat e
des cript i on. Compare 1 . 4 and 1 . 5 ,
(1.4) ma t u - j u maa l;. u j i

mother- erg food cook
'Mother cooks the food '
( 1 . 5) ma!u maa- c i tuj i
mother food- dat cook
'Mother cooks food '
Both s entenc e s c an mean the s ame though the construc t ion in 1 . 5 i s usual
for an inde finite o b j e c t ( se e a l s o §3.1). 1 . 4 represents the normal
e rgat i ve c on struct i on, 1 . 5 is an e xamp le of what has come to be c al led
the ant i -pas s i ve . I be lieve that 1 . 5 i s intran s i t i ve . Thi s means t hat
m a � u is S
i and ma a - c i is DATIVE, o r perhaps i n Relat ional Grammar terms ,
a 'dire ct ob j ec t ch6meur ' . However , it has proved convenient to refe r
s imply t o A b e i ng marked b y the nomi native and t o P b e i ng marked by the
dat ive . See the t e xt fol lowing 4 . 70 for furthe r d i s c us s io n .
Where the term ' s ub j e c t ' i s used , it re fers to S and A . Where the
i
term ' ab s o luti ve' o c c ur s , it re fers to S and P .
i
l
One problem i n Engl i sh i s the fac t that the RECIPIENT advanced to P c annot be rel
ativi sed . Most speakers cannot say *'I saw the girl you gave the book ' .
CHAPTER 2
P H ONOLOGY
2.1. P H ON E M E S
Cons onant s :
Bi Ap i c o Api c o Lamino Lamino Dorso
Lab i a l A lveo lar Domal Dent a l Palat a l Ve l ar
( Retroflex )
Stops p t c k
Nasal m n !l I)
Lat erals 1
Rhot i c s r
Glides j w
Vowe l s :
Front Back
High u
Low a
2.2 . P HONE M O T A C T I C S
A word cons i s t s of at least t wo vowe l s ( according t o the interpret

ation offere d here - see § 2 .16). There may b e no consonant , a s ingle
consonant or a nasal p lus homorganic s t op word init i a l ly. Between
vow e l s there may b e one or two cons onant s as s p e c i fi e d b e l ow . In word
fina l p o s i t ion n , I , r , Q, � and p may o c c ur.
Word s hape s may be s ummaris e d by the fol lowing formula ,
,------'1 0
«C )C ) V(C )C ) V(C )
1 2 3 4 5
The s equence under t h e bar may re cur ( 0).
9
10
N o t e t hat t h e bar could have j ust as eas i ly b e e n p laced over C , C

3 4
and t he following vowe l . I have not found any phono logi cal reason t o
p lace s y l l ab le boundarie s . There are phonet i c s y l lab l e boundari e s o f
c ours e , though not a lway s eas i ly det ermined . One c annot determine phono
logi c a l s y l lab le boundarie s from phone t i c one s . For examp l e , init i a l
nas a l s t op c lusters a r e phono logi c a l ly taut o s y l lab i c b u t i n speech t h e
nas a l may b e c ome phone t i cally t he final cons onant o f a prec eding vowe l
final word : # p a a #�! i a # ' that r o ck' c ould b e pronounced [ p� : �� i �J with
the vowe la: being nas a l i s e d and ret roflexed as in a word like a� p a j i
' co Z Z ed ' [�Qb a i J.
C may be any cons onant except the a lveo lars ( t , n, 1 and r ) .

2
C l may be f i l l e d only i f C 2 i s f i l l e d by a s t op . C i s a nas a l
l
homorgan i c w i t h C 2 ( m p , Q! , nt, n c , o k ) .
C may be any cons onant.
4
C may be fi l led only if C 4 is f i l led. If C is a s t op , C may
3 4 3
be a homorgan i c nas a l or lat eral . I f C i s a l ab i a l or ve lar ( p , k , m,
4
0), C may be any ap i c a l nas a l or lateral or r ( n, �, I, !, r ) . I f C
3 4
i s fi l led by any other cons onant ( e . g . r), C may not be f i l l e d ( but
3
s e e b e l ow ) .
C 5 may b e n, I, r, �, ! or n. n oc curs as a final cons onant in only
a f e w words . A has not been re corded in word-final posit ion . G iven the
low frequency of n i n word- final p o s it ion , A would have had a low
frequency in this p o s it ion . I t hink that the ab sence of A in word- final
p o s i t i on is l ik e ly t o b e a c c i dent a l not s y s t emat ic.
Tab l e 1 l i s t s t he intervocalic cons onant c lusters c overed by t he
generali s at ions given above .
Some furt her c lusters o c cur int e rmorphemi c a l ly when the rare final
consonant s are fol lowed by cons onant i nit i a l suffixe s , but the appropr
iate generali s at i on here s eems to be t hat e xcept for the ergat ive ( and
a r e s t r i c t e d allomorph of the locative viz . - t a- -!a ) the other cons on
ant ini t i a l suffixes and c li t i c s c an oc cur fre e ly with s t em-final
cons onant s without morphophonemic change . Thus we have c lusters s uch
a s np m u l p i n + p i a ( on t he parrot ) and ru : a j a r u a 'on ly' a j a r 'one
+ ua ( adverbia l ) . As my des cript ion s t ands it allows for a lot of
intermorphemi c c lusters t hat do not o c cur int ramorphemi cally . However ,
it is c lear t hat the vo cabulary I have c o l le c t e d i s t oo sma l l t o permit
a c c urat e phonemotact ic s t at ement s about a language which s e ems t o have
p ermi t t e d a fairly l arge numb er of p o s s i b i l it ie s .
Sharp e 1 9 7 2 : 2 1 que st ions my de c i s ion to t reat init i a l s equenc e s s uch
as m p , o k , et c . as s equences of phonemes rather t han unit s even though
t he s e nas a l - s t op s equenc e s oc cur i nt ervocalic ally . However , het erorgani c
nas a l - s t op s e quences oc cur intervocalically and i f the homorganic
11
sequences are t aken a s unit s t h e que s t ion would aris e whether a l l

intervo c a l i c homorganic s equen c e s were unit s or whether s ome were
s equences analogous to t he het erorganic s equences. The d i s t ribut ion
does not give c le ar evidence for t aking nas a l - s t op s equenc e s a s unit s ,
nor doe s the behaviour of sp eakers who s y l lab i fy k u n k a 'branch ' as
ku u n k a and p i p c a m u ' s un ' as pi i p c a m u. In any case argument s based on
how spe akers b reak up words are dub i ous s in c e the break-up may reflect
phone t i c s y l lab l e s which need not ac cord with d i s t ribut ionally deter
mined phono logi cal sy l l ab le s . N o t e t hat m y des crip t i on doe s not
invo lve a s s igning int ervocalic cons onant s either to a prece ding
s y l l ab le or to a fol lowing one .
P t � 1 c k m n Q n p 8
n + +
Q + +
+ +
+ + + +
1
A
r + + + +
TAB L E 1
Intervocalic Consonant Clusters
12
Examples I l lustrating the Phonernotactics
p paa ' there ' kupu 'sp i der '

t at i 'me a t ,.
t tuu-tuu 'markings ' matu 'mother '
i i i na ' they ' iii ' ant ,
C c ut u 'coo laman ' i c i fl c i ' nos e '
k kua 'rive r ' j uku ' spear '
m maa 'food ' I) a m u n ' lump '
n i !l i ' be ' m a l) a Qa a n ' do ctor '
Q Qa i p u 'knife ' wa':la 'mound ' m u c uQ ' chicken h aw k I
Il n i la - 's tea l ' i I) k a n a 'wen t '

fl fl i n i 'y ou ' a fl a 'gave ' m u l p i fl ' parrot '
I) I) a t a 'we ' a l) i 'wi II give '
I k iii an ' torn ' p i fl C i 1 'corp s e '
!u l) a ' cry ' k ul u - k u! u 'again ' w a n t a! 'she l l'
1 laj a 'hi t ! ' uli 'die '
A A uwa t i ' two ' i Aa 'now '
r j uru 'man I u t i l) a r �emu •
r r ump i Ifear I marapa i Iwoman '

w wampa 'gir l ' awa ' give ! '
j j a fl i 'gh os t I mpaj a 'you two I
mp mp u u 'r o t ten ' rump i Ifear r

nt wa n t a ' don ' t /
':It Qt i a 's tone ' wa':lt u /he e l I
nl nl i i 'ro use on ' a ni a 'mouth I
fl C fl c a - 'sniff ' I) u fl c a ' nothing '
I) k I) k a a 'yam ' i l) k a ' go '
It 7
It w a !t u r - w ajt u r ' swag '
l;t p i l;t i 's oft,
Ac uA c i ' b lood '
np lunpun ,log ' ':I P a':l p a i Ito co l le c t '

nk k u n ka ' branch , ':I k a ':l k a ' to ai l I
Ip ja lpi 'emu n e t ' j p i jpu 'me lon �

Ik j a l ka - 'boomerang ' ! k pajku 'a li t t le I
pa r i
rp ku rpa i 'three '

rk j a r ka 'far '
13
nm m u nma ' take ' �m

nl) - m i nl) u ( s ee §5. 4 .3) � I) m u a�l) u ' cous i n '
1m a lmi ' squeeze ' !m a a!m i ' wi n p u t down ,

II) m i I l) a 'b Z.owfZ.y ' !I)
rm wa rma ' s ong '

rl ) 1 u rl) u n ' ashes '
2 . 3. PHONEME FREQUENCIES
The following fre que n c i e s are based on 333 words e venly spaced
through the l e x i c on. They are e xpre s se d as perc ent age s to the neare s t
h a l f p e r cent .
F r e quencies of each phoneme as initial .
P t � 1 c k
15 1 7 6 14.5 43.5
m n � !l f1 I)
14.5 1 3 1.3 5 25
1 A
0.5 1.5 * 2
r r
1 1
j w
6 7 13
29.5 3.5 11.5 13.5 26.5 84.5
a u
5 4.5 6 15.5
* init ial A has b ee n ob s erved only in A uw a t i ' two ' which did not
happ en t o appear in the 333 words .
14
Frequencies Intervocalica lly
p t 1 i. c k
9 6 G 5 6 11 43
m n n
Q fl I)
5 5.5 1.5 3 1 4 20
1 II
5 4.5 1.5 1 12
r r
14 7 21
j w
3 1 4
14 30.5 19 9.5 11 16 100
Final Frequencies
Cons onant s 10
37
a 26.5
u 26.5
The raw figure s for s ome of the consonant s are s o sma l l t hat i t i s
not very revealing to convert them t o percentages to the near e s t half
per cent. The raw figures are
r 15
n 13 Q 2 fl 2
6 1
15
Ove r a l l Fre quencies
p t t 1 c k
5.5 2.5 1.5 3.5 3 6.5 22.5
m n fl
IJ !l I)
4.5 3 1.5 2 1.5 3 15.5
1 J..
1.5 1 1 0.5 4
r
�
3.5 1.5 5
j w
1.5 1.5 3
10 10.5 5.5 6.5 6.5 11 50
a u
14.5 21 14.5 50
Average l ength of words i s 2.5 s y l lab l e s ( b ased on head words in the

lexi con) or 2.75 s y l lab l e s per word ( based on t ext).
2 . 4. P R ONUNCIAT I ON
The s t op s , p. t. � . 1. c and k are b a s i c a l ly voicele s s lenis s t ops ,

but voic ing t hrough co-art i c ulat ion i s norma l . Voi c ing i s s t rongest in
intervo c a l i c s t op s and i n s t op s preceded by a homorganic nasal. It i s
not s o s t rong ini t i a l ly , fin a l ly nor i n c lusters with the f lapped r or
with the lat erals .
p is a b i lab i a l s t op. t i s an ap i c o-alveolar s t op like English t
and d. � i s an ap i c o-domal or ap i co-p o s t -a lveo lar s t op , i . e . it i s like
Eng l i s h t or d but with the tongue making c ont act back b eh ind the gum
ridge. The ap i co-domal phoneme s , or retroflexes as they are genera l ly
c a l l e d , have an 'r' colouring t o them, mos t not i c e ab l e in t he ons e t .
t i s made e i ther with the t o ngue t ip prot ruding b etween the t eeth ( an
interdental s t op) or with the tongue t ip b eh ind the lower t e e t h . In
either c a s e t he oc clus ion i s formed by pre s s ing t he b l ade of t h e tongue
16
against the back of the t eeth and gum ridge . This lamino-dent a l st op
is dist inguishab l e from t large ly by its rather fri c at ive charact e r .
c is a p a l at a l stop simi lar t o 1 except that the o c c lusi on is formed
with the b lade or middle of t he t ongue against the hard palat e . Like
1, c i s somewhat affricat ed . k is a dorso-ve lar st op with quit e
advanc e d a l l ophones before i.
The nasals have the same points of art iculat ion as the corresponding
st ops , and simi larly the lat eral s .
r is a flap in slow pronun c i at ion and in very c lear , emphat i c pro
nunc iat ion a lingual t ri l l . However , most typ i c a l ly it i s a weak
f l ap or a g l i de which makes it di fficult to dist inguish it from [, which
is a g l i de produced with great er ret rofle ction and/or bunching of the
t ongue . In word- final position r may be pronounced as a st op [ t ].
Note t hat t here is no contrast between the two series of ap i c als in
word- initial position . I have written them a l l with t he subscript dot
to indi cate retrofle c t i on and my phonemotactic stat ements refer t o
retroflexes b ut not alve o lars o c c urring i n init i a l posi t i on . It is
t rue t hat ini t i a l ap i c a l t often sounds retroflex as does I. n, however ,
usual ly sounds a lveolar as does n t . There are re troflex t okens of n
and n t like the one quot e d in § 2.2 (paa Qtia [pa:Q�i�]), but t yp i c a l
t okens are alve o lar .
j is a glide produced with the same tongue posit ion as for c. w is
a lab i o-ve lar glide . Words phonemi c ise d with init ial i and u, may have
ini t i a l g l i des j and w respect ively . This is disc ussed in § 2 . 15 .
i is a h igh front vowe l , u
a high back vow e l with moderate lip
rounding and a a low c entral vowe l . A l l vowels have slight ly less
pe riphera l realisat ions in c losed sy l lab l e s . a has advanced a l lophones
when st ressed and preceded or fo l lowed by a lamino-palatal or to a
lesser e xt ent a lamino-dental. This is p art i c ularly not i c e ab le between
laminals: laja ' h i t ! ' [ laj � ] , j a p i 'white man ' [ j rep i ]. Unst resse d sy l l a
b les exhibit vowe l reduct ion . In rap id sp eech any vowe l may be pronoun
c e d [ a ] , but general ly the vowe ls remain dist inguishab l e .
2.5 P H ON E M I C O V E R L A P
Intervo c a l i c t may b e pronounc ed a s a f lapped rhot i c [ f ] or w i t h some

fri c t i on . Phone t i c a l ly then some of these re al isat ions fall into the
range of r and in a phonemic transcript i on of p art i cu lar rea lisat ions
we would have to wri t e r i f we st uck t o the phone t i c dat a a lone . Some
words then would o c c ur with two sp e l lings e . g . i ti or iri ( ' t o re turn ' ) .
I have regularised a l l such cases and sp e lled them consist ent ly with t
since t hey cont rast with r inasmuch as t may be re a lised by a f lapp e d
17
rhot i c but intervo c a li c r may not be r e a l i s e d as a s t op -
t [t d _ f -j]/V V
__
r [f j]/V __ V
In word-final p o s ition r i s s omet i me s pronounced c learly as [ t ] . It

would be p o s s ib le t o s ay t hat t and r were in fre e variat i on in t h i s
p o s i t ion. I have preferred to s ay t hat r has a r e a l i s ation [ t ] t hat
overlap s with a c ommon reali s at ion of t .
2.6. V A R I ANT F O RM S
The fo l low ing morphemes have been re corded with and without the
final vowe l . In each case the form with the final vow e l i s l e s s common .
p u 1 u r, p u 1 u r a 'good ' , 'we L L '

- w a p c i r, w a p c i r i ' a pair ' ( s e e § 5 . 2 . 7.3. )
f) u c i r, f) u c i r a 'fa th e r ' s s i s te r '
a A c i r, a A c i r a 'swea t '
2.7. CONS ONANT A S S I M I L A T I ON
The e rgat ive/ins trumental case s uffix i s repre s ented by - f) k u with

dis y l lab i c vowe l s t ems and - 1 u with longer vow e l s t em s . With cons onant
st ems , a homorgani c s t op appears in the s uffix. Where the s t em ends in
r, t app e ar s in lieu of r and t :
u t i f) a r u t i f) a t u ' emu '

f) a r k u n f) a r k u n t u 'wa L Laroo '
1a i 1 1a i 1 t u ' firm ' , ' hard '
m u c u,:, m u c u':' t u ' chicken hawk '
w a n t a! w a n t al t u ' s he L L '
p i rma p pir m a p c u 'vein '
The s ame a s s imi lat ion appears i n t h e irregular l o c at ive a l l omorph
that oc curs with the fo llowing:
ucan u ca n t a ' fi r e '
u l a a,:, ul a a':l t a ' high ' (of sun)
- t a a l s o oc curs fo llowing the p art i c i p le - p i n and - 1 a o c curs fol lowing
the l igat i ve - w a - ( s ee § 3 . 2.2. ) .
2.8. V O WEL· AS S I M I L A T I ON
The ergat ive a ll omorph o c c urring with vow e l s t em kins hip nouns and
with non- s i ngular pers onal pronouns disp lay s vowe l harmony with high
vowe l s . Fol lowing a - it i s - j i :
18
mpaja mpajaji ' y o u two '

kula ku I aji ' father '
I)ali I)aliji 'we two '
pupi pupi ji ' m o th e r ' s brothel"
puju pujuju ' they two '
matu matuju 'mo ther '
The dat ive of vowe l st em nominals is -a with stems in a, -i wit h
st ems i n i and -u with stems in u:
macumpa macumpaa ' kangaroo '

iii iiii ' an t '
kupu kupuu ' spidel"
Longer forms of the dat i ve a lso o c c ur with -j a following the 'dat ive
vowe l' e . g . kupuuja.
The same harmony o c c urs with t he suffix that marks a third person
p ossessor with a kinship noun ( se e § 3.2 . 3 . ) ,
ku!aapei ' hi s /her father '

pupiipei ' his/her m o ther ' s brothel"
matuupei ' hi s/her mother '
maa ' food ' and ati ' m e.
e ly: maaci, maaciwa, maaeuwa and atipei, atipeiwa, atipcuwa. The forms
maaeuwa and atipeuwa apparent ly e xhibit assimi lat ion of the vow e l i t o
t h e g l i de w producing u .
The c li t i c sequenc e for third dua l act ing on first singular has been
recorded as -I)iju and -I)uju, the lat e r e xhibit ing assimi lat i on .
2 . 9. N A S A L- P L U S- S T O P D IS S I M I L A T I O N
There is a rule that deletes t h e nasal from a nasal p lus st op sequ

ence in a suffix when that suffix is added to a st em a lready cont aining
a nasal p lus st op sequence . The rule is not a general phone t i c one but
is p art i c ular t o certai n suffixes .
The rule operat es in
-I)ku the ergat ive a l lomorph used with disy l l ab i c

vowel stems
-pea I)U hab i tua l
-pcaani cont inuing
-peaaja purposive
-n1iti verb p l uraliser
I t a lso operates in
-pin p art i c ip le
19
whi ch di ssimi lates to - c i n .

It does not operat e in
-nt i ( _ma n t i ) transit iviser e t c .

-mpa perfect
-mani i imperfect
examp l e s :
j ard + I) k u j a fl i l) k u 'white man ' (+ erg )
w a m p a + I) k u wa m p a k u ' g ir l ' (+ erg )
k u n ka+ I) k u k un k a k u ' s t i c:k ' (+ erg )
i u n a + fl c a l) u i u n i flC a l) u * 'run ' (+ habitua l )
il) k a + fl c a l) u i l) k a c afl U 'go ' (+ hab itual )
a l) k a + fl c a l) u a l) k a c a l) u 'ai l ' (+ habit ua l )
i u n a + fl c a a n i = i u n a fl c a a n i 'run ' (+ cont inuing )
i I) k a + fl c a a n i i l) k a c a a n i 'go ' (+ c0nt inuing )
l u n a + fl c a a j a = t u n a fl c a a j a 'run ' (+ purposive )

i I) k a + fl c a a j a i fl k a c a aj a 'go ' ( + purposive )
i u n a + fli n i u n a fl i n 'run ' (+ p art i c iple )

,
i l) k a + fl i n i l) k a c i n go ' (+ part icip l e )
* The app earan ce o f rather t han a in i u n i flC a l) U is idi osyncrat ic.

It also appears in the past t ense of this verb - i u n i n a .
2.10. T H E V A R I ANTS O F - j a n ( C O N C O M ITANT) AN D - i a t i ( I NT RAN S I T I V I S E R)
With both these stern- forming su ffixes there is an alt ernat ion as
follows
-j an fo l lowing vowels
"
-aan c onsonan t s
"
-iat i vowels
"
-at i c onsonants
The loss o f the initial consonant of the suffix after a consonant i s
peculiar t o t hese two suffixes. The appearan c e of the doub l e vowe l in
the case of - j a n - - a a n is quit e idi osyncrat ic.
k U l) i 'wife ' k U l) i j a n 'marrie d ' (of a man)

malia 'mob ' 'a l o t '
• malia j a n ' having a l o t '
j u ku ' s pe ar ' j u kuj an ' having a s pe ar '
j al) p a r 'beard ' j al) p a r a a n ' b e arded '
a rkun ' b a t t le ' , 'fight ' a r kunaan ' b e l ligerent '
m i li i ' ey e s ' m i li i iat i ' to b e born '
p i r i na ' u p ' ' high u p '
• p i r i naiat i ' to grow u p '
20
'
k u p a l) u r u 0
Ld man ' k u p a l) u r u i a t i ' to be come an o Ld man '
pupuj u r ' very h o t ' p u puj u ra t i ' to b e come very h o t '
ia i 1 'firm ' ia i 1 a t i ' to be come firm '
2.11. AUGME NTAT I ON
S i n c e Kalkatungu does not allow monosy llabic words ( at l east in t he

int erpre t a t i on offered here ; se e § 2 . 1 6 . ) monosy l l ab i c stems t hat o c cur
wit hout affixat ion or wit hout themse lves b e ing c li t i c ised are augment ed
by rep e t i t ion of the vowe l . Thus whi l e a disy llab ic st em such as i c a
( ' to b i te ' ) may oc cur as i ca or i c a j i , i ca j i n a , et c . , the monosy l l ab i c
st em l a - ( ' to h i t ' ) , when not suffixed by - j i o r - j i + n a e t c . i s aug
mented to l a a .
The relative part i c le [ I) U U _ I) u : ] seems t o be I) U plus augment , sin c e
I) U + wa is pronounced [ I) u ( w ) a ] n o t [ * I) u u ( w ) a ] .
In t h e c ase o f the demonstrat ive stems c a a , n a a and p a a , it is un
c ertain whether the se c ond vowel is an augment or part of t he st em .
S e e t h e paradigms in 3 . 2 . 4 .
The st em for the word for 'man ' is j u r - . It is the only exampl e o f
a monosy l labic consonant st em . l Note t hat in the nominative it i s aug
ment e d t o j u r u . Compare the locat i ve j u r - I) u . See § 3 . 2 . 2 .
2. 12. C L I T I C I SAT I ON
When the sequenc e c omp l ement iser p lus bound pronoun fol lowed by a
monosyllab i c verb oc curs, e ither the monosyllab i c verb is c l i t i c ised
to the c ompl ementiser p lus bound pronoun or the monosyllabic verb is
augme nted and pronounc ed as a separat e word . The former is t yp i c a l of
rapid speech , the l at t er of slow :
a - I) i l a ' c omp l ement iser- me h i t ' is pronounced either as [ � I) i l a ]
or [ a l) i l a : ] . S e e § 3 . 4 . and § 4 . 3 . for furt her informat ion .
There are some other c ases of c l i t i c i sat ion . S e e examp le ( 4 . 6 8 ) , for
inst anc e , where t he c l i t i c pronoun k i n a ' them ' attracts the verb a w a
'give ' t o produce [ k f n a wa ] .
2.13. E L I S I ON AND DELET I ON
Consonan t s be tween l i ke vowe ls t end t o be weakened or lost ent irely .

caawat i ka j a ' these two ' regularly b e comes [ ca : w� d i g a j � J , [ c a � d i g a j � J ,
[ ca : d i g a j � J . Note the forms c a a - a t i k a j a and c a - a t i k a j a in the t ext .
j u l p a la - j a n a 'fa t he r : son+and ' > [ j u l pa ia : n� J

ka ! a r a ' n e c k ' > [ k a l a : ] , i i t i r i ' c e n t ipede ' > [ i i t i i ]
m a c um p a - j a n 'kangaroo+con ' > [ m aJ Um b a e n ] , [ m aJ Um b a : n ]
�ut note also the loc ative of palla etc . §3.2.2.

21
A word-final vowel may b e deleted b e fore the init ial a - of a

fol lowing word .
a-n i a wa ' comp - you+give ' > a nawa
apa 'money+gave ' >
awa ' c omp-m e +give ' > a l) a w a
A simi lar e l i sion s e ems t o oc cur sporadical ly with - u stems b e fore

the suffix - iti ' laaking , :
' s i lent ' (without ta l k )
j uru 'man ' plus -iti ' laaking ' oc curs a s j u r i t i or j u r u i t i .
Since the locative of j u r u is j u r l) u and the dat ive j u r k u , I take it t hat

the st em is j u r and the s econd vowe l of the nominat ive an augment ( c f.
§ 2 . 11 . ) . Apparent ly j u r u is somet ime s taken t o be the st em , witness
j u ru i t i and c ase forms such as j u r ul) i i n a ' towards the man ' .
There i s a t endency to delete final vowels fol lowing - m and somet imes
fo l lowing - I) :
it imi ' wi l l r e turn ' it imi _ i t im

k a l k a t u l) u , Ka t katungu ' k a l k a t u l) u _ k a l k a t u l)
With - t i stem verbs the final is often dele t ed :

i1it i ' throw ' i1iti - i t i r ( se e § 2 . S )
The suffixes - p i n ' p art i c i p l e ' , - m i ' future ' and - m i a ' possib i lity '
o c cur with the long and short forms of t h e s e st ems.
The final vowel o f a l) i 'wi t t give ' and Q al) i 'wi t l s e e ' is regularly
deleted b e fore a fo l l owing initial k u - sequen c e :
a l) i kupupa > a l) k u p u p a 'wi l t give a neak taae '

Q al) i k U I) i > Q al) k u l) i , t e s t he s e e me '
2 . 14 . I D I O S Y N C R AT I C A L T E R N A T I O N S
The sequenc e a + k i n ( compl ement 1 ser + se cond person ( P » o c c urs in

the weakened form a j i n in rap id sp e e ch. The form j u l p a j a p a la ( se e
§ S . 2 . 7 . 3 . for meaning ) invo lves redupl i c at ion of t he format ive p a 1 a in
t he weakened form p a j a .
The imperat ive o f regular verbs i s formed by adding t he suffix - j a .
There is an op t i onal var iant - j i with int ransit ive verb s in - a :
i l) k a ja i l) k a j a . i I) k a j i 'go '
QU- ja Quj a ' tie '
ini ja inija ' remain '
la - ja la j a ' hit '
pat i ja pat i j a ' te t t '
22
Note t hat i f the variant - j i oc curred with transi t i ve verbs i n a - ,

the result ing form woul d b e homophonous with the present indi c at ive .
The imperat ive of t he minor verb c l asses is given in § 4 l . .
iuna- 'run ' is i u n i - before the su ffix - p c a Q u : i u n i p c a Q u ' runs regu

ZarZy ' and be fore t he past t ense - n a : i u n i n a 'ran ' .
Irregular nouns are l i st ed in § 3 . 2 . 2 .
S e e also § 4 . 3 . for some other irregular verb forms .
2.15. THE PROBL EM O F THE G L I DES
Phone t i ca l ly the following sequences occur :
I II III
iu iju
ia ija
i i iji i :
ai aj i
au awu
aa a:
ui uwi
ua uwa
uu uwu u:
#i #j i
#u #wu
Howeve r , no set o f these sequenc es t hat is l i st e d o n the same row may

cont rast i . e . a set such as [ u u ] , [ u w u ] and [ u : ] does not invo lve a
c ont rast . For inst ance , the word for ' wa t e r ' whi ch I wri t e I k u u l may
be pronounced [ k u u ] , [ k u w u ] or [ k u : ] where [ k u u ] represent s two d i stant
vowe ls t hat are perceptually dist inct b e c ause of a weak c oda-onset or
hiatus b etween t hem .
Leaving aside the prob lem of the long vowe l s , let us c onsider the
relat ionship b e tween sequences such as C u i ] and [ u w i ] and analogous
pairs ( as in columns I and II above ) . As the phonemotact i c rul e s st and
( se e § 2 . 2 . ) , they allow for sequenc es of vowe l s with no int ervening con
sonant , any one int ervening consonant or certain pairs o f int ervening
consonant s . Thus the rul es allow for sequen ces such a s l u i l and luw i l
and other se quences such as l u j i / . The rules also allow for no word
init ial consonant and for init ial j and w, so the sequences I# i / , I#j i l
and [ # u ] , [ # w u ] are permitt e d .
However , sin c e sequences such a s C u i ] and [ u w i ] do not cont rast , it
is mislead ing to allow l u i l and l u w i l as separate possib i l i t i e s . I
would suggest t hat we introduce an e qu ivalence rule to t he effect that
the se quenc es in I and II above are equivalent . The prob lem of t he
23
glides i s common t o many language s inc luding Eng l i s h and i s t o b e found

in mo s t if not a l l Aus t ralian language s , t hough it is not commonly
recogn i s e d a s con s t i t ut ing a prob lem .
Mo s t wri t er s on A u s t ral ian l an
guages avo id s e quenc e s of vowe l s and wo uld t hus writ e l i j u l rat her t han
l i u l and l i j i l rat her t han l i i / . S ince t he phon e t i c fac t s and t he
morphophonemic fac t s vary from language t o language i t i s p o s s ib l e t ha t
t hi s i s a n ac cept ab l e treatment i n at l e a s t s ome ins t an c e s , but I doubt
if it is s o widely a c c ep t ab le as i t s common adop t ion sugge s t s . In my
earlier work on Kalkat ungu ( Blake 1 9 6 9 ) , I cho s e t o omit a l l glides from
s e quenc e s such as [ u w i ] , [ i j i ] e t c . on t he grounds that t hey were pre
d i c t ab le . Thus I wrot e l u i / , I i i i , e t c . Thi s s o lu t i on r e c eived a
unanimous j udgement - nobody liked i t ; s e e , for ins t anc e , A lpher 1 9 7 0 .
In part icu lar , Alpher cons idered that omi t t ing t h e glides from
s equenc e s such as [ i j u ] re sult ed in " a numb er of apparent phono logi c al
a l t ernat i on s " . For e x ample , I wro t e t h e c au s a t ive ( c al led causal in
the pre sent work ) of 8 a l i ( 'we two ' ) , mpaj a ( ' you two ' ) and puj u ( ' they
two ' ) a s 8 a l i w a , m p a j a w a and p u j u a r e s p e c t ive ly imp lying a morphopho
nemic a l t ernat ion b e t ween -wa and - a . Alpher is corr e c t of cour s e .
The d e c i s ion t o omit phon e t i c a l ly pre d i c t ab l e glides does l e ad t o
" apparent phono logi c a l a l t erna t ions " . Howeve r , t h e so lut ion A lpher
sugge s t s is equally mi s le ading . He would wr i t e glides in p o s i t ions
where t hey are cont rast ive and where t hey are not.
What is involved in t h e s e c omp e t ing t reatment s b e c ome s c l e ar from a
compari s on of t he erga t ive and dat ive ( c a l l ed gen i t ive in Blake 1 9 6 9 )
of - i , - a and - u s t em pronouns or kinship noun s .
-i -a -u
8al i ( ' we two ' ) mpaj a ( ' you two ' ) puj u ( ' t hey two ' )
ergat ive [ 8al i : - 8al i ( j ) i ] [mpaj a i _ m pa j a j i ] [ puj uj u ]
dat ive [ 8al i : - 8a! i ( j ) i ] [ mpaj a : ] [ puj u : - p u j u ( w) u ]
The e rga t ive c l e arly cont ains t he glide j . In a pro c e s s model of

phono logy , one would t ake t h e underlying form of t he erga t ive to b e
I-j i / . The d a t i v e c l e arly does not cont ain a glide , but con s i s t s o f
lengt hening o r gemina t ing t he final vowel of t he s t em . Leaving as ide
t he pos s i b i l i t y of cons idering t he dat ive to b e marked by vowel lengt h
ening , a que s t ion t aken up b e l ow , and c ons ide ring t he dat i ve to be
formed by geminat ion , we can see that t he unde rlying form in a pro c e s s
mode l would b e a . A rule s p e c i fying t h a t t h e vow e l o f a s uffix must
mat c h t h e final vowe l of t h e s t em if high , would then a c c ount for t h e
vowe l a l t e rn a t i ons o f b o t h t he erga t i ve and dative .
24
I f w e decide t o omit a l l phonet ically predi c t ab le glides from our

phonemic l e ve l , then , as A lpher point s out , we wi l l need to have a
morphophonemic ru le dele ting t h e j of the ergat ive from forms l ike
/ D a l i i / and /m p a j a i / . No prob lem however ari s e s with t h e dative . If
on the other hand we dec ide t o inc lude glides wherever po s s ib l e , we
will have t o ins ert glides in the dat ive , e ither by having allomorphs
- j i , - a and - w u or via a rule o f epenthe s i s that ins ert s j b e fore i
and w b e fore u . The idea of s et t ing up al lomorph s - j i , - a and - w u i s
c le arly c ont rary t o the s p irit of what Alpher i s sugges t ing . B u t given
the equivalence rule that states
(a) a s equence of high vowe l plus a vowe l i s equivalent t o a sequence
o f high vowe l plus homorganic glide p lus vowe l
(b) a s e quence o f l ow vowe l p lus high vowe l i s equivalent t o a
s e quence of l ow vowe l plus glide plus homorgan ic high vowe l
(c) a s equence o f glide p lus homorganic high vowel at the b e ginning
o f a word i s equivalent t o a high vowe l alone
then we have no need to adopt either the ' no glide ' or the ' al l glide '
so lut ion . Under t h i s rule one can fre e ly interchange fo rms such as
/ D a l i i / and / D a l i j i / . In t heory one could wri t e one now and t h e other
another t ime . To avoid confus ion I will use a morphophonemi c spel ling .
This means that the ergat ive of / D a l i / will b e . / D a l i j i / s ince /j /
appears d i s t inct ive ly with ' - u s t ems ' ( / p u j u - j u / ) , and the dative will
be /Dal i i f . Howeve r , it mus t b e emphas i z ed that this i s purely a c on
veni ent c onvention and not an argument fo r morphophonemi cally b as e d
phonemi c i s at ion .
The ant i-pas s ive will b e repre s ented as -j i s in c e it appears as - j i
fo l l owing i u - ' to aook ' .
I wi l l cons i s t ent ly avo id writing init ial glides t hat are homorganic
with the first vowe l ; t hus I will wri t e u n u ' fae a e s ' not w u n u . I
choose t h i s examp l e s ince the que st ion of an init ial glide ari s e s again
in § 7 . 4 . where the relat ionship of t hi s word to its put at ive earlier
form k u n a is dealt wit h .
There was s ome phone t i c d i fficulty in phonemi c i s ing s ome s e quenc e s
invo lving high vowe l s . The j o f t h e s equence u j i i s o ft en weakened or
d e l e t e d so that uj i b e comes homophonous with u i . The word k u j i r i for
' boy ' was regularly heard as [ k u i r i J and it i s only on the bas i s o f a
very sma l l numb er of ultra-s low t okens that it has b e en phonemi c i s ed as
kuj i r i .
25
2 . 16 . LONG VOWELS OR DOUBLE VOWELS
I n the preceding s e c t ion I d i s cu s s ed the que st ion o f whether t o

interpret a s equence that was phon e t i c a l ly [ i i J o r [ i j i J o r [ i : J as
/ i j i / or / i i / without d i s cus s ing the p o s s i b i l i t y of writ ing / i : /.
The numb er o f s y l l ab l e s in t h e s t em det ermine s s ome o f t h e al lomorphs
that oc cur for the e rgat ive/instrumental and the l o c at ive . For e xamp l e ,
- i u oc curs as the ergat ive of vowel st ems of three s y l l ab l e s or more
and - Q k u as the ergative of s hort er st ems , wh i l e - i i o c c urs as the
locative of vowel s t ems of t hree s y l la b l e s or more and - p i a with shorter
s t ems .
macumpa macumpaiu m a c um pa i i , kangaroo '
kupu k u puQku k u pu p i a , spidel' '
Now the a l l omorph s - i u and - i i oc cur with st ems containing one short
vowel and one of the vowe l s or s e quence s under d i s c u s s i on . Thus we
find
caampa c a a m p a iu caampai i ' kingfi s her '
kaac i kaac i 1u kaac i 1 i 'friend '
i it i i i i t i i iu 1it i iiI ' c e n t ipede '
Thi s sugge s t s that t he s e quenc e s t hat could b e long vowe l s or doub l e
vowe l s are i n fact treated l i ke double vowe l s . If we adopt the doub l e
vowe l so lut ion t h e n words of t h e above type f i t i n w i t h t he r u l e that
d i s t ingu i s h e s t r i s y l lab i c and longer s t ems from other s . If we adopt
t he long vowel so lut ion , then we wo uld have t o amend the rule that
determines the ergat ive/ins trume nt al and locative allomo rphs t o refer
to s t ems of three s yl l ab l e s or more plus d i sy l l ab i c s t ems containing
one l ong vowe l . Obvious ly it i s s imp ler t o adopt the doub le vow e l
so lut ion though the f a c t that it i s s impler doe s n o t me an that it i s
corr e c t.There i s no guarantee that Kalkat ungu s p eakers pr efer s imp ler
solutions . However , in the ab s en c e of any contrary data I wil l adopt
the doub l e vow e l s o lut ion. Phone t i ca l l y the doub l e vowel s o lution mak e s
s e n s e as t h e sequenc e s in que s t ion c an b e pronoun c e d as separate vowe l s
at least i f they are h i gh. I t i s not normal however for [ a : J t o be pro
nounc e d as s ep arat e vowe l s .
2 . 17 . STRESS
S t r e s s i s r e a l i s e d primari ly i n t erms o f loudn e s s as i n Eng l i s h .

2 . 1 7 .1 . W O RD S T R ESS
Each word is marked by pr imary s t re s s on the fi r s t s y l l ab l e . I 'm

not s ure that there are any other rul e s for s t re s s within words . I
26
prev iously report ed ( B lake 1 9 6 9 : 1 6 - 1 7 ) that the first sy l lab l e o f every

polysy llabic morpheme received stress and that se quences of more than
two unstressed sy l lab les did not o c c ur . I now b e l i eve that there i s
only o n e phonologi c a l r u l e and that t h i s r u l e places primary st ress on
the first sy l l ab le of the word . Ot her se condary stresse s may o c c ur
b ut their appearan c e seems to be sporadic , being det ermined by t empo and
by hesit ations and the l ike . It would be unusual for a se c ondary st ress
to fal l on a syl lab l e other than the first syl lab l e of a non-word
init ial polysyllab i c morpheme where such a morpheme o c c urs, thus 1 6 a r
k u n a would b e norma l , and a se c ondary stress on the se cond or fourth
sy l l ab le would o c c ur only under c ontrast ive st ress . In genera l se con
dary stresses o c c ur spac e d b y one or two unstressed sy l l ab les but in
f luent spe ech they hard ly o c c ur at a l l and I ' m inclined t o think t hat
their o c c urrenc e is determined by some nat ural iamb i c t endency t owards
a l t ernat ing st ressed and unstressed sy l lab les rather t han as the result
of the app l i c at i on of a rul e .
Where phon e t i c a l l y long vowels oc c ur in non-word-initial posi t io n ,
t h e y app e ar t o t ake a st rong se condary o r even primary stress . However ,
this impression of stress seems to me to be entirely a side-e ffect o f
t h e l ength . Thus I would notate j a � a a l u ( ' Zanguage ' ) a s [ j a � a : l u J .
2 . 1 7 . 2. S E N T E N C E STRESS
Sent ence stress appears t o be organise d on the same b asis as it i s

in English . The fi rst sy l l ab le of the final word in a phonological
phrase norma lly rec eives the t onic or main st ress . If there are more
than two words in the phrase , the first ( sy llable of the first ) word
rec eives st ronger st ress than the other non-final word s .
2.18. P H RA S E - F I N A L I N T O N A T I O N
Polar int errogat ive sent ences are marked b y rising intonat ion o n the
phrase-fina l word . Non-sent ence-final phrases are marked by suspended
intonat ion on the phrase-final word . Other phrases are marked b y
fa l l ing intonat ion o n t h e phrase- final word .
CHAPTER 3
NOUNS AND P R ONOUNS
3. 1 . T H E S Y NTACT I C CAS E S
The bas ic syntactic s y s tem i s an ergat ive one in which nominals in

AGENT ( A ) funct ion are marked by a suffix ( - i u or - Q k u ) in c ontrad i s
t inct ion t o nomina l s in PATIENT ( P ) function and nominal s in INTRANS I
TIVE SUBJEC T ( S i ) funct ion :
( 3. 1) ma r a pa i caa i camaj i
"'oman here 'laugh
' The woman 'laughs ' .
( 3 . 2) m a r a p a i - iu caa kunka iumaj i -na
woman -erg here s t i ck break -p ast
'The woman broke the s ti c k ' .
However , t here ar e also bound pronouns which may c ro s s -reference
noun phra s e s and which , in compound and comp l e x s entenc e s and in d i s
cours e , may c o -reference actants in a preceding c laus e or sentence .
The s e bound pronouns operat e in an accusat ive s y s t em , with one form for
S and A func t ions and ano ther for P :
i
( 3 . 3) ma r a p a i caa i camaj i -na-j u
woman here 'laugh -pa s t - 3rd dual
' The two wome n 'laughed ' .
(3.4) marapa i -iu caa kunka iumaj i -na - j u
woman -erg here s t i ck break -past -dual
'The two women broke the s t i ck ' .
There i s another me thod o f marking t he synt ac t i c r e lations in a
trans it ive c laus e and t hat i s by putt ing A in the nominative and P in
the dat i ve e . g . :
(3.5) ma t u maa-c i iuj i

m � ther ° food-dat cook
'Mo ther is cooking (food) '
27
28
This i s used to expre s s indul gence in an act ivity rather than to expre s s
what happened t o the PATIENT . I n the examp l e ab ove , P i s virtually
redundant ( and henc e bracketed in the trans lat ion ) . One i s not expre s s
ing what i s b e ing done t o any part ic ular food , but rather that mother
i s ' fo od-c ooking ' . This example c ould b e contrast ed with
(3.6) ma t u - j u 1uj i wa k a r· i l) a - c i - w a - 1 a l) u
mother -erg cook fi sh me - da t - l 1 g - ab l
'Mo ther is cooking t h e fis h from my [ s c . wife ] ' .
where the reference i s to what i s being done with the s p e c i fic fish t hat
was given to the speaker ' s wi fe .
This intran s i t ive-like s y s t em of mark ing i s c ommon with 1 u - ( ' to
cook ' ) and ari ( ' to e a t ' , ' to drink ' ) and i s commonly u s ed where t h e
re ference i s t o a n inde finit e P o r to indulgence in rather t han c om
p l e t ion of an act ivity . It i s alway s used when the verb i s suffixed by
- m i Q a ( imperfec t ) and almo st always with - f1 c a l) u ( hab itua l ) . There is
a sma l l res idue of instanc e s whe re informants us e this construct ion
without any apparent mot ivat ion . If que s t ioned about its us e , they say
that i t i s the s ame a s the e rgat i ve cons t ruction and they t end to repeat
the queried s entence with the ergative c ons truc t ion .
The int rans i t ive- like s y s t em of marking i s also found in s ub ordinat e
c laus e s , for e xamp le in - f1 i n c laus e s ( s ee § 4 . 2 . 1 0 . ) , where A in the
s ub ordinat e c l ause c o-refe rences an actant in the governing c laus e .
I) a - ,t u l) a f1 a marapa i i l) k a - c i n p i l a-pi l a -a wa 1 i nt i - j i - c i n
I-erg saw woman g o -part ba h y -dat carry-alp-part
'I saw the woman carryinr the baby ' .
Where this intrans it ive- l ike marking o c c ur s in a subordinate c laus e ,
the verb i s marked by the suffix - j i .
The u s e of intrans itive- like case marking paral l e l s s imi lar me chan
isms in a numb er of other Pama-Nyungan language s . Th e b e s t known
e xamp le occurs in Dyirb a l and I w i l l fol low the pre cedent s e t in Di xon
e d . 1 9 7 6 of calling t h i s c onstruc t ion the ant i-p a s s ive ( alp ) .
Note that although ther e i s alt ernat ion b e tween ' - j i ' and non- ' j i '
forms o f the verb in sub ordinate c laus e s , there i s prac t ic a l ly no s uch
a l t ernat ion with independent verb s . I n general the - j i form of the
verb repres ent s the s t em to which pas t tens e , pres ent tense , e t c . are
affixed . For ins t anc e , consider examp le s ( 3 . 5 ) and ( 3 . 6 ) . - j i o c curs
b oth in ( 3 . 5 ) ( ant i-pas s i ve c onstruction) and in ( 3 . 6 ) ( ergat ive c on
s t ruc t i on ) . To s imp l i fy the g l o s s i n g , I have t reated the b a s e p l us -j i
as an unanalysed s t e m .
There are a few e xamp l e s where t h i s - j i is omi t t e d for n o apparent
reason .
29
In the fut ure tense the re i s alt ernat ion b e tween a s t em wi thout - j i
and one with - j i . Thus 'wi t t hit ' i s l a - m i but l a j i - m i in the ant i
p a s s ive .
In some ins tances verb forms that are normal ly dep endent are used
as independent verb s . I n t h e s e circums t an c e s there is a lternation i . e .
the non- ' j i ' form is used unle s s there i s an ant i -pa s s ive construct ion .
For e xampl e , - p c a a j a normally marks dependent verb s in purpos ive/i nfin
i t ive- like compl ement c laus e s , b ut it may be us ed marking an independent
verb indicat ing s imp le future tense . In this c a s e we find - p c a a j a s u ff
i xed to the non- ' j i ' form e . g . la - p c a a j a ' to be going to hi t ' , unl e s s
the ant i-pa s s ive i s used ( s ee examp le ( 4 . 2 2 ) ) .
The imperat i ve and the s u ffix - m i a , indic at ing ' po s s ib i l it y ' ( s ee
§ 4 . 2 . 1 1 . ) are added to the ' non-j i ' form o f the verb .
3.2. CASE PARADI GMS
NOUNS
3.2.1. R E G U L A R NO UNS
Vowel S tems Consonant S t ems
St ems of 2 S y l lab l e s
Stems o f
more than
- nas a l s t op + nasal s t op t wo sy l l ab l e s
c l uster c luster
Nominat i ve kupu kunka macumpa ka 1 p i n
(spide r ) ( s ti c k ) ( k angaro o ) ( young man )
Ergat ive/ k u p u - I) k u . kunka - ku macumpa -iu ka l p i n -t u
Instr
Locat ive I kupu- p i a kunka - p i a ma c u m p a - i i ka l p i n - p i a
Dative kupu- u ( j a) kunka-a (ja ) rna c u m p a - a ( j a ) ka l p i n-ku
Locat ive I I - I) i i
Causal A s for ergat ive plus - I) U
Ab lat ive " "
locat ive I " - I) U
" " " -na
A l l at ive I dat ive
" "
A l lative II locative I I " - n a
Prol ocat ive - n u n ( s e e § 3 . 5 . 10 for allomorph s )
The locative - p i a and the dative - k u are used with a l l consonant s t ems .
The ergative a l s o has al lomorphs - t u with r , � and ! s t ems and - c u with
palatal s t ems as l i s t e d in § 2 . 7 .
30
Kinship vowel s t em nouns d e c l i ne in the s ame way as non-s ingular

pronouns ( s ee § 3 . 2 . 3 . ) . 'mother ' s bro ther ' d e c l ines l ike
Thus p u p l
Qal l 'we two ' , k u l a ' fa t her ' like m pa j a ' y ou two ' and ma t u ' m o ther ' l i ke
puj u ' t hey two ' .
Note that there i s no morphologi c ally d i s t inct c las s of adj e c t ive s .
The equivalents o f Engl i s h adj e c t i ve s are mo s t l y nouns or , in s ome c a s e s ,
verb s .
3. 2 . 2 . I RR EG U L A R N O U NS
Nominat ive Ergat i ve Locat ive Dat ive English
maa m a a ,t u m a a ,t a ma a c I 'food '

- ma a c uw a
at I a t l n ,t u a t l nl a a t l fl c l 'meat '
- a t l fl c uw a
mpuu mpuuku m p u u ka mpuruu (ja) 'ro t t e n '

I) t u u I) t u u k u I) t u u k a I) t u r u u { j a ) 'ho Ze '
Qkaa Qkaa ku Q kaaka Qkaraa ( j a) 'yam '
muu mulu mulu muruu 'camp '
kuu kuuQku kuuQka kuuja 'wa ter '
uca n ucant u ucanta ucanku 'fir e '

- ucanp l a
I
u l a a l) u l a a l) t u u l a a l) t a 'high ( of sun) '
- fl l n - fl l n t u - fl l n t a - fl l n k u parti c ip le
-wa - w a ,t u -wala -wa k u l i gat i ve*
-ja - j a ,t u - j a la -jaku l i gat ive*
j uru ItIjI j urQu j u rku 'man '

,t u k u ,t u k u j u ,t u k u l} u lukuu 'dog '
jaun j a unt u j a u n Q'u ja unku 'b ig '
ma l l a ma l 1 a j I malla p l a m a l la a 'mob '
pal1a pal1a Q k u p a l1 l l j a pal1aa ( j a ) 'fork ( of tree ]I

k a nl a kanlaa k a nl l l j a kanlaa ( j a ) 'head '
j u nl u j u nla a j u ni I I j a j unluu ( j a ) 'arms '
Q U l.t u QuliuQku Q u l1 l l j a Q u l1 u u ( j a ) 'th i gh s '
a n la a ni a k u anl l i j a a ni a a ( j a ) 'mouth, Zips '
* See § 3 . 5 . 4 . , § 3 . 5 . ll . , § 5 . 8 . ( c ont . )
31
Nominat ive E rgat ive Locat i ve Dat i ve Engl i s h
mun1u mun1uk u m u n1 i i j a mun1uu {jal ' face '

kunkuj u kunkuj u j u k u n k u j u l) u kunkujuu ' child'
The locat i ve all omorph - I) U appears sp oradi cally with regular nouns i n
p lace o f - 1 i o r - p i a e . g . 1 u a r l) u or 1 u a r p i a ' s nake ' , m a r a p a i l) u o r
ma r a p a i 1 i 'woman ' .
The locat i ve I I is - I) i i for all no uns . The pro locative i s o f in
frequent o c currence , and the range o f vari ant s not known ( se e § 3 . 5 . l0 ) .
The ' c ompound c a s e s ' , c aus a l , ab lat ive , al lat ive I and a llat ive I I are
a l l formed r egul arly by the addit ion of - I) U or n a , except that the
ab l a t i ve o f m u u is m u la l) u .
3.2.3. P E RS O N A L PRO N O U NS
'I ' ,
S ingular ' you , he, she, it '
Nom I) a i pini .L a a , paka i ( s ee not e s b e l ow

Erg l) a 1 u p i nt i 1 i j i ( s ee notes below)
Loc I I) a i l) u p i n i I) U a ,l a l) u
Dat I) a c i J1 u n k u a .La a , pakaj a
Caus al I) a c i wa J1 u n k u wa a ,la w a
Ab l I) a i l) uw a l) u p i n i l) u wa l) u a ,l a l) uw a l) u
All I I) a c i n a p u n k u na a ,la a n a
All II I) a i I) i i n a J1 i n i l) i i n a a ,l a l) i i n a
Dual ' we two ' ' you two ' ' they two '
Nom I) a ,l i m pa j a puj u
Erg I) a ,l i j i mpa j a j i puj u j u
Lac I I) a ,l i l) u m p a j a l) u p u j u l) u
Dat I) a ,l i i mpa j aa puj u u
Caus a l l) a .L i wa m p a j awa p u j uwa
Ab l I) a ,l i l) uw a l) u m p a j a l) uw a l) u p u j u l) uwa l) u
All I l) a .L i i na m p a j a a na puj u una
All II I) a l i I) i i n i3 m p a j a l) i i n a p u j u l) i i na
( c ant . )
32
Plural ' we ' ' y ou ' ' they '
Nom r) a t a nut u .t I n a
Erg r) a t a j i nut uj u .t i n a j i
Loc I r) a t a r) u n u t u r) u .t i n a r) u
Dat r) a t a a n ut u u .t i n a a
Causal r) a t aw a n u t uwa .t i n aw a
Ab l r) a t a r) uwa r) u n u t u r) uw a r) u I .t i n a r) u w a r) u
All I r) a t a a na nut u una .t i n a a n a
All II r) a t a r) i i na n u t U r) i i na .t i n a r) i i na
The re are no o c c urrenc e s of - r) i i with pronouns and - n u n o c c urs with

s ome b ut no t a l l pronouns , b ut pres umab ly it c an o c cur with al l of them
without morphophonemic change .
NOTES ON TH IRD PERSON FORMS
S ome di fficulty was e xperi enced i n e s t ab l is hing the third person

s ingular paradigm . The third pers on s i ngular i s normally e xpre s s e d b y
zero , a t least when i t i s i n S i ' A o r P funct ion . The s tem a l a - appe ars
to func t ion as a means of fac i l it at i ng the e xpre s s ion of third person
s i ngular i n an ob l ique func t ion . I t does not occur very o ft e n and the
forms were obt ained b y paradigmatic e l i citat ion . liji cons is tently
r e fers to third per s on s ingular in A funct ion . I t ake it to be long to
the s ame paradigm as a l a - , b ut s ince there i s a formal di s c repancy and
s i n c e the appearance of l i j i is redundant from the point of view of
informat ion , I have b e e n rather c aut ious about including it here . G i ven
that third person s ingular i s norma l ly expre s sed b y zero when i t is i n
S i ' A or P func t ion , one would e x p e c t the overt form l i j i to be used
only fo r empha s i s . I t i s true that l i j i i s used for emphas i s ( s ee
e xamp l e ( 3 . 1 0 ) b e low ) but in s ome ins tanc e s I c an find no apparent mo t i
vation for i t s us e . In s o me c a s e s lt is us ed alongs ide a noun in A
function ( examp les ( 3 . 8 ) and ( 3 . 9 ) ) .
(3. 8) li -j i k u u - r) k u r) a i r) a n .t a ma j i ii i n ta
3s -erg r
ain e rg me find
- i n : the : midd l e
' The rain caught m e in the open ' .
( 3.9) l i -j i i t i -j i -ka caa .t u k u r) a - c i laj i r) a m p u - p i a
3s-erg man erg- 0 here dog
- me - dat hit b e h i nd- loc
' Th e man hi t my dog from b ehind ' .
I n t h e foll owing example , I ass ume l i - j i i s int roduc e d s o that the
t h i rd person can be s tres s e d .
33
( 3 . 10 ) � a - 1u p a t u -m a pua . �a i u � ku l u p a t u -m a I l -J i -ka
I- erg ca L L -pres o : s i s m e y ou ng : s ib c a L L pres 3 s - e rg- 0
-
' I c a L L her p u a ; s he ca L Ls me u � k u ! u ' .

( p u a ' o Lder s i s ter ' , u � k u ! u 'y ounger s i b L ing ' )
The form l a a given as t h e nominat i ve for t h i s parad igm i s part icularly

dub ious . There i s a part i c le laa which corre s ponds t o the ' me aningle s s '
Engli sh ' now ' or 'we L L ' as in ' Now we can do one of two things . ' Howe ve r ,
there are a numb er o f ins t ances where la a s e ems t o para l l e l 1 i j i . l a a
appearing w i th nouns in S i ( b ut no t P ) funct ion , whe reas 1 i j i appears
with nouns in A func t i on . Given that the third pers on i s norma lly ex
pre s s ed by z ero in S i func t ion , a third person nominat ive is in a s en s e
' me aningl e s s ' and there is ob vious ly room for confus ion w i t h t h e me aning
l e s s l a a us ed for 'we L L ' or ' now ' . E l i c i t ing cont ras t i ve examp l e s does
not h e lp , s ince the informants use the demons t ratives in s i t uat ions
where there is a contras t ( or they u s e nouns ) . D i s c u s s ion w i th the i n
formants doe s not lead anywhere . I t i s di ffi cult to ob tain dire ct
explanat ions of non- lexical forms . The fo l lowi ng is a typical e xamp l e .
laa p i ! api ! a wan1 i -wan1 i �a i - � u
he chi Ld fo L Low-fo L Low me - l o c
' Th e kid k e eps fo L L ow i ng me ' .
A further compli cat ion l i e s i n the fact that p a k a i also appears to
func tion as a third s ingular form . Its form i nvi t e s c ompari s o n with
paawa t i ka j a ' those two ' and paami akaj a ' those ' , howe ve r , there i s no
e vidence that it has any deict i c funct ion . I t has b een re co rded only
in the nominat ive and the dat ive ( p a k a j a ) .
- a pc i ( also - i p c i and - u p c i )
- a p c i indicat e s a t hird person ( s ingular , dual or p lural ) p o s s e s s or ,

e . g. , ku l a -apc i means ' h i s or her fa ther ' . The t hird person po s s e s s or
need not be overt ly e xpre s sed . -apc i fol lows any derivat ional suffi x e s
and prec edes any c a s e s uffix . I t s eems t o o c c ur only with kin t erms .
( 3 . 12) wampa paa �ata1at i ma t u - u p c i - I) u
gir L there s i t mother - locat ive
' The gir L is s i t t ing over there wi th her mother ' .
mun1 i
The free form m u n1 i e xpre s s e s the third person pos s e s sor e s pecially
in those instanc e s where there i s no overt nominal e xpr e s s ing the
' po s s e s s ed ' , i . e . it i s usua l ly used like the English pos s e s s ive pronoun .
ku n t u caa p u n - k u - ka . mun1 i caa n a a la k i a

not here you -dat-0 his here back
' It ' s not your s . It be Longs to him over here a t the back ' .
34
m u n i i may b e infle c t ed . muni i wa i a ' in his ' and muni i wa i a Q u ' fr om

his ' has been rec orded , but I have not s uc c eeded in e l i c i t ing any other
c a s e s ( s ee e xamp le ( 3 . 7 6 » .
3.2.4. V EMONSTRA T 1 V ES
There are three demons t rat i ve root s : c a a , n a a , and p a a . c a a refers

to s omething re lat ive ly c lo s e t o the s peaker , paa t o s omething relatively
far from the speake r , and n a a t o s omething that i s ne ithe r . There i s
a l s o a root c i p a - which s e ems t o b e a n alternat ive t o c a a i n the non
s ingular . In the s ingular there i s an apparent merger of a c a a parad igm
and a c i p a parad igm .
The dual and plural forms are c l early demonst rat i ve pronouns ( c orre s
ponding t o the demons t rative pronouns and demons t rat ive adj e c t ive s o f
Eng l i sh ) . The s ingular forms s eem t o b e part ly pronominal/adj e c t ival
and part ly adverbia l . I t is difficult t o know how t o analy s e s ome of
t h e forms e . g . c a a s e ems t o be amb ivalent b etween pronominal/adj e c t ival
and adverb i al . S ome o f the irregulari t i e s in the s ingular are probab ly
re lat ed to t hi s . c a Q k a a i i and c a Q ka j a Q u , for e xample , func t i on in an
adverb ia l - l ike way .
There are s ome instanc e s of the demonst rative root and the numb e r
marker b e ing s eparat e l y infl e c t e d in t h e non-s ingular e . g . p a Q u
wa t i ka j a Q u ' from t h o s e tlJO ' .
There are a few ins tanc e s o f the regular ergat ive al lomorph - i u and
the regular causal - i u Q u b e ing u s ed inst ead of - j u and - ! u Q u .
The forms c a a wa t i k a j a and the alt ernat ive c i p a wa t i ka j a are usually
reduced t o c a a t i k a j a and c i p a a t i k a j a .
S ee also § 6 . 1 . and § 5 . 1 0 . 2 .
S ingular ' th i s ' ' thi8 ' ' that '
Nom caa na a paa

Erg c i paj i naj i paj i
Loc I c a Q ka a i i n a l) U paQ i i i
Dat c i pa a nau pau
Causal c i pa j a naj a paja
Ab l c a Q kaj a Q u n a Q uw a Q u paQu
All I c i paana nauna pauna
All II c i pa Q i i n a n aa Q i i na paaQ i i na
( c ont . )
35
Dual ' these two ' 'those two ' ' those two '
Nom c a a w a t i ka j a n a awa t i k a j a p a a w a t i k a j a
E rg c a aw a t i k a j a [ u ( As for ( A s for
Loc I c a a wa t i k a j a l) u caa) caa)
Dat caawat i ka j a a
Caus al c a a w a t i ka j a [ u l) u
Ab l c a a wa t i k a j a l) u w a l) u
All I caawa t i ka j a a n a
All II c a a wa t i k a j a l) i i n a
P l ural ' these ' ' these ' ' those '
Nom c a am i a k a j a n a am i a ka j a paam i a ka j a
Erg c a am i a k a j a [ u ( A s for ( A s for
Loc I c a a m i a k a j a l) u caa) caa)
Dat c a a m i a ka j a a
Cau s a l c a a m i a k a j a [ u l) u
Ab l c a a m i a k a j a l) u w a l) u
All I c a a m i a ka j a an a
All II c a a m i a k a j a l) i i n a
3.2.5. I N T E R ROGAT I V E PRONO UNS
' who ? ' ' wha t ? '
Nom na n i n a ka
Erg na n t u n a ka i u
Loc I n a n i l) u na kai i
Dat nanku n a ka a
C aus al n a n t u l) u n a k a i u l) u
Ab l n a n i l) uw a l) u n a k a i i l) u
A ll I n a n k una nakaana
All II n a n i l) i i n a n a k a l) i i n a
3.3. CROS S - R E F E RE N C I NG BOUND P RONOUNS
Kalkat ungu emp l oy s bound pronouns in independent c laus e s and in s ome

types of dependent c laus e . The bound pronouns in independent c laus e s
may s imp ly encode a n ac t ant , or co-referenc e an ac tant from a n earlier
36
c lause or t hey may o c c ur cros s -re ferenc ing nouns or free pronouns in
t h e s ame c laus e . I will refer t o the b o und pronouns in indepe ndent
c lauses as c ro s s -re ferencing b o und pronouns .
In general there i s a free choice at the informat ion level b e tween
us ing a bound pronoun , a free pronoun , or a bound pronoun in c ro s s
re ferenc e with a free one . In e l i c i t ed s entenc e s part i c u larly in one s
given s lowly or haltingly , free pronouns are used almos t exc lusively ,
b ut in more fluent , spontaneous material , b ound pronouns , with or without
free one s , are c ommon . I f a pronoun i s in focus ( s ee § 6 . 7 . ) or repre
s ent s a topic that i s c ont rast ed with anot her topic ( '£ did s o - and- s o ,
but he d i d some thing e Lse ' ) , then t h e free forms are us ed . A s might b e
e xpe c t e d , t h e bound forms are not ab le t o b e s t re s s ed .
With t he verb suffixes - m i o a ( imperfe c t ) and - m p a ( perfe c t ) , the
b ound forms for 8 and A are apparent ly ob l i gat ory and the free forms
i
opt i onal .
A full s e t of 8 /A forms i s availab le . I t i s c lear from t h e us e o f
i
- m i n a and - m p a with fir s t person S ingular that t h e first person s ingular
is repr e s ented by zero as is the third person S ingular , the lat t er fac t
i s t o be e xpe c t ed of c ours e . With the P forms , only - Q i and - k i n o c c ur
with any frequenc y . - I a and - t a have b e e n e l i c i t ed paradi gmat i c a l l y
o n l y and n o bound P forms have been found for the s e c ond and third p e r s o n
dual and plura l , at least n o t in the ind i c at ive . When I made u p inde
pendent ind i c at ive s entenc e s with bound forms that repre s ent P in t h e
i mperat ive and in subordinate c l aus e s , they w e r e rej e c t e d .
8 /A P
i
8 i ng . l - tJ
2 -n
3 -0
Dual 1 -I -Ia
2 - !! u
3 - (mu) j u
PI . 1 -r -t a
2 -our
3 -na
- m u j u ( third dual 8 or A ) i s used in the pres ent t en s e and - j u e l s e

i
where .
The free forms m p a j a 'you two ' , p u j u ' t hey two ' , o u t u ' y ou mob ' and
' t hey ' may be c li t i c is e d t o the verb , but given the freedom of word
i i na
order that is found their appearance in this p o s i t ion is not of the s ame
s i gni ficanc e s ay of nous and vo u s appearing b e fore the verb to mark P in
37
French ( i . e . in t h e s p e c i a l c l i t i c pos i t ion) .
EXAMPLES
( 3 . 14 ) naka-a p i n i a r i - l �m i n a - n 7 a r i - l i -m i n a -0 maa - e i
w hat- dat you e � t - a/p -imper f- y ou e � t - a/p-i mperf-I foo d - dat
' What are you eating ? ' ' I 'm e a t ing tuc ker ' .
With - m i n a ' impe rfect ' A i s marked by the nominat ive and P by the dat i ve ,
i . e . the ant i-pas s ive construc t i on i s us ed .
( 3 . 15 ) i ea - p i n -k i n pini muniu n - t u pini 8a r kumaj i -m i a

b i t e - part -you you bu l lant- erg y ou vom i t - p o s s ib ility
' If you g e t b i t ten by a bu l lant, you might v om i t ' .
Note that with t hre e-place verb s the P b ound forms repres ent the
REC I PIENT no t the PATIENT :
( 3 . 16 ) pini pa - j i apa- k i n
you that erg gave - y ou
-
' That man gave i t t o you ( not 'you t o i t ' )

With the imperative o f int rans it ive verb s the fol lowing forms are
used to mark S i ( - j a or - j i repre s en t s the imperative c f . § 2 . 1 4 ) .
s ingular i 8 ka - j i - n ' Go ! '

dual i 8 ka - j a -m p i ' You two go ! '
p l ural i 8ka-ja-tu ' You mob go ! '
With the imperat ive of t rans it i ve verb s the fol lowing forms repres ent A .
They are a l s o used to mark S i with a few two-p lace int rans it ive verb s
s uch as 8 k u m a ' to look for ' .
s ingular la - j a - 6 ' Hi t ( him, her i t ) ! '

dual la - j a k u -m p i ' You two h i t ( him, h e r , i t ) ! '
p lural la - j a ku - t u ' You mob h i t ( h im, her, i t ) ! '
Wh ere A i s non- s ingular , P is repre s ented norma l ly by a noun or free
pronoun . Where A is s ingular ( and in this case t here is no bound pro
noun form) , then P is repre s ented by a b ound pronoun suffixed to k u - :
Is kU- 8 i
I du ku- I a
3du ku- j u
Ipl ku-ta
3pl k i na
la - j a k i na ' You ( s ingular) h i t t h em ! '
Note t hat there may be only one occurrence of k u in an imperative c lau s e .
I f A i s non- s ingular the A pronoun i s s uffixed to k u . I f A i s s ingular ,
then any overt P pronoun w i l l be suffixed t o k u .
38
With t h e verb a r i ' to give ' , the imperat ive of which i s a w a , the P
s er i e s of bound pronouns refers t o the REC IPIENT . In t he first person
I have rec orded forms with k u and without it :
a w a 8 i or a wa k U 8 i ' You ( s ingular) give i t t o me ! '

a wa l a or awa k u l a ' You ( s ingular ) give i t t o us two ! '
a wa t a or a w a k u t a ' You ( s ingular) give i t to us mob ! '
The forms k u j u and k i n a are generally confus ing s ince t hey may refer
t o S /A in s ome cons t ruct ions and t o P ( or REC I PIENT ) in others . For
i
examp l e , they mark S i with int ransit ive verb s when t he imperfect marker
-man1 i is u s ed :
k u l aw a 1 a r a Q a t a 1 a t i - m a n1 i - k u j u
twi n s i t - imperfect -dual
' The twins are s i t ting toge ther ' .
( 3 . 18) j u ru l a - t i - m a n1 i - k u j u
man h i t - re-imperf-dual
' The two men are h i t ting one another ' .
k i n a appears in the favourit e cons t ruc t ion ( § 3 . 4 . , § 4 . 3 . ) marking P and
b oth k u j u and k i n a app ear in the ' le s t ' construc t i on ( § 3 . 4 . , § 4 . 4 . )
marking b oth S /A and P . Some l ight is t hrown on the my s t erious b e
i
haviour o f k u j u and k i n a in chapt er 7 ( s ee § 7 . 5 . )
I t s eems in general only one b ound pronoun may o c c ur in an i ndependent

c laus e . With - m i n a and - m p a the S i /A s er i e s is ob l i gatory . In other
i ns t anc e s , the b ound pronouns are used too s paringly for there t o b e
enough e xamp l e s t o make i t c lear how i t i s det ermined which a c t ant i s
t o app ear a s a bound pronoun . The only instanc e s o f t w o bound pronouns
in one independent c lau s e are the s equenc e s - 8 i j u or 8 u j u for 3du > I s
and 8 i n a for 3 p l > I s .
3.4. C O - R E F E R E N C I N G B O U N D P RO N O U N S
C o-referencing b ound pronouns o c c ur i n two types o f s ub ordi nat e c laus e ,

t h e " favouri t e " construct ion and t he " le s t " const ruc t ion .
The favourit e cons t ruc t ion , whi c h i s d e s cribed in detail in § 4 . 3 . ,
e arns i t s name from i t s high func t i onal load and high frequency o f
o c c u rrenc e . I t cons i s t s of a verb , a part i c l e a - ( gl o s s e d as c omp ( le
ment i s e r ) ) t o which c o-re ferenc ing bound pronouns c an b e suffixed and
noun phras e s .
A typi c a l e xamp le would b e ,
i 8 ka - na 8ata 8 a r ku n - k u a-t i la-j i

go-past we wa Z Z -dat comp-we k i Z Z a/p
-
' We went to k i Z Z w a Z Zaroos ' .

39
The fo l l owing pronouns are used in t h i s cons t ruc t ion . In the t ab le ,

the c omp lement i s er a - i s s hown as w e l l as the pronouns thems e lve s . Th e
first form on the t ab l e appears t o b e s upplet i ve . B a s i c a l l y it i s
probab ly l a , the s e cond a b e ing s upp lied by t h e augment ation rule
( § 2 . 11 . ) . I n rap id speech it may b e prefixed t o the verb a s l a .
3 A P
i/
S ing 1 laa a f) i
2 an i aki n
3 ai
Dual 1 al i aki 1a
2 anu a kumpaj a
3 ai Iu (akuju)
Plur 1 at i akita
2 anu r a kut u
3 a i na ( a k i na)
Norma l ly only one b ound pronoun o c c urs in the favouri t e const ruct ion .
I n the tran s i t i ve ins t ance the choice b e tween repre sent ing A or P by a
b ound pronoun is det ermined by a person hierarchy rule ( s e e § 4 . 3 . ) .
Bound pronouns for both A and P in the one c lause o c c ur only i f one
actant is first s i ngular and the other t hird non- s i ngular . In the s e
c a s e s the forms are
Is > 3 pI laa k i na " Is > 3 du laa k u j u

3 pI > Is a f) i n a 3 du > Is 1
The forms a k u j u and a k i n a are bracketed on the t ab l e . They are t h e

e xp e c t e d forms but are constrained from appearing by c ertain syntac t ic
rul e s ( see § 4 . 3 . ) . k i n a do e s o c c u� as not ed ab ove , but not dire c t l y
s u ffixed t o a - .
The " le s t " cons truct ion i s d e s c r i b e d i n det a i l in § 4 . 4 . I t o c c urs
quit e o ft en a s a c ompl ement t o the verb 'to fe ar' and it will b e c on
venient to i l l u s t rate it in this funct ion . In one variant , it appears
with a bound pronoun for 3 s uffixed to an aux i l i ary part i c le u n u , or
i
in another variant it appears with a b ound pronoun for A s uffixed t o
kUQu ( ku + uQu , u Q u h a s a n apparent free a l t e rnant u na i n t h e non- s i ng
ular ) .
C 3 . 20 ) r um p i f) a i f) u j i unu-n
fe ar I fa L L L ; s t-you
' I ' m afraid y ou ' L L fa L L ' .
C 3 . 21 ) r u m p i Q u t u iuma kUQu - r
fear you break L e s t-we
' You 're afraid we migh t break i t ' .
40
Not e t hat t h e s e bound pronouns d o not alway s have a c o-re ferencing

func t ion ( s ee e xamp les ab ove ) . In anot her variant of the cons t ruc t ion ,
pronouns repre s ent ing P are � uffixed t o k u ( without any aux i l i ary part
ic le u n u ) .
( 3 . 22 ) rump i I) a i :t. u k u - j u l) u i e a k U - l) i
fear I dog- caus b i t e me
' I 'm afraid the dog ' Z Z b i te me ' .
The choice be tween t h e s e variant c onstruct ions i s det ermined by a
person hi erarchy rule and det a i l s are given in § 4 . 4 . Another variant
o c c urs where the Si of the l e s t c laus e is t hird person or where both A
and P are third person . I n t h i s c a s e an auxi l iary part i c l e a n a i s u s e d
and t he forms k u j u and k i n a are used to mark a dua l or p lura l S i or A :
r ump i I) a l ana i ea ' I 'm afraid he might b i te ' .

II II , " "
ana kuju i ea they two might b i te ' .
II II , " "
and k i na i ea they ( p l . ) might b i t e ' .
I n the fol l owing t ab le , the forms are s hown with ( k ) u n u and k u as
we l l ,
S /A P
i
S ing 1 ( k ) unu k U l) i
2 ( k) unun kuk i n
3
Dual 1 ( k ) unu l ku l a
2 ( k ) unanu kumpa j a
3 kuj u* kuj u*
Pl 1 ( k ) unu r kuta
2 ( k ) unan u r kut u
3 k i na* k i na*
* The e xp lanation o f how k u j u and k i n a are t o b e interpreted appears

in § 4 . 4 .
There i s not a fu ll s e t o f forms for instanc e s where b ot h A and P are
to appe ar as pronouns . There is however , k u � a j i n for ls > 2s ( f irst
s ingular a c t ing on s e cond s ingular , k u � a j i n p a j a ( ls > 2du) and
k u � a j i n i t u ( l s > 2p l ) . O ther " c omb inations " recorded are
kunu k i na l s > 3pl

k u n un k i na 2 s > 3pl
kunun kuj u 2 s > 3du
k U l) i j u 3du> l s
k U l) i n a 3pl> ls
41
Some remark s b y Lard ie Moonl ight ( ' Ther e ' s some more twi s t s but I
forge t ' ) l e ad me t o b e l i eve that t here may have been other portmant eau
forms like k u � a j i n . S e e a l s o the t ab l e in § 4 . 4 .
The form k u � a j i n i s int ere s t ing . I refer t o it as a portmant eau a s

I cannot find good synchronic , language-internal reasons f o r analy s ing
it . However, the c li t i c for s e c ond person s ingular in P func t i on is
- k i n and t h i s s omet ime s appe ars in a weakened form - j i n in c omb i nat ion
with the c omp l ement i s er a - . Thus a - k i n may b e prono un.ced [ a g i n J or
[aj i n J . I f we ident i fy the - j i n of k u � a j i n with the - j i n variant o f
- k i n , w e are l e ft with - � a - as f i r s t person s ingular . - � a i s t he first
per s on s ingular sub j e c t c l it ic in mo s t of t he wes t ern Pama-Nyungan
language s . It s e ems that Kalkat ungu contains the east ernmo s t e xamp le
of t h i s form .
3.5. S E N T E N C E S I L L U S T RA T I N G C A S E MA R K I N G
3.5.1 . N OM I N AT I V E - �
The nominat ive marks c i t a t ion forms , S i and P . I t a l s o marks A i n

t he ant i-pa s s ive construc t i on .
( 3 . 23) kupu caa luna

spider here run
' The spider runs ' .
( 3 . 24) ma � a p a i - l u k u p u la j i - n a
woman- erg spider k H Z - p a st
' The woman H Ued the spider ' .
( 3 . 25) ma r a p a i ucan-ku i fl c i j i - m a n i i
woman wood- dat c hop - imperfe c t
' The woman is chopping wood ' .
Note that refle xive and rec ipro c a l are marked on the verb by a
s uffix - t i and verbs so marked are intrans it ive .
( 3 . 26 ) a fl i - t i - m u j u c a - a t i ka j a
give- re- they : 2 t h i s - dual
' The se two gave one another things ' .
The verb a fl i ' t o give ' o c c urs with t wo construct ions . I n one , P i s
in the nominat ive and t h e REC I PIENT i n t h e allative . I n the other b ot h
P and R are i n t h e nominat i ve . A s not e d in § 1 . 6 . R in t h e latter con
s t ruc t ion i s prob ably the syntac t i c P . I t i s t h i s underlying R that i s
cros s -re ferenced , not t h e ' gift ' .
( 3 . 27a) ma r a p a i - l u at i a fl a fl u n - k u na 7
woman- erg m e a t gav e y o u - a l lat ive
' Did the woman give meat to you ? '
42
( 3 . 2 7b ) ma r a p a i - 1 u pini at i a pa - k i n 7
woman - e rg you meat gav e-you
' Did the woman give you meat ? '
3.5.2. E RG AT I V E / I NS T R U M E N T A L
The ergat ive/instrument a l ( abbreviated erg( at ive ) for c onvenienc e )

marks nominals in A func t i on or INSTRUMENTAL func tion .
( 3 . 28 ) wampa ! ana pini �a-1u laj i -na

aaaidenta Z Zy y o u I- erg hi t- past
'I hit you aaaidenta Z Zy ' .
( 3 . 29 ) j uku c i pa-j i ma l J I kun1a l i -1u
spear this - erg grease fa t - erg
' This (man ) greased the spear with fa t ' .
( 3 . 30 ) �a i m i -j a k u t u wa l k a a t' u 1 u k u - j u
ahase- imp you Zi zard dog erg -
' Chase the lizard with a dog, you mob ! '

( 3 . 31 ) kun1 u � u c a a k a k u pa � u r u - ka c a n pa r a - 1 u i � ka
Zame h e r e o Zd man-� s ti a k - erg go
' The o Zd man is Zame and wa Zks with a s t i ak ' .
( 3 . 32 ) maka1 i �a i p i p c i - t i -na k a n ka r i -1 u
hand I a u t - re-past knife erg -
'I aut my hand with a knife ' .

( 3 . 33) �t i a-ku �a i � u j i -na
s tone- erg I fa l Z p a s t -
' I fe Z Z ov er a s t one ' .

( 3 . 34 ) wa n t a la - j a k i na nau r - ka ; l i - j a kut u ; � u r kuna
don ' t h i t- imp them ahi Zd-p Zeave- imp you mere Zy
' Don ' t h i t the kids . Leave them a lone . Jus t
j a �aa l u -1u pat i -j a
language- erg t a Z k imp -
rou se on them ' .

Re garding the last example , not e also p a t i - p c a � u k a l k a t u � u - 1 u ' to
aa Z l something/someone by suah-and- suah a word in Ka l katungu ' .
3.5.3. L O CAT I V E I -1 i . -pia
The locat i ve I ( re ferred t o s imp ly as the locat i ve for c onvenienc e )

marks nominals i n LOCATIVE funct ion . In mo st c a s e s i t expre s s e s lo
cat ion in p l a c e or t ime , but the c omp lemen t s o f certain verbs regularly
appear marked b y the locat i ve ( e . g . a r k u n a a n a t i ' to be w i Z d a t ' ) and
there are a numb er of met aphor i c a l and idiomat ic usage s .
43
m i l1 i i a t i - n a I) a i p a i ma r a - i i
b e b orn- past I C L oncurry -loe
'I was born in C Loncurry ' .
( 3 . 36 ) w a r a m pa t a p i n i - I) u c a a nuu p i kaja
axe you- loe here i ie near
' The axe is Lying near you ' .
I) a i i l) k a - m i i a u n - k u na I) a - c i m a t u - I) u
I go- fut town - a l l m e - dat mo ther- loe
' I 'm going into t own with my mother ' .
< 3. 38) I) a i i t i -m i i u n i a l - I) a r a - i i
I re turn- fut m o n t h - other- loe
' I ' L L come back in a mon th ' .
< 3 . 39 ) at i caa I) a - i u a p a j a l ka pa r i -i i
meat here I- erg gave boomerang- loe
'I gave him meat in exchange for a b o omerang ' .
< 3 . 40 ) m a a - ia I) a - i u u t i maj i
food- loe I-erg consume
' I used it [ s e . money ] up on food ' .
< 3 . 41) wam i la - i l pini I) a - i u atij i
s Leep- loe you I-erg produce
'I dreamed of you ' .
< 3 . 42 ) na a k a j a u n - p i a - ka w a c a l i i - I) u
this big- loe-¢ firs t - adj
' This one is the b igge s t ' ( lit . �ir s t in b i g ( ne s s )�
la - t i -muj u caa ma r a pa i - i i
h i t - re- t hey 2 here woman- loe
' They are figh t ing over a woman ' .
To e xpre s s 'A fought wi th B over C ' , the causal i s used t o e xp re s s
C and the l o c at ive t o e xpre s s B .
< 3. 44) p i n i la - t i -na p i j a - p i j a - I) a r a - i i
you h i t - re past chi Ld-o ther-loe
-
' You have been fighting with another kid ' .

< 3 . 45 ) na k a - i i caa a rkunaan-at i
wha t - lo e here angry - i n s trans it ivi s e r
' What is he wi Ld at ? '
A locat ive phra s e re fers t o a who le p re d i c at i on ( ' outer l o c at ives ' )
or t o a c t ant s in 8 i or P funct ion ( ' inner locatives ' ) . Where the
loc at ion of an a e t ant in the A func t ion i s to b e expre s s e d , a part i e ipal
phrase qua l i fy ing the ergat ive mus t be used , the locat i ve re ferring t o
the 8 i o f t h e emb e dded phrase .
44
( 3 . 46 ) waka r i f) a - i u paa napa k U - f) k a i n i -p i n-tu

fish ' I- erg there saw water- Ioc b e : pre s ent -part -erg
' I s aw a fi sh when I was at the water ' .
Note a l s o that a r a ( ' e n te r ' ) , j u u ( ' a limb on ' ) , w a p, l i ( ' fo How ' ) al l
take l ocative compl ement s . I) a n t i i ( 'bark a t ' ) takes the locative or dative .
E xamp l e s of the l o c at i ve s uffixed fol lowing the part i c ip l e - p i n are
given in § 4 . 2 . 10 . and e xamples o f t he locat ive suffixed to t ens e-marked
verb s are given in § 5 . 1 1 .
3 . 5 .4. DA T I V E - k u e.tc. .
The dative c a s e form e xpre s s e s the DATIVE case relation and i t a l s o

e xpre s s e s P i n t h e ant i -pass ive construc t ion .
The form of the dat ive i s - k u with cons onant s t erns , and with vow e l
s t erns a vow e l that i s t h e s ame as t he final vowel of t he s t e rn . However ,
in s l ow s p e e c h the dat ive of vowe l s t erns c ons i s t s of a sy llable - j a as
we l l :
fluent s low , deliberate
spider k u pu - u k u pu - u - j a
kangaro o mac umpa - a ma c u m p a - a - j a
breas t miml- i mimi - i -ja
- j a i s always used i f anot her c a s e suffix i s t o b e added ( s e e

§ 3 . 5 . 1 1 . ) , except in t he format i on o f t h e al lat ive .
As me nt ioned in § 3 . 1 . , Kalkatungu has an ant i -pas s i ve c on s t ruc t i on
whi c h i s used with t rans it ive verbs to indicate indulgence in an act ivity
rather t han a spec i fic act of impingement on a PATIENT . In this c on
s t ruction, A is marked by t he nominat i ve and P by the dat ive . It is
a lways used w i t h the imperfect a s p e c t marker - m i o a and a lmos t a lway s
with the hab i t ual aspect marker - p c a f) u . It i s o ften used with the verbs
iu- ( t o aook) and a r ! ( to eat, to drink) in sentenc e s c orre sp onding t o
Engl i s h , 'She i s aooking ' o r ' S h e i s aooking t h e t e a ' where the PATIENT
is not t he foc us and i s o f low i nformat ion value .
f) a - c i mat u ma a - c i iuj i
m o ther food -dat aook
m e - dat
'My mother i s aooking (food) ' .
The verb j a k a p i when used in the ant i-pas s i ve construc t ion corres
ponds t o Engl i s h ' to understand ' o r ' t o b e ab le t o hear ' b ut whe n us ed
in the normal e rgat ive c on s t ruc t i on c orres ponds t o Engl i s h ' hear, l i s te n
to ' . The verb f) a o i a ma when used in t h e ant i-pas s ive construc t i on corr
e s p onds to Engl i s h ' look for ' and in the ergat ive cons truct i on to 'find ' .
I n a l l re corded ins tances where a noun in A funct ion i s qua l i fied by
a c lause the verb o f wh ich is marked by - ma ni i ' imperfe c t ' , t he ant i -
45
pas s i ve i s u s ed . I f A i s dual o r p lural , - m a U l i i s followed by - k u j u

or k i n a re s pe c t ive ly .
( 3 . 48 ) caa-a t i ka j a Q a � a la t i - m a U l i - k u j u lua r-ku la j i - ua

thi s - dual s i t - imperf they : 2 - s nak e - dat k i r r - past
' Th e s e two s i t ting toge ther k i r r e d the snake ' .
Th i s u s e of the ant i -pas s ive i s in a c c o rdance with t he general
princ i p le of us ing i t i n a tran s i t ive c laus e where A c o -referenc e s an
ab s o lutive actant in another c laus e of t he s ame s ent ence ( s e e § 3 . 1 . ) .
Here c a - a t i k a j a i s the 3
o f Q a � a l a t i and the A of l a - .
i
The dat i ve marks the c omp lement o f verb s like w a i r a � u - ' to r i k e '
( l i t eral ly : heart r i e ) and u l a r a ' to wai t fo r ' . It i s a l s o u s e d t o
mark the c omp lement o f p u n p a t i ' to speak ' when r e ference i s made to t he
name of the l anguage used :
Qa ta p u n pa t i ka l ka t u Q u - u
we speak Ka rka tungu -dat
' We speak Ka rka tungu ' .
The c omp lement o f p u n p a t i may alternatively b e e xpre s s ed i n t he locat ive
II form : k a l k a t u Q u - Q i i .
The dat i ve i s u s ed to mark the opt ional c omplement o f a great range
of int ran s i t i ve verb s , usually with the role of purpo s e :
( 3 . 50 ) wampa i Qka upun-ku

girr go frog-dat
' The gi r r i 8 goi ng for fro gs ' .
With tran s i t ive ve rb s there do not s e e m to b e any dative c omp lement s
( i n addit ion to p) . A l l dat ives o c c urring w it h tran s i t ive verb s are
adnominal . The fo l low i ng sentence c an be trans lated as ' I cooked your
fi sh ' or ' I cooked the fi s h for you ' .
( 3 . 51 ) l u j i - ua pun-ku waka r i
cook -past you -dat fi s h '
'I c o o k e d your fis h ' .
The dat ive in a s entence l ike ( 3 . 5 1 ) can b e s eparat ed from i t s head

whi ch is part of a general t endency in Kalkatungu in wh i c h modi fi ers
are nominal i sed and s eparate d from their h eads :
( 3.52) waka r i Q a - lu p un -ku l u j i - ua

fis h ' I-erg you -dat c o o k -past
'I cooked your fi sh ' .
A s far a s I can s e e the dative case marks only one case re l at ion , vi z .
DATIVE and c overs the r o l e s o f pos s e s s or , b enefic i ary and purpo s e .
46
The dative comp le ment o f a n intran s i t i ve verb and a dative adnominal

to P can be e xpre s s ed as P by adding the deri vat ional suffix - p c a m a
t o the s t em . S e e e xamp l e s in § 5 . 3 . 7 .
cutu caa p un-ku

coo taman here you-dat
' The coo t aman i s yours ' .
( 3 . 54 ) I) a i mu r u - u na - u
I c
a�p- dat this - dat
'I be tong to this camp ' .
( 3 . 55 ) I) a t a aja r-ku j a l) a a l u - u
we one - dat tanguage -dat
' We be tong to one t anguage ' .
3.5.5. L O CAT I V E I I
The s uf fix - I) i i i s rather re s t ricted in s emantic s c ope . I t c over s

the sense of ' on ' as in ' fa t t on one ' s bac k ' , ' tie on one ' s s ide ' and
it is suffixed t o the name s of language s in e xpre s s ions for ' t o speak
tanguage s o - and- Bo ' . The dat ive i s an alternative for t h i s lat t e r
s e ns e .
C 3 . 56 ) i l) k a - c i n I) a i m u ni u - I) i i I) u j i - n a
go- part face- loc : II fa H -past
I
, Wa tking a tong I fe H on my face ' .
( 3 . 57 ) I) a t a p u n p a t i j a l a l) l) a - l) i i
we speak Ya tarnnga- loc : II
' We speak Ya tarnnga ' .
N o t e a l s o u n u l) k a t i - I) i i ' downwind ' .
- I) i i oc c urs too infrequently for me t o b e ab l e t o di s c u s s the case
relat ion it e xpre s s e s . It may e xpre s s the LOCATIVE , the di fferenc e
b e tween - I) i i and - i i / - p i a b e ing s e mant i c .
47
3.5.6.
The c ausal c a s e covers the s e n s e o f indire c t cause or reason and

mo s t ins t anc e s could be t rans lated int o Engl i s h by ' because ' . I t ex
pre s s e s t h e CAUSAL re lat ion .
p i c i r i -iuQu Q a i m i li i w a k i n i
pitur i - caus I eyes spin
' I ' m high on p i turi ' .
( 3 . 59 ) Qa i rump i naa i t i -j i Qu m i li i wa k i n i - p i n - t u Q u
I fear h ere man -caus al i n t oxicated-part -causal
' I 'm afrai d of drunken men ' .
( 3 . 60 ) at i - n t u Q u maa nt i -na waka r i -iuQU a r i - I i -p i n
m e a t = c aus sate past fi s h- c aus
- e a t - alp-part
' I 'm fu l l b e cause I ate the fi sh ' .
3.5.7. A B L AT I V E -i i Qu , p i aQu
The ab l at ive covers the s e n s e o f " mot ion away from" . I t e xpre s se s
the ABLATIVE relat ion .
( 3 . 61) mal1a j a p i wa 1 a r a k a c a p i - 1 I Q u
many white emerge p lane-ab lat ive
' A l o t of w h i te peop le got off the p lane ' .
( 3 . 62 ) kunka caa ma n l J I c i pa-J I i u k u - j u caa -m i a kaj a - Quwa Q u
s t i c k here g e t this- erg dog- erg t h i s - plur-ab l
' The dog go t the s t i c k from these (peop le ) ' .
The ab lat ive phrase re�ers t o a c t ant s in S or P funct i on in a l l
i
at t e s t ed e xamp le s .
3 . 5 .8 . A L L AT I V E I - k u na , e�c .
The al lat ive I form, wh i c h can convenient ly be re ferr'ed t o s imp ly

as the a l lative , covers the REC IPIENT funct ion and the ALLATIVE func t ion .
The RECIPIENT c an be dist inguished on the grounds that it may be alt er
nat ively e xpre s s e d by the nominat i ve ( i . e . a s P ) . The REC IP IENT oc c urs
with a p i ' to give ' , Q u n a Q u n a a p i ' to teach ' , p u n p a t i ' to ta l k to ' and
l u ma n 1 i ' to exp lain ' . p u n p a t i seems to be unusual in being int rans i t i ve
but t aking a REC IP IENT .
( 3 . 6 3) i Q ka - n a Qa i t a u n - kuna
go- past I town- al l ative
'I went to town ' .
( 3 . 64a) ma r a p a i p u n p a t i - na Q a - c i na
woman speak- past me a l l -
'A woman spoke to me ' .

48
( 3 . 64b) m a r a pa i p u n p a t i - na - I) i
woman 8p e ak- past -me
'A woman spoke to me ' .
luma n t i j i j a l) a a ! u I) a - c i n a c i p a - j i
exp Zain Zanguage m e - a l l t h i 8 e rg -
' He exp Zains the Zanguage to me ' .

( 3 . 66 ) puiu r caa-ka k a n i ma i p c i r - k a n u t u - una i n i
good here po Ziaemen-¢ you-all be
' The po Zia eman i 8 good to y ou peop Ze ' .
�! ia I) a - i u i i i t i -na i u k u - u na
8 to ne I- erg t hrow- past d o g al l -
' I threw a 8 t one a t the dog ' .

( I f the target i s hit , one uses i p c i - ' to h i t wi th a
m i 8 s i Ze ' with the mis s i l e in e rgat ive and t arget in
nominat i ve ) .
3.5.9. A L LATI VE I I - I) i i n a
The a l l at ive I I case covers the sense of " t owards " .
( 3 . 68 ) i I) k a - n a - j u t a u n - I) i i n a
g o - past - t hey : 2 t own - a l l a t i ve : I I
' They went t owards t own ' .
( 3 . 69 ) w a t a c i - I) i i n a c a a k a n a p i j i c i p a - a maa - c i ma l i m p u t i
fru i t - a l l : I I here iook t h i 8 - dat foo d dat droo Z -
' He Zooked towards the frui t Ziak ing h i s Zip8 for t h e food ' .
I t may be p o s s ib le t o regard the allative I I case form as mark ing
t he ALLATIVE function or c ase re lat ion . The di fference between the
forms may b e analogous t o the di fference b etween the English prepos
it ions ' to ' and ' toward8 ' which I would des cribe as marking the
ALLATIVE re lat ion ( ' t o ' has other funct ions as we l l ) but di ffering in
s emant ic feature s .
3.5.10. PRO L O CAT I V E -nun
This s uffix has a rather restri c t ed func t ion and has been found only
in e xamp l e s of the fo l lowing type .
( 3 . 70 ) c i pa - j i I) a i j a ka p i j i maiu - i pc i -n u n
t h i s - erg me think mother-his -for
'He took me for hi8 mother ' .
( 3 . 71 ) I) a ! I - I) a ! i I) a - i u m a n i j i ma c u m p a - n u n
wa Z Zaby I- erg take roo-for
'I m i s took the wa Z Zaby for a kangaroo ' .
49
( 3 . 72) 8a -lu pini j akap i j i ul i -p i n -a n

I - e rgyou think die -part-for
'I thought y o u had die d ' .
- n u n h a s not been obs erved w i t h any other cons onant s tems e x c e p t for
ka l p i n ' man ' and mU l p i p ' parro t ' where we find the form k a l p i n i n and
mu 1 p i p i n .
I do not have suffi c i ent data to b e ab le to discuss the c a s e relation
involved .
3.5.11 . VOU B L E C A S E MARK I NG
S ince c a s e marking is app lied to a l l words in the noun phrase and

s ince the dat i ve has adnominal usage s , it is p o s s i b l e t hat c a s e marking
wi l l need to b e added t o the const i t uent s o f a noun phras e where one is
already marked by the dat ive ( e . g . 8 a - c i ma t u me - dat mother i . e . ' my
m o ther ' ) . The c a s e marking is not added dire c t l y to the dat i ve ; a
l i gat ive suffix is us ed . With vowe l st ems the l igat i ve i s - j a , the
form which is some t ime s added to the dat i ve even when t here i s no fur
ther a ffi xat ion ( see § 3 . 5 . 4 . ) . With noun c ons onant s t ems and with
s ingular pronouns the l i gat ive is - wa . See also § 5 . 2 . 3 . , § 5 . 8 .
8a i 8 a - c i -wa - i u kunkuj u - l u apa kuu

m e me- dat - l i g-erg dau qhter - erg gave water
'My daughter gave me water ' .
( 3 . 74 ) k u pa � u r u - u - j a - i u 8a i i caj i
o ld : man - dat - l i g-ergme bite
' The o ld man ' s (dog) b i t me ' .
8a-iu caa � a p a ma r a p a i m a t u - i p c i - i - j a - k u ! u - j i -p i n
I- erg here saw woman mo iher-her- dat - l i g-dat co o k - a lp -part
ma a - c i
food -dat
' I saw the woman cooking food for her mother ' .
( 3 . 76 ) muni i -w a - i a 8 U c a 8 kaj a 8 u i 8 k a ma a - c i at i -pc i

his- lig-ab l t h i s : ab l go food - dat mea t - dat
'He is going from his own ( camp) for food and meat ' .
In s ome c a s e s where the synt ax o f t he c laus e requires t hat a dat ive
marked phrase be furt her marked , this further marking is s imp ly omit t e d .
This is fairly c ommon with the ergat i ve c a s e but not with other c a s e s ,
8a - c i mat u - j u iuku laj i -na

me - dat mo - erg dog h i t - past
'My mother h i t the dog ' .
50
Howe ver , i n s ome o f these instanc e s t h e modifier ( i f pronominal ) and

the head of the phrase are pronounc ed as one word w it h t he primary
s t re s s on the first sy llab l e of the dat i ve c ons t i tuent . In general it
s eems to b e pos s ib le to pronounce the s e quence ' pronoun + dat ive noun '
as one word .
There a re s ome instance s . o f the l i gat ive -wa b e ing used when no
further suffix follows ,
( 3 . 78 ) ma ra p a i - l u Q a - c i -wa luk u la j i - ua
woma n - erg me - dat -lig dog h i t -past
' The woman hi t my dog ' .
This i s not quite the same as the opti onal use o f - j a with vowel
s t ems w he n no further suffix follows . - j a seems to be c harac teri s t i c
of careful speech , b u t t h e us e o f - w a s eems sporadi c .
CHAPTER 4
THE VERB
4.1 . V E R B C LA S S E S
Almost all verbs are stri c t ly trans it ive or s t ri c t l y intran s i t i ve .

However , the verb ma n l I ' t o burn ' o c c urs as an intran s it ive - uca n
m a n l l ' The wood burns ' , and a trans itive m a r a p a l i u u c a n ma n i l ' The
-
woman burns the wood ' . S imilarly , a t l I o c c urs as an int ran s it ive -
k u u a t I I 'Rain fa H s', and as a tran s it ive k a c a p I - i u k u i u a t i i 'The

-
hawk lays an e gg ' .

Verb s fal l into t wo open c las s e s , one int rans it ive and the other
trans it i ve , plus a few irregular c l osed c l a s s e s .
(a) i ntra ns i t ive ( open c las s )
I l) k a 'go ' u .L I ' die ' IJ U - ' l i e down '

iuna ' run ' r ump l ' fear ' juu ' go up '
waia ra ' emerge ' InI ' remain ' c U lJ p a ' jump '
a ra ' enter ' ItI ' go back '
(b) trans i tive ( open c l as s )
I ca ' b i te ' rukup l ' swa l l ow '

.La - 'hit, k i l l ' Ipcl ' chop '
I) k a - ' send ' p l pc l ' s cratch '
unp l ' take ' I t i nt I ' bring/send back '
(c) tra ns i t ive (-t l stems )
IiIt i ' t hrow ' k I akat I 'ma ke '

waiukat I 'dig ' pat l ' te II '
The s e verb s are irregular in that the final - I may be omitted b e fore
t he suffixes - p i n , - m l and - m l a and a l s o when no suffix fo l lows . Thus
we find l i l r or l i l t l , I t l r p l n or l i l t l p l n , e t c . The ant i-pas s i ve - j l
is s uffixed t o t he s t em with I : iiit Ij I . I i I t I j I p i n . etc .
51
52
The s e ve rb s are irre gular a l s o in that t h e imperat ive forms are

i 1 i t a , wa 1 u k a t a , k i a k a t a , et c . S e e also § 4 . 3 .
The verb p a t i i s irre gular in that it has an impe rat i ve p a t a but it
does not norma l ly drop i t s final vowe l since this would re s ult in a
mono s y l lab ic s t em .
(d ) trans it iv e and i ntrans itive ( - ma s tems )
1 u ma ' break '

� u l u r ma ' catch ho ld of, grab '
� kuma , look for , find '
� a n1 a m a , look for '
i c a ma ' laugh ( a t ) '
Thi s s eems to be a c losed c la s s t hough there are more members than
are l i st e d here ( s e e glos s ary ) . They are i rregular only in that t he
imperative stem and the ' non-j i ' form used in the favourit e c on s t ruc t
i o n ends i n - m i . Thus 1 u m i , � u l u r m i , et c . i n the favourit e construc t
i o n when n o ant i-pa s s i ve i s u s e d ( s e e § 4 . 3 . ) and 1 u m i j a , � u l u r m i j a , e t c .
in the imperative .
1 u ma i s tran s i t i ve ( the intran s i t i ve verb ' to brea k ' is 1 ut i , - t i
probab ly repre sent ing t he re flexive/r e c iprocal marker) as i s � u l u r ma .
� a n 1 a m a i s tran s i t i ve but frequent ly oc c urs in t he ant i -pas s i ve when
it corre s ponds t o ' l ook for ' as opp osed t o 'find ' . � k u ma i s int ran s i
t i ve but it is a lmos t always u s e d with a n ove rt comp lement in the dative .
i c a m a is intran s i t ive and may take a locat ive comp lement . A l l verb s o f
t h i s c la s s show a l t ernat ion b etween forms with - j i and forms without - j i
irre s p e c t ive of trans i t i vit y . Thus one finds forms l i ke � k u m a j i whe re
one would find i c a j i ' to b i te ' and � k u ma where one would find i c a . A
verb like � k u m a take s the dist inct ly t ran s i t i ve forms in the imp e rat ive
for non-s ingular actor e . g . � k u m i j a k u t u ' You mob look for i t ' .
( e ) trans itive ( - wa s t ems )
pre s e nt pas t future imperative
a fl i awa ' give '

I) a fl i I) uwa ' s e e , look '
(f) trans itive ( - I a s t ems )
The s e verb s take an impe rat ive in - I a and an ant i-pa s s i ve in - 1 i .
ari ' e a t ' and �kaa ' spear, s tab ' a l s o have s ome other i rregular infle c
t ions a s shown be low . See also s e c t ion (g) . For each entry i n the
fo l l owing tab le the an t i -pas s i ve forms are given immediate ly be low the
b a s i c forms .
53
pre s ent past future imperat ive
a r l . a r l ma a r I mu arimI ala ( si c ) ' ea t '

arI 1 I a r I I I na arI Iiml
c I aj I c l a j l na c l am l ci l i a , take out,
cIa! I c l a ! l na c l a l m l ( sic )
take off'
I) ka a j a . I) k a a m a I) k a a j l na I) k a a m l I) k a a I I a ' spear '

I) k a a I I I) k a a ! I n a I) k a a I I m l
ma I j I ma l j l n a ma l m l ma I I a ' rub '

ma I ! I ma l ! I na ma l l m l ( sic )
IJ t I aj I I) t l a n a IJ t l a m l IJ t I I I a ' s harpen '

I) t I a a ! I I) t I a a ! I na IJ t I a a I I m l
The verb a a ! ' to Zeave ' , ' to put down ' has been recorded in the
forms a a ! ( pre s ent ) , a a ! m l ( fut ure ) and a a l a ( impe rat i ve ) .
The imper fe ct aspect marker - m l n a takes the same ant i -pas s i ve s t em
forms as - m i . Thus we find a r i I I m i na b ut ma i I m i n a .
The forms for ' e a t ' pre s ented cons iderab l e phone t i c difficulty .
Ear lier I notated them as a i and a i ! i . Gavan Breen point ed out t o me
that I had mi s heard a r i I i as a i I i , t rans fe rring the retrofle c t ion to
t he fo l l owing 1 . On checking the non-ant i-pa s s ive form , we found it
was a r i , the ( b e ing di fficult to pick up on the few tokens availab le .
By analogy with the other ve rbs in this group t he ant i-pas s ive of a r i
s hould be a r i ! i . Perhaps it is , b ut we find it di ffi c ult t o hear as
w e l l as r . Perhaps * ! has dis s imi lated t o 1 .
S e e a l s o § 4 . 3 . for the ' - j i ' and ' non- j i ' forms of the s e verb s used
in the favourite construct ion .
(g) (misce lla ne ous)
The verb s 1 i - { ' t o re Z inqu i s h ' } , j u u { ' t o go up ' } , a r i { ' t o e a t ' }

and I) k a a { ' to spear ' } take an opt i onal present t ense - m a , and a r i oc curs
with a past t e n s e - m u . I t i s worth not ing that t he present t en s e and
past tense in Yalarnnga are -ma and - m u respe c t i ve ly . The re is a verb
form p a t u m a ( ' t o te L L, to c a L Z someone s ome t hi ng ' ) for which no paradigm
c an b e c ons truc t e d ( c f . p a t i ' t o te L Z ' ) . The re is a l s o a defe c t ive
verb m i t a a , the impe rat ive b e ing the only form t hat o c c urs . I t means
'giv e ! ' . Perhaps it c ould be cons ide re d a part i c le rather than a verb .
The verb l u a - { ' to Leave b e hind, t o re L inquish ' } o c c urs with past
t e ns e 1 u a j i n a , future 1 u a j i m i . The impe rat ive i s s upplied by 1 l j a the
impe rative o f' 1 i - .
iu- { ' cook, burn ' } has a has a non ant i -pas s ive s t em 1i -.
54
4 . 2. TENSE AND ASPECT SUFFI XES
4.2.1 . - � PRESENT
T h e pre s ent t ense form c overs much t h e s ame semant ic range as the
pre s e nt t ense in English i . e . it covers the s ense of action in the
pre sent and hab i t ua l action . In some cas e s it is used t o r e fer t o pa s t
t ime .
( 4 . 1) iua r caa nt u u - ka a ra
snake here h o Ze - loc e�ter
' The snake is going into the h o Ze ' .
(4.2) iit iri caa wa 1 a r a m a 1 1 a k u u at i i -p i n - t a
cen tipede here emerge many water f� Z Z - p art i c ip le - l o c
' Cen tipedes appear in great numbers when i t rains ' .
4.2.2. - n a PAST
The past t ense form corre sponds t o the past t ense o f Engli sh , e xcept
that the pre s e nt t ense form may also re fe r to the past .
( 4 . 3) Q k a r a - a Q k um a j i - n a - n a
yam - dat s e e k - past- they
' They Zooked for y ams ' .
4.2.3. -m i FUTURE
T h e fut ure t en s e covers t h e range o f Engl i s h 'wi Z Z /sha Z Z ' and ' to
b e going to ' . The s i mp le future is forme d by adding - m i t o the ' non
j i ' form of the verb . When the ant i-pas s ive c ons truction is used , the
s uffi x - m i i s added t o the ' - j i ' form of the verb and the reference i s
t o c ont inuing pre s ent act ivity i n t o t h e future :
(4.4) kunt u Qa-iu la - m i

not I- erg h i t- fut
' I ' m n o t going to h i t him ' .
(4.5) kun t u Qa i la - j i -m i ku ! uk u ! u
not I hi t - a : p-fut again
' I 'm not going to hit h im again ' .
(4 6)
.• kun t u Qa i Qkara-a Q a ni a ma - j i - m i
no t I yam� dat Zook : for - a : p- fut
' I 'm no t going to keep on Zook ing for yams ' .
I n B lake 1 9 6 9 : 5 3 it is report e d that " ob j e c t marke rs " s uffixed t o
k u o c c ur with - m i . Howeve r , this s e ems to b e t rue only i f s ome appre
hens ion i s b e ing e xp re s s ed e . g . ' I ' m frightened they ' Z Z h i t m e ' . I n
other words t h e us e of a n ob j e ct marker s uffi xe d t o - k u with t h e fut ure
is a variant of the ' le s t ' c ons t ruc t i on des cribed in § 4 . 4 . I n part i c
ular s e e e xamp le ( 4 . 1 0 7 ) .
55
4.2.4. - m i n a I M P E R F E CT I
The 3 i /A bound pronouns are a lways used with m i n a and A always

appears in t he nominative and P in the dat ive .
(4.7) I) a r p a - i i pini i n i -m i na - n
o ther- loc you remain =i mperf- you
' You 're Living w i th s ome one e L se ' .
( 4 . 8) pini l a i - m i na - n j ur-ku a- i uAc i nt a

you h i t - imperf- you man - dat comp - h e b Le e d
' You a r e h i t ting h i m and making h i m b Le ed/s o t h a t he ' s
b Le edi ng ' .
4.2.5. mani i IMPERFECT I I
- m a n i i is us ed t o indi cate an ongo ing s t ate or a c t i vit y . It is used

in independent c laus e s and it i s used to mark intransit ive ve rb s o f
s ub ordinat e c laus e s wh ich qua l i fy nominals ( se e e xamp l e ( 4 . 10 ) ) .
I f the 3
o f a s ubordinate c laus e marked by - m a n i i i s dual or p l ural ,
i
it is marked by k u j u or k i n a respect ively ( s ee e xamp l e s ( 4 . 1 3 ) and
( 4 . 14 ) ) . I f the nominal qualified by a - m a ni i c laus e i s in A funct ion
and i s non- s ingular , it is marked by the nominat i ve and P appears in the
dat ive ( s e e e xamp le ( 4 . 1 3 ) ) ; i . e . the ant i-pa s s i ve c on s t ruction i s us e d .
Not e that c a s e suffixes may b e added t o - m a n i i ( e xamp le ( 4 . 1 1 ) ) .
Compare - p i n ( § 4 . 2 . l 0 . ) .
(4.9) k u a - l a l) u caa kuu muniu -wai i n t i j i -mani i

cree k - ab l here water face - c arry - i mperfect
' She is bringing wa ter from the cre e k ' .
( m u n i u indicates dire c t i on t oward s the speaker )
( 4 . 10 ) I) a - c i ku l a-j i a � k a - m a ni i - i u laj i caa i U l) u m p i r i

m e - dat fa:' erg a i L - imp e rf-erg h i t here bad
'My sick fa ther hit the bad man ' .
( 4 . 11 ) i l) k a p i p c a m u - wa i a r a - ma n i i - I) i i n a
go sun - em e r ge- imperf-al lative I I
' I a m going towards t h e ris ing s un ' .
( 4 . 12 ) paa I) a i pi l a-pi l a-ja �ap i j i i l) k a - ma n i i - i
there I chi Ld - dat see g o - impe rf-dat
' I ' m watch ing that kid wa Lking ' .
( 4 . 13) caa- (w) at i ka j a I) a t a ia t i - ma n i i - k u j u i u a r - k u laj i -na
t h i s - dual s i t - imperf-dua l s na k e - dat k i L L - p a s t
' Th e s e two s i t ting toge ther ki L L ed a s nake ' .
( 4 . 14 ) p i n-t i caa i u ma j i - m p a - n k u n ka r a p c i - ma n i i - k i n a - k a
you- erg here break-perf-y ou s ti c k L i e - impe rf-p lur-¢
' You ' v e bro ken the s ticks that were Lying about everywhere ' .
56
4.2.6. -pcaQu HA B I TU A L
T h e s emant i c range of - p c a Q u can be det e rmined from the fo l l owing

e xample s . Note that in trans i t ive c laus e s the ant i-pas s i ve construc t i on
i s used ( c f . § 3 . 1 . ) .
( 4 . 15 ) wi i pini wan i -pcaQu w a r ma - a

query y ou p tay hab i t - da n a e - dat
' D o you danae ? '
k u n t u Q a i wa n i - p c a n u 'No, I don ' t ' .
( 4 . 16 ) pini iuj i -pcaQu maa-c i , kunt u Qa i iuj i -m i a
you aook-hab it food- dat n o t I aook-pos s
' You ( aan) aook, b u t I aan ' t ' .
( 4 . 17 ) c a a - ( w) at i kaj a Q u ! i ia p a n t u - i u la - t i - p c a Q u - j u
this- dual a tway s foot- erg h i t r e - hab i t they : 2
- -
' T h e s e two are a tway s k i ak i ng one another ' .

( 4 . 18 ) m a l ia - Q u j a n marapa i -ka i Qka-ca Q u - na Qkara-a
mua h - times wo�an-¢ gO - hab i t - they yam- d a t
' Often the women used to go for yams ' .
( 4 . 19 ) Qa i c i t a a n ma j i - Q c a Q u Q a - c i - w a - k u n a u r - k u -wa ,
I took afte r - hab i t m e - dat-l ig-dat kid-dat -¢
-
p u t a p i t i -p c a Q u
fe ed : up - hab i t
' I l o o k after m y kid a n d fee d h i m up ' .
4.2.7. -pcaaja P U R PO S I V E
Note that a l l o f the examp le s c an b e p aral l e l le d by the favourite

con s t ruc t i on ( s ee § 4 . 3 . ) . - p c a a j a is a lmos t c ertainly analy s ab l e as
- p c a ( as in - p c a a n i and - p c a Q u ) and the dat ive - a j a , but I doub t if
i t i s worth making this analys i s from the point of view of e xp laining
how the grammar func t i ons . There are some e xamples o f - p c a a j a as a
mai n verb indi cat ing p urpos ive or s imp ly future t i me .
( 4 . 20 ) Qata ma a - c i a r i - 1 i -pcaaja
we fo od- dat e a t - alp-purpos i ve
' We are going to e a t ( food) ' .
( 4 . 21 ) ucan caa a�pa-ja maa -c i iuj i -mant i -caa j a ( For m a n t i
wood here ga the r- imp food- dat a ook-w i t h - purpos i ve see
§5 . 3 . 6 . )
' Ga ther s ome w o o d t o aook (food) w i t h ' .
( 4 . 22 ) m u ni u Q a r a Q a - i u ap i -pcaaj a iuku
o ther I - e rg give - purp dog
' I ' m going t o give it t o the other dog ' .
( 4 . 23) k a n i ma j i p c i t u Qal i m u ni u n a t i la-t i -pcaaja
p o l iaeman : erg us : 2 pre vent h i t - r e - purp
'The po liaeman s toppe d us from fighting ' .
( C ompare e xample ( 4 . 8 8 » .
57
( II . 2 4 ) fl i n i i l) k a - na na una l a - fl c a a j a
y ou go- past hi ther h i t - purp
' You came to g e t be l ted ' .
Note t he operat ion o f the ant i-pass ive i n the se e xamp l e s . The ant i
pas s ive i s used i n subordinate c laus e s when A o f t h e subordinat e c laus e
co-re ference s an actant in an ab s o lutive re lat ion in the governing c l ause .
It is used in ( 4 . 2 0 ) s ince A c o-re ferences S . I t is not used in ( 4 . 2 1 )
i
s ince A co-refe rences A . Note t hat i f t he ant i-pas s i ve marker had been
used in ( 4 . 2 1 ) it would have occ urred b etween - m a n l i and - c a a j a . The
- j i of l u j i is not s igni ficant . For some s trange reason t he - j i form
is a lways used be fore - m a n t i ( the funct ion of wh ich is desc rib ed in
5 . 3. 6 . ) .
In ( 4 . 2 2 ) the verb marked by - fl c a a j a is independent . In the se c ir
cumstances no - j i is used .
In ( 4 . 24 ) P c o-references S so no ant i -p a s s i ve i s require d .
i
Alt hough my e xamp l e s indicate that the anti -pas s i ve i s used when A
co-referenc e s S or P as opposed t o A , I do not have e xamp l e s to indi
i
cate what happ ens when A co-referen c e s an actant in an obl ique cas e .
4. 2.8. -j a I M P E RAT I V E
The forms o f the impe rat i ve have b e en dealt with in § 3 . 3 . The foll
owing sent enc e s i l lustrate t he s ingular , dual and p l ural with both in
t ran s i t i ve and t rans it ive verb s .
( 4 . 25) p a fl c a - j a I) u l u r m l - j a a n a I) u j i
intensive- imp ho ld- imp l e s t fa l l
' Ho ld him tight or he might fa l l ' .
( t he verb p a fl c a - has no direct e quiva lent in Engl i s h . It
corre sponds roughly to t he intens i ve adverb ' very ' in
s emant ic range )
( 4 . 26) i l) k a - j i - n ! i l) k a - j a - u I) a - c i n a
g o - imp - you go- imp-hi ther me - al lat ive
' Come ! Come here to me ! '
( 4 . 27 ) i l) k a - j i - nl u - m p i j a � kana
go- imp-away - y ou : 2 a lone
' Go away on your own y ou two ! '
( 4 . 28) l u n a - J I - n1u - t u p a � a a ul u n !
run- imp-away-you far : o v er
' You mob run away over there ! '
( 4 . 29 ) wa n t a la - j a k i na
don ' t h i t - imp them
'Don ' t hit them ' .
58
( JL 3 0 ) n u wa kump i - ka l laa k u m pa j a !
i ook- imp y ou : two- ¢ ki l l y ou : two
' Look out you two ! It might ki l l y ou ' .
( Se e § 4 . 4 . for the construc t i on of the s e c ond c laus e . )
( 4 . 31 ) maa caa nut u -j u a l a kut u

food here you- erg e a t : imp you : plural
' You mob e a t up this food ' .
( 4 . 32 ) c i t a a nm i -j a k i na na u r
look after- imp them kid
' Look afte r them kids ' .
( 4 . 33) p u n p a t i - j a - I) i
ta Zk- imp-me
' Ta l k to me ' .
k u j u and k i n a refer t o the REC I PIENT of three place verb s .
( 4 . 34 ) p a a - ( w) a t i ka j a A uwa t i a �la kuj u

t h e y - dua l two giv e : imp them : dua l
' Give i t to them two ' .
( 4 . 35) malia j u ru p a a - m i a ka j a ini , a wa k i na
mob man t h e y - pl ur b e : pre s ent give : imp them
' The y ' r e a big mob . Give it to them ' .
4.2.9. -mpa (a) PER F E C T ( b ) S E QU E N T I A L
- m pa has b e e n glos s ed a s ' perfect ' o n t he basi s o f i t s usage in

s ingle sentenc e s where it indicates the comp l et i on o f an act ivity or
state . I n s uc c e s s ive sent ences o f narrat i ve , it simply refers t o a c t i on s
per formed in s equence and h a s b e e n glo s s e d as s e q ( uent ial ) .
( 4 . 36 ) p i n i ucan-t u ma n i j i - na p i n i j a pa c a ra -iat i -na-mpa - n ?

y ou fir e - erg burn-past . you w e l l - int r - p a s t - perf- y ou
' You got burnt in the fire . Are you we l l again ? '
( 4 . 37 ) wi I i p i n-t i wa k u c i a j i - m p a - n ?
query you - erg s kin take : ou t - perf-you
' Have y ou c leaned [ s ic ] the skin ? '
( 4 . 38 ) caa I) a - i u ma n i j i i u a r - k a j a r a r i ma n i j i - m p a l a a
h e r e I- erg ge t snake - ¢ tai l get- seq then
' I got t h e s n a k e , go t the tai l and t h en I whi z z ed
wak i n i laj i -ma n t i j i -mpa m u - l u
spin hit-wi th- seq ground- loc
it around and cracked it on the ground ' .
( 4 . 39 ) caa I) a - i u u n u n t u j i ma c u m p a - k a , u n u r i c u r. u n a i i i t i -mpa
here I- erg gut kangaroo-I> guts throw - s eq
' I gu t t e d the kangaroo and then I threw the gu t s away ' .
59
( 4 . 40) pini i l) k a - n a f) a i n i i t i - na - m p a - n
y ou go - past later re tu ; n -past -perf- y ou
' You wen t and then you cam e back l ater ' .
4.2.10. -pi n P A RT I C I PL E
- p i n ( with a variant - c i n a ft e r s t ems with a na sal-plus - s t op c lu s t e r )

oc curs b ot h in s ub ordinat e c laus e s and independent c l aus e s . The l ab e l
" part i c i p l e " i s s ugge s t e d o n t he b a s i s o f typical e xamp l e s s uch as :
( 4 . 41 ) f) a - i u I) a p a ma c u m p a a� i - l i -p i n kai i r-ku
I- erg saw 1' 0 0 eat a lp-part gras s -dat
'I saw the kangaroo eating grass ' .
Here it c orresponds to the English pres ent part i c ip l e . I t a l s o e xhib i t s

another part i c i p l e - l ike property i n that it fac i l i t at e s t h e addit ion o f
c a s e forms t o verb s t ems :
( 4 . 42 ) j a r i ka j a n - a t i - p i n - t u caa f) a - i u laj i
hun g ry - int r-part -erg here I-erg ki H
' Be ing hungry I k i l led i t ' .
However , - p i n may be used as a finite verb form in independent
c lause s :
( 4 . 43) k u p a f) u r u - i u f) a i ma - p i n
o ld man- erg chas e - part
' The o ld man is giv ing chase ' .
When used to form a finit e verb , - p i n appears t o b e non- spe c i fic as
t o t ense and aspect . E xamp l e s o c c ur in which the re ference i s t o pres ent
or past t ime and t o imperfe c t , perfect or punct i l i ar aspec t . The t rans
lat ion o f t he immediate l y prec eding e xamp l e i s o n the b a s i s o f the s i tu
ation and the speaker ' s t ran s l at i on . For s imi l ar e xamp l e s s e e the t e xt s .
When A of a - p i n c laus e co-references an act ant the ant i-pas s ive i s
used in the - p i n c laus e . S e e e xamp l e s ( 4 . 4 5 ) and ( 4 . 4 8 ) .
The only e xamp l e s in which a - p i n c laus e qua l i f i e s the A o f the
governing c lause involve - p i n suffixed t o an int ran s i t i ve verb as in
( 4 . 4 2 ) ab ove .
- p i n c ommonly o c c urs with both t rans i t i ve and intrans i t ive verb s in
c l auses qua l i fying the P of t he governing c laus e :
( 4 . 44 ) i ua t u pa - J I ma r a p a i i caj i i l) k a - A - i l) ka - c i n
snake : erg that- erg woman b i te go - l i g- go -p art
' The s na k e b i t the woman as she was wa l king a l ong ' .
( 4 . 45 ) I) a - :\:u la j i j u ru n i ia - j i - p i n I) a - c i - wa - k u j a l ka pa r i - i
I- erg hit man s t ea l - alp part m e - dat - l i g-dat boo dat
- - '
' I h i t t h e man for stea lingl as he was s t e a l ing/ who s t o l e

m y boomerang ' .
60
( 4 . 46) kun i -ja caa Qa r pa a- I nap i -j i p i p c i - c i n - k u ma c u m p a - a

ca t t - imp here o t her c omp - he s e e - alp c u t -part -dat roo - dat
' Ga t t the ot her one to s e e the kangaroo when i t is cut up ' .
I t a l s o o c c ur s qua l i fy ing a DATIVE c omp lement :
( 4 . 47) Q k umaj i Qa i - ka iumpa k i - i pa-J I k u pa Q u r u -iu ui i j aka p i

seek I tobacco-det that - erg 0 td : man- erg t o s e -par t -
p i n - ku
dat
' I 'm t ooking for the tobacco t h e o td man tos t ' .
- p i n o c c urs with both trans itive and intran s i t i ve verb s qual i fying
the 3 o f the governing c l ause :
i
( 4 . 48) Qa i u n ua n i pun-ku I) a p i - j i - p i n
I rejoice you - dat s e e -alp-part
' I ' m happy t o s e e you ( happy a t s e e ing you ) ' .
( 4 . 49 ) kunt u caa l U Q a - na Qa-iu la-p i n -ka
not here cry past I- erg h i t -part - ¢
-
'He didn ' t cry when I h i t him ' .

( 4 . 50 ) i Qka-A- i Qka wampa l UQa-p i n
go l 1 g go
- - gir t cry- part
' The gir t is wa t king a tong cry ing ' .
A - p i n c lause may modi fy another c lause without the re b e ing an a c t ant
common to the - p i n c lause and the main c laus e . I n s uch ins t anc es the
ant i-pass ive nat urally enough w i l l not o c c ur with the - p i n verb :
( 4 . 51) u n ua n i - na Qa i - ka p i n-t i la - p i n caa iua r - ka

rej o i c e - past I-¢ y o u - erg k i H - part here snak e - ¢
' I was g tad y ou k i t ted the s nake ' .
- p i n i s commonly s upport e d by the addit ion o f - t a , wh i c h I t ake t o b e a
l o c at ive al lomorph - s e e § 3 . 2 . 2 . when the participial c l aus e has this
adverb i a l func t i on :
( 4 . 52 ) kuntu at i i - p i n- t a , caa - ka ul i -m i
not fa t t part - l o c
- here-¢ d i e - future
' If it doe s n ' t rain, it wi t t die ' .
( 4 . 53) ma a - c i Qa i a r i - I i -p i n-ta u n u Q k a t i - ka j aun iuna
food- dat I e a t- a/p-part -loc wind- ¢ big b tow
' Wh i t e I was eating, a s trong wind was b t owing ' .
The use of the ant i-pas s i ve in the first c lause of ( 4 . 5 3 ) is s eman
t i ca l l y not synt a c t i c a l l y mot i vat e d .
4.2.11 . -m i a POSS I B I L I T Y
- m i a w i l l b e glo s s e d a s pos s ( i b i l i ty ) . I t means "migh t ' or ' can ' .

The c omb i nation o f the ne ga t i ve and - m i a me ans ' cannot ' . I n c omp l e x
61
sentences c omb ined with an indi cat ion o f past t ime , i t i s used t o
e xpre s s t h e irreal i s 'wou Zd hav e ' .
( 4 . 54 ) Qa i ma k a i i - j a n k a r i - t i - m i a
I hand- con wipe - re - po s s
' I ' v e got a hand t o was h myse Zf ( I don ' t want you touching
me) ' .
( 4 . 55 ) kunt u puj u Qa i k a pa n i - p i n - ka , Qa i j a r i ka j a n -at i -m i a
not if I hunt - part - ¢ I hung r y - int r-p o s s
' If I don ' t go hunt i ng, I might g e t hungry ' .
( 4 . 56 ) ma '.l u - i a t i Q a i ma k a i i w a t i n a , k u n t u Q u l ur maj i - m i a
wea k - intr I hand both not ho Zd- poss
p a p c a j i -m i a
v ery - p o s s
'My hands have be come weak; I can ' t h o Zd i t tight ' .
( 4 . 57) Q a - i u p i n i c a j ana la-m i a , kuntu i Q k a - c i n - t a k a n i m a i p c i r - ka
I- erg y ou former Zy h i t-poss n o t go-part-loc p o Ziceman-¢
'I wou Zd ' v e hit you if the po Ziceman had n o t come ' .
( 4 . 58 ) kun t u puj u p i n i i t i - na c a a - m i a k a j a - 'I u a - Q i - n a
not if you re turn -past this- p I -erg c omp-m e - they
la-m i a
h i t - po s s
' If y o u hadn ' t come back, t h e y wou Z d ' v e h i t me ' .
( S e e § 4 . 3 . for t he c on s truct ion i l l us t rat e d in the s e c ond
c laus e . )
4.2.12. -ma
The following verb s appear with a pres ent t en s e suffix - m a o I t c oin

c id e s in form and funct ion with Yal arnnga - m a , but what its exact s t at us
in Kalkat ungu i s I ' m not s ure .
pa t u -ma ' to ins truct, t o te Z Z someone to d o some thing'

j u u or j u u - m a ' to c Z imb ' ( -¢ and - m a b o t h oc c ur )
a r i or a r i -ma , to eat'
1 i i -ma ' to Zeave ' ( t rans i t i ve ) , ' to re Zinquish '
( s e e note at end of § 4 . 1 . )
4.2.13. -mu
The fo l l owing verb appears with a past t en s e - m u , which coincides

in form and fun c t i on with Yalarnnga - m u .
a r i mu ' ate '

62
4.3. T H E F A V O U R I T E C O N ST R U C T I O N
Kalkatungu emp loys a construction in which there is a part i c le a - ,

g l o s s e d as c omp ( l ement i s e r ) , to which bound pronouns are suffi xed .
Thi s c on s t ruct ion o c c urs as a compl ement t o verb s and t o nouns and i s
used t o expr e s s purpos e , result and indi re ct commands . The fol l owing
is a typical e xample :
( 4 . 59 ) ma r a p a i i I) k a - n a I) k a r a - a a-i wa1ukat i -j i
woman go-past yam- dat c omp - s h e dig- alp
' The woman went to dig yams ' .
Thi s construc t i on c arries a hi gh func t i onal l oad and o c c urs with
very high frequency s o for c onveni ence o f reference I have lab e l l e d it
" the favouri t e cons t ruc t i on" . Be s ides o c c urri ng as a dependent c laus e ,
i t may a l s o b e used i ndependent ly . Thi s usage i s dealt with at the end
of the s e c t ion .
The verb of the favourite c on s t ruct ion is probab ly finit e but in the
nat ure o f things there i s li t t l e requirement for t ense and aspect t o
appear . - m i a ( p o s s i b i lity ) i s t he only s uffi x t o appear i n the favour
i t e construc t i on e xc ept for one i s olated case with - n a ( past ) and one
wit h - m i n a ( i mperfe c t ) .
The b ound pronoun or pronouns that o c c ur in the favourite c ons truct ion
typically c o-re ference an actant in the governing c laus e , but they may
represent a new actant ( one not pre s ent even c overt ly in the mai n c lause )
or they may c ro s s - re ference an act ant of the dependent c laus e .
I n general only one ac tant may be encoded by a b ound pronoun in the
depende nt c laus e and the cho i c e as t o wh ich ac t ant i s t o b e enc oded is
made acc ordi ng to a person hie rarchy rule . First person is given pre
c e dence over s e c o nd and third , and se cond over t hi rd . I f , howeve r , one
actant is fi rst s i ngular and t he other third non-s ingular , t hen both may
b e encoded by b ound pronouns :
( 4 . 60 ) i l) k a - n a a -I) i laa
go- past c omp- m e hit
' He came to h i t me ' .
( 4 . 61 ) kunt u i l) k a - na fl u n - k u laa la - j i
not go - past y ou - dat comp : I h i t -alp
' I didn ' t come t o h i t you ' .
( 4 . 62 ) i l) k a - na fl i n i 1 i na - a a-n i la - j i 1
go - past you t h e y - dat comp-you h i t - alp
' Did y ou go to h i t them ? '
( 4 . 63) w a i r a I) a i � u u a - I) i - n a � u wa
heart me tie c omp - m e - they see
' I want them to see me ' .
63
( 4 . 64 ) Q a i wa i r a � u u p a a - m i a k a j a - a laa k i n a laa
me heart Z i e that - plural-dat c omp : I them h i t
'I wan t to h i t them ' .
I n the last examp l e k i n a i s a c l i t i c form for t hi rd person p lural
in P function di st inct from the free form t i n a . The se quence l a a k i n a
l a a is usua l ly pronounced l a k ( n a l a in rap id t empo . The s e c ond a in
l a a ( c omplement i s e r plus first person subj e c t ) and in l a a ( ' hit ' ) is
an augment required when these forms are pronounced as s eparate words .
Where t here are three a c t ant s invo lved in the dependent c lause the
P forms re fer to t he REC I PIENT not the PATI ENT . Normally it w i l l b e
the case t hat t h e PATIENT o f a three-place verb w i l l b e third person
and the REC I PI ENT will o ft en as not b e fir s t o r s e c ond person . I have
no e xamp l e s o f a first o r s e c ond person PATIENT with a third person
REC I P IENT .
( 4 . 65) i Qka-na a - Q - a wa « a - Q i - awa )

go past
- comp me give - -
' He came t o give i t to me ' .

( 4 . 66 ) wa i r a Qa i nuu laa k i n - awa ( <laa k i n a awa )
heart I iie c omp : I them-give
' I want t o give it to them ' .
I f b oth A and P ( or the RECIPIENT i n the c a s e o f a three-p lac e verb )

are third person , then A must be repre s ented by a b ound pronoun never
P,
( 4 . 67) i Q ka - na a- i na � uwa
go past
- c o mp they s e e -
' H e came for them to hav e a Z o o k a t him ' .

I f the re i s only one bound pronoun in the dep endent c lause and i f it
repre sents A, then the ant i-pas s i ve c on s t ruct ion i s used whenever A co
r e ferenc e s S i or P .
As men t i oned in § 3 . l . , the ant i -pass ive c onstruct ion i s one in whi ch
A appears in the nominat i ve and P in the dat ive and in which the verb
is marked by - j i . However , some verbs are irregular in t he i r non-j i
forms , e xhibit ing in mos t cases a form homophonous with the imperat i ve :
-j i form non - j i form
� a f1 i j i � uwa ' B e e ' ( s e e e xamp les ( 4 . 6 7 ) , ( 4 . 7 1 » )

a f1 i j i awa ' g i v e ' ( s ee e xamp l e s ( 4 . 6 5 ) , ( 4 . 6 6 »
( b ut � a f1 i and a f1 i are us e d i n construc t i ons other than t he favourite
one )
Q u l u r ma j i Qu l urmi ' catch '
( s imi l arly a l l othe r verbs in - ma )
64
ari i i ala ' eat '

ti t i a ! i ti t i i i a ' s harpen '
cia! i c i i i (a) ' take out of'
Q ka a I i Qkaa i l a , Qkaa ' spear '
rn a i ! i rn a i , rna i I ( a ) ' rub , paint '
aa ! i aa ! ( a ) ' put down, p laae '
iuj i ii- ' aook, burn '
( b ut i u - in other construct ions e . g . i u - r c a j a )
iiit ij i iii ta ' throw '

( s imilarly with other - t i s t ems )
The fol l owing e xamples il lustrate some of the co-referencing p o s s i -
b i l i t ie s .
A c o-refe rences S ( ant i-pass ive required ) .
i
S e e e xamp le ( 4 . 6 1 ) .
S c o-refe rences A ( ant i-pass i ve in governing c lause ) .
i
On the b a s i s of a sma l l numb er of examp l e s it seems that whe re S i
co-re fe rences A in the governing c laus e , the ant i-pas s ive is used in
the governing c laus e :
( 4 . 68) caa j uru c i pa-a s md a l - k u man i j i a- i i Qka

this man t h i s - dat sadd le - dat ge t comp-he g o
pui l i !i - i j a a-i Qukupun i -j i
bu l loak- dat c omp- he mus ter - a lp
' This man got t h e sadd Ze to g o t o mus ter t h e aa t t le ' .
A c o - r e ferences P ( ant i-pa s s ive required ) .
( 4 . 69 ) Qa - i u rini pat i -na i a tl t u - u a-n i wa i u k a t i - j i

I- erg you t e l l - p a s t h o l e - dat comp- you di g - a lp
' I t o ld you to dig a h o Ze ' .
A co-re ferences A ( no ant i-pass i ve ) .
( 4 . 70 ) Qa-iu ti a r a paa k a n i ma J i r c i r Q u l u r ma - j i - r i n j u ni u - u
I- erg saw there po liaeman grab - alp-part arm - dat
a- i i t i nt i a- i ani a kam i
c omp- he bring : baak comp - h e loak : up
' I saw the po liaeman grab him by the arm andl t o take him
baak andl t o loak him up ' .
Note t hat in ( 4 . 7 0 ) A in t he s e cond c lause appears in the nominat i ve
b e cause the ant i-pas s i ve is use d . A in the se cond c laus e co-re feren c e s
P in the first c laus e so this i s to b e expec ted . Actually A d o e s not
appear in the s e cond c laus e , b ut i t s case form c an be deduced from t he
presence of the dat ive for j u n i u and - j i - on the verb . Not e that A
in the third c l aus e co-references an A that is in the nominative and
t hat no ant i-pass ive A is used in the third c laus e . Normally no ant i -
65
pass ive i s used where A co-re fe renc e s A b ut one might have th ought that
if the ant i-p a s s i ve c on s t ruc t i on was int ransit ive ther. A in t he third
c l ause would b e co-refe rencing S in the s e c ond .
i
Unfortunat e ly one cannot argue c onc lus i ve ly t hat the ant i-pass ive
involves a change o f case marking but not a change in case relat i on s
( t rans i t ive t o intransit ive cons t ruc� ion ) , s ince t h e rule f o r the use
o f the ant i-pas sive could b e framed on the bas i s o f underlying or
s emant ic case relations . I n the fourth c laus e no ant i -pas si ve i s used
b e c ause A co-references A . Note in this inst an c e A in the third c lause
i s nominat i ve be c aus e i t i s repre sented by a b o und pronoun b ut if a
noun had been us ed then the form would have b e en ergat ive .
A co-re ferenc e s ALLATIVE ( no ant i-pas s i ve )
( 4 . 71 ) I) a - i u fl u n - k u n a p i i pa i t i nt i j i a-n i I) u wa
book
I- erg y o u - a l l bring comp-you B e e
' I broug ht y ou a b o o k for y ou t o have a l o o k a t ' .
Where A c o-referen c e s t he RE CIP IENT o f the verb a fl i ( ' to give ' ) ,

e xamp l e s c an b e found with and without the ant i -pas s i ve .
A c o-re fe rences RECI PIENT ( ant i-pas s ive in s ome instanc e s )
( 4 . 72 ) I) a i l) a - c i - w a - 1 u kunkuj u- ! u a l) a kuu laa ala

me m e - dat - li g- e rg daughteI'-€rg gave water c omp : I dri n k
' My daughter gav e me w a t e r to drin k ' .
S e e a l s o e xamp l e ( 4 . 81 ) . The verb in ( 4 . 81 ) l) u n a l) U n a a fl i , i s a
c ompound of I) u n a l) u n a and a fl i .
I n a l l t he avai lab l e e xamp l e s R i s in t he nominat ive ( and prob ab ly
synt act ically the PATIENT ) , not in the al lat ive .
In some instanc e s the pre sence or ab sence of the ant i -pas s i ve i s
c ri t ic a l from t h e information point o f view . Compare t he following for
e xamp l e :
( 4 . 73 ) na - u na i l) k a - n a a- i I) uw a
h ere = al l go pas t c om p he Bee
- -
T h i s could be trans lat e d as 'He came here for Bomeone to B e e '/He came
here to be B e en ' , 'He came here B O that he c ou ld Bee him ' , b ut in the
last case the s e c ond ' he ' could not b e co-refe rent ial with the firs t .
( 4 . 74 ) nauna i l) k a - n a a- I nap i - j i

h ere =a l l
go past comp- he s e e -alp
-
' He came here to s e e ( him, her, i t ) ' .

I n this instanc e , the A o f the dependent verb must be int erpret ed as
being c o-re ferent ial with S b e cause of the presence of the ant i -pas s i ve .
i
The part i c l e a - with bound pronouns s uffixed to it a l s o o c c urs in
independent c laus e s as a means o f expres s ing the future . The verb form
is always in the " non- j i " form ( i . e . wit hout the ant i -pas s i ve marker)
66
in these independent c lause s . S ince a - i s not a c omplement i s e r i n such

c a s e s , I have glos s e d it as part ( i c l e ) . Note that the bound pronouns
s uffixed to it become c ro s s - re ferencing rather t han c o-re fe renc ing .
( 4 . 75) kunt u I) a i p a n1 i j i rini a n ka - c i n , I)a i - k a .l. a a

not I know y ou a i r - part I- ¢ part : I
i t i -m i a
r e turn - p o s s
' I didn ' t know you were siak 0 1' I wou Ld ' v e aome baak ' .
( 4 . 76 ) at i r i n-t i a-n i ci i l p U l) k u a r i - 1 i l) u ?
mea t y o u - erg part -you take bag - ab l
' Are y ou going to take the meat out of the bag ? '
( 4 . 77 ) l)a - 1 u a - j i n - a wa « a - k i n awa )
I- erg part-you-give
' I ' L L give i t to y ou ' .
I n the first of this group o f sentenc e s , it looks as i f there i s a
comp lement t o a ve rb that is ' underst ood ' , but this i s unt enab le in
( 4 . 7 6 ) and ( 4 . 7 7 ) where the ergat ive is us e d .
I d o not have enough t rans i t i ve e xamp l e s o f this c onst ruct ion t o b e
cert ain how i t i s det e rmined whi ch actant w i l l appear a s a bound pro
noun . The person hi erarchy s eems t o operate in mo st cases b ut note in
( 4 . 7 7 ) the s e c ond person P was en coded as a bound pronoun rather t han
a first person A .
There are some e xamp l e s of this con s t ruc t i on used with the ne gat ive
and t he s ense is normally s ome thing like 'mus t n o t ' rather than s impl e
fut urity .
( 4 . 78 ) kunt u ma r a p a i - 1 u a- i n uw a
not woman - erg par t - she s e e '
' A woman is not ( a L L owed) t o see i t ' .

The rest o f this sect ion cons i s t s o f a l i s t o f examp l e s c l as s i fied
acc ording t o syntac t i c and seman t i c funct ion .
(a) expr e s s ing a n ind i rec t command
( 4 . 79 ) pat i - j a a- i i l) k a I) a - c i n a
te L L - imp c omp- he go me-al lat ive
' Te L L him to aome to me ' .
The nega t i ve indire ct command i s formed with k u n t u pre c eding the
c omp l ement iser .
( 4 . 80 ) c i pa - j i k u p a l) u r u - 1 u caa pat u - ma kuj i r i kunt u a-i

this- erg o Ld man- erg here te L L- pres boy not c omp - h e
pant i -j i
te L L- alp
' The o Ld man to Ld the boy n o t to te L L anyone ' .
67
(b) expressing the complement of I) u n a l) u n a a p i ( ' to teach ' l

( 4 . 81 ) I) a - c i ku l a-j i I) a i I) u n a l) u n a a p a j u k u - u laa i i i t i -j i
me- dat fa � er g m e taugh t spear- dat comp : I throw- alp
'My father taugh t me to throw a spear ' .
(c) expressing a n indirect sta tement
( 4 . 82 ) p i l) a - I) k u I) a i pat i - na a - I) i i p c i - c a rn i
g i r l - e rg me te l .l. - pa s t c omp -me chop - t r
' The g i r l t o l d m e that she wou ld c hop (wood) for me ' .
C ompare example ( 6 . 1 8 ) .
is the " non- j i " form of p c a rna , a derivat i onal affix used t o
c a rn i
promote a DATIVE part i c i pant to t h e ab solut i ve r elation . The appro
priate synchroni c analys i s i s to treat p c a rn a as an affi x , b ut it has a
verbal charact e ri s t i c in that it e xhi b i t s ant i -p as s i ve versus normal
forms . H i s t or i c a l ly it must b e - p c a plus rn a , the s e c ond e lement o f - rn a
c l as s verb s . Doub t l e s s rna was a verb h i s t orically .
(d ) expressing the complement of wa i r a ') u - ( ' to l i k e ' , ' to desire ' ) :

( 4 . 83) kuntu I)a i w a i r a - k a n u u l a a i l) k a
not hear t - ¢ i i e c omp : I go
I
' I don ' t want to go ' .
( 4 . 84) I)a i kunt u wa i r a nuu p i n- t i -ka a - I) i ka r i - ka

I not hear t i i e you- erg- ¢ c omp-me was h - ¢
' I don ' t want you to wash me ' .
(e) ad j unc t expressing resul t
( 4 . 85 ) nan-tu caa p i l a - p i .l a laj i a-i I U l) a - k a

� ho- erg here ch i ld hi t comp - h e a ry - ¢
' Who h i t t h e c h i ld 8 0 t h a t he cried ? '
( 4 . 86 ) iuku caa p i n-t i la j i a-i u l i
dog here you- erg h i t comp-he d i e
' You h i t the dog and he d i ed (as a resu l t ) ' .
(f) adj unct expressing purpose
( 4 . 87 ) j a rka i l) k a - j a - t u a-nur w a n i - ka
far go- imp-you comp - y ou p la y - ¢
' Go a long w a y away a n d p lay ' .
(g ) expressing the complement of rn. u n l u n a t i ( ' to prev e n t ' ) ( c ompare
( 4 . 23) )
( 4 . 88 ) I) a - i u c a a - rn i a k a j a rn u n i u n a t i kunt u a - i na la - t i
I- erg t h i s - p l ura l prevent not c omp - t hey h i t - re c ip
' I prevented these (peop l e ) from fighting ' .
68
(h) expre s s ing the complement o f the phrase NP p u ! u r a ( NP ' had

b e t t er ' )
( 4 . 89 ) puiu ra InI kunt u a-ll r ump l
good comp-we remain not c omp-we j·ear
' We had be tter s top ( h e r e ) and not be afraid ' .
(i ) expr e s s ing an ad j unct to a nomina l
( 4 . 90) mut una c a a - ka a-I I l) k a - k a

shy here - ¢ comp-he go-¢
' He ' s ( to o ) shy to go ' .
4.4. T H E " L EST" CONST RUCT I O N
The " le s t " construction appears in a number o f variant s according

t o the person o f the actant s . I have called it the " le s t " construct
ion , s in c e a l l e xamp l e s could b e t rans lated into Engl i s h by " le s t " ,
though not n e c e s sarily fe l i c i t ous ly . The fo l lowing e xamp l e s i l lus
t rating the forms are a l l comp lement s t o the verb r u m p I ' t o fear ' ;
other func t i ons are l i s t ed at the end o f the chapt er .
The s imp lest case to i l lustrat e i s an int rans i t i ve " l e s t " c laus e .
The fol l owing are the forms that occur in the first and sec ond person ,
( 4 . 91 ) r u mp l I) a l I) u j I u n u - ,s
lear I fa n �est-l
' I ' m frightened I ' n fa n ' .
( 4 . 92 ) a rump l I) a l I) u j i unun 'you ' � � fa n '
" "
b I) u j l un u l 'we two ' � � fa n '
" "
c I) u j i ununu ' y ou two ' � � fa n '
" "
d I) u j I unu r ' we ' � � fa � � '
" "
e I) u j i ununur 'you mob ' � � fa Z Z '
In a t rans it i ve " le s t " c laus e , in whi ch first or s e c ond person ac t s
o n t hi rd ( 1 ) 3 , 2 > 3 ) , an auxi liary part i c l e k u n u ( = k u + u n u ) i s used and
AGENT pronouns are s u ffi xed to thi s ,
( 4 . 93) r ump l k u p a l) u r u i u ma k U Q u - ,s
fear o �d man break � e s t - I
' The o �d man ' s frigh t ened I ' Z Z break i t ' .
( 4 . 94 ) a r ump i k u p a l) u r u i u ma k u n u n ' y ou , � � break i t '
" "
b i u ma k u n u l 'we two ' � � break i t '
" "
c iuma kununu ' y ou two ' � � break i t '
" "
d i u ma k u n u r 'we ' � � break i t '
" "
e i u ma k u n u n u r ' you mob ' n break i t '
I f however th ird person ac t s on first or s e c ond ( 3 ) 1 , 3 > 2 ) , a pro-
noun repre sent ing P i s s uffixed to k u and no u n u app ears ,
G9
( 4 . 95 ) r um p i I)a i i ea k U l) i
fear I b i te me
' I ' m frigh tened i t ' H b i te me ' .
( 4.96) a r um p i I) a i i ea kuk i n 'it ' H b i te you '
" "
b i ea ku l a ' it ' H bite u s two '
" "
c i ea k umpa j a 'it ' H bite y ou two '
" "
d i ea kuta 'it ' H b i te us '
" "
e i ea kut u ' i t ' z. z. bite you '
For the comb inat ion , first s ingular act ing on s e c ond s i ngular ( 1 ) 2 ) ,
there is a portmant eau form ,
( 4 . 97) rumpi pini i ea ku�aj i n7

fear you bite 1>2
' Are y o u frightened I ' z. z. b i t e y o u ? '
and the fol lowing forms are used for 1 > 2 Du and 1 > 2 Pl ,
( 4 . 98) r ump l m pa j a i ea ku�a j i n p a j a

fear you 2 b i te 1 > 2 Du
'Are you two afraid I ' H b i te y ou ? '
( 4 . 99 ) rump I nutu i ea ku�aj i n i t u
fear y ou bite 1>2 Pl
'Are you mob afraid I ' H b i te you ? '
For the c ombinat ions 3 Du > 1 and 3 P l > 1 , the fol l ow ing are us ed ,
( 4 . 10 0 ) rum p i J.aa k U l) i - j u
fear h i t m e - they : 2
' I 'm afraid they ' z. z. h i t me ' .
( 4 . 10 1 ) r ump i J. a a k U l) i - n a
fear h i t m e - they
' I 'm afraid they ' z. z. hit me ' .
The th ird person intran s it ive forms are as fol lows ,
( 4 . 10 2 ) a r um p i I) a i ana I) u j i
fear I z. e s t fa H
' I 'm afraid he ' 1. 1. fa H ' .
b rump i I) a i ana k u j u I) u j i ' they two w i H fa z. z. '
" " " "
c k i na ' they ( p lura l ) w i l. 1. fa H '
And 3 > 3 , 3du > 3 and 3pl > 3 are expre s s e d t hus ,
( 4 . 103) a rump i I)a i ·ana i ea

fear I Zest bite
'I'm afraid u ' z.z bite (him, her, it) ' . .
b rump i I)a i ana kuj u i ea 'they two wiZZ bite (him, her,
it) '.
" " II kina "
'they ' Z z. bite (him, her, it) ' .
c
70
Where both actant s are third person , and P i s dual o r p lural , the
non-s ingular number o f P mus t b e repre sented by a free form pronoun
( or noun ) :
( 4 . 10 4 ) p i l a p i l a r u m p i - m u j u c i p a - w a t i k a j a - ] u I) U a n a k uj u
chi Ld ' fear- dual t h i s - dual-caus L e s t they : 2 (A J
p u j u - la
they: 2 ( PJ - h i t
' The two chi Ldren are frightened tha t these two men
wi H hit them ' .
( Note in pass ing that the mono s y l lab ic verb l a - i s c l i t i c i s e d t o the
prec eding pronoun . )
The int ere st ing thing about these c on s t ruct ions i s that k u j u and
k i n a repres ent 8 and A . However , if used i n c onj un ct ion with k U Q u
i
o r k U Q u n , they represent P ( d ompare remarks in § 3 . 3 and s e e d i s c u s s ion
in chapt er 7 ) .
( 4 . 10 5 ) r ump i k u p a l) u r u kUQu-� k i na la a
fear o Ld man L e s t - I them h i t
' The o Ld man ' s afraid I ' L L h i t them ' .
( 4 . 10 6 ) rump i k u p a l) u r u kUQu-n kuj u laa
fear o Ld man L e s t-you them : two h i t
' The o Ld man ' s afraid y ou ' L L h i t t h e m two ' .
The informant from whom the bulk of the s e paradigms were taken ,
Lardi e Moonlight , was hesitant about t rans lat ing other comb inat ions
invo lving fi rst and s e cond person ac tant s ( e . g . 1 Du > 2 PI ) and gave
the fo l l owing construc t i on con s i s t ent ly ,
( 4 . 10 7 ) r um p i I) a l i mpaja -j i la - m i ku- I a
. fear we : 2 you : 2 - e rg h i t - future us : two
' We ' r e afraid y ou two ' L L hit us ' .
However , she woul d say t hings l ike , ' Tha t 's not rea L Ly righ t . Th ere ' s
another twi s t i n that again ' , s ugge st ing that she has forgot t e n s ome
of the l e s s common morpho logical comp l i c at i ons .
I f a b ound pronoun repres ent ing the AGENT in a " le s t " c lause c o
refe rences an actant 8 i or P funct ion , the ant i-pass ive construc t i on
mus t be used . Compare the fo l l owing,
( 4 . 10 8 ) 1a paQ1u p a a - m i a ka j a rump i ana k i na 1ua-j i

foo t t ha t - p lural fear L e s t they cut- alp
k a m p u l) u - 1 u
i (8 = A)
sharp : s tone- erg
' Those one s are frightened they might cut their fee t on
a sharp s tone ' .
71
( 4 . 109) r u m p i j u r u c i pa - j i j u r u - �a ra-iu ana � kaa

fear man t h i s - erg man- other - erg r e s t spear
j uku- �ku (0 = A)
spear- erg
' The man is frightened this other man migh t spear h im ' .
( 4 . 1 10 ) c u ! uia t i c a a - ka ana � uw a (0 A) =
hide here - p re s t s e e
'He ' s hiding in case he ' s se enlsomebody s e e s him ' .
( 4 . 11 1 ) caa naur rump i ana i u ma - j i a n a k i n a la a
here � hHd fear r e s t break-alp re s t they h i t
i u ma - j i - p i n ( Si = A, � = A, P A) =
break - alp - part

' The chi rd is frightened he migh t break i t and they ' r r
h i t him for breaking i t ' .
( 4 . 11 2 ) r ump i pini kUQu-n i u ma - j i 7 A)
fe ar you res t-you break-alp
'Are y ou frightened you ' r r break i t ? '
( 4 . 11 3 ) la - j a caa iuar a na i ca - j i (P A)
k H r - imp here snake rest bite
' Ki r "l the snake in case it b i tes him ' .
( 4 . 11 4 ) wak a ! a - i u � u caa r um p i ana i ca ( CAUSAL = A)
crow - c ausal here fea r "l e s t b i te
' He ' s frightened of the crow; i t might b i t e him ' .
I f the AGENT of a t rans itive " le s t " c laus e appe ars as a noun phras e ,
i t may b e marked by the ergati ve in the normal way , unl e s s the ant i
pas s i ve i s us e d :
( 4 . 11 5 ) r u mp i �a i iuku- j u i ca ku-�i
fe ar I dog - erg b i te me
' I 'm afraid the dog ' "l "l b i te me ' .
Howeve r , i f the word for ' fear ' i s invo lved as in the above e xamp l e ,
it is much more common to us e a c ausal noun phrase thus ,
( 4 . 116 ) rump i �a i iuku-j u�u i ca k u� i
Sentences ( 4 . 1 1 5 ) and ( 4 . 1 16 ) probably represent t wo concept ual i s at ions

o f the s ame s i t uat i on , but they mean the same thing for prac t i c a l pur
poses . I think ( 4 . 1 16 ) means ' I 'm afraid of the dog ( th a t he m i g h t
b i te me ) ' . Gramma t i c a l ly i u k u j u � u i s i n the governing c laus e .
The fol l owing tab le s ummari s e s the auxi l i ary part i c les and b ound
pronouns t hat have b een re corded for the various c omb i nat i ons o f
actants o f di fferent person and numb e r in the l e s t construct i o n .
P A T I E N T
I
SINGULAR DUAL P LURAL
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 -
k U r:' a j i n kunu k U r:' a j i n p a j a k u n u k u j u k U l) a j i n i t u k un u k i n a
Po: I
cx:
...:I 2 k U l) i k un u n kunun kuj u kunun ki na I
:::>
Cl
z
H
U)
3 k U l) i k uk i n ana ku l a k ump a j a kuta kutu
1 kunu l
kuna l
...:I
cx:
:::> 2 k unanu
Q
kununu
3 ku I) i j u a n a k uj u
1 kunu r
k una r
...:I
cx:
Po: 2 kunan u r
:::>
...:I
p., kununu r
3 k U l) i n a ana k i na
73
The meaning o f the " le s t " cons tru c t i on can b e more e a s i ly i l lus
trated than explaine d and the f o l lowing informal l i s t of e xamp l e s i s
de s i gned t o d o j us t that . Note t hat the " l e s t " c ons t ruct i on i s not
a lway s forma l ly s ub ordinat e d and s ome time s o c c ur s as the on ly c lause
in the s entenc e . With the favo uri te c ons t ruction it i s p o s s ib le to
di s t ingui s h s entences in whi ch what appears to b e the favouri t e con
s t ruc t i on is c l e arly iudependent ( s e e ( 4 . 7 5 ) , ( 4 . 7 6 ) , ( 4 . 7 7 ) ) . With
the " le s t " cons truc t i on the di f fi c ulty is t o demon s t rate that it is
ever s ub o rdinate . I think that the u s e o f the " - j i " form o f the verb
alt ernat ing with the unmarked form i s c lear evidence of s ub ordi nat i on .
Th e anti-pass i ve pri n c i p l e i s regularly emp loyed with s ub ordi nat e
c laus e s and not with co- ordi nat e d c laus e s . Howeve r , in many i n s t an c e s
there c an be n o s u c h evidence . F o r examp l e , i f the l e s t c lause i s
int rans i t ive or i f i t i s t rans itive w i th a fi r s t o r s e c ond person
pat ient , t he re i s no po s s ib i lity o f a syntac t i c a l ly det ermined alter
nation be twe en the " - j i " and unmarked forms .
( 4 . 11 7 ) u t i ma kUQu-n k u r u ku - 1 i
use up t e s t-you grog- locat i ve
' You mig h t spend i t a t t on grog ' .
( 4 . 118) i ca k U - r) i c i pa - j i , u J. i U !l U
b i t e me t h i s - erg die tes t : I
'He migh t b i te me . I migh t die ' .
( 4 . 1 l9 ) !l u t u - j u wa n t a wan i - nt i -j a , 1 u ma k UQ u - r
y o u - er g don ' t p tay-with- i mp break t e s t - y ou
' D on ' t you mob p tay with i t . You migh t break i t
jar i ana i r) g a a - i !l 1 i - j i
w : man te s t go c omp-he s co td- a/p
and the white man might come and rouse ( on you) ' .
( 4 . 120) a n ka unu-n
ai t Z e s t -you
' You might fa Z Z i Z t ' ( fo l lowing sent e n c e s that mean ,
' D on ' t e a t that fru i t . It ' s b e e n on the ground a Z ong
time . ' )
( 4 . 12 1 ) ka l aa 1u-t i u !l u - n
ne�k break Z e s t-you
' You might drown ' ( fo l l owing s entenc e s that mean ,
'Don ' t swim t h e r e . The curr e n t is too fas t ' . k a ! a a 1 u t i
is l i t era l ly ' to break one ' s neck ' b ut it i s the regular
idiom for ' to drown ' ) .
74
( 4 . 12 2 ) m a c u m p a - :t. u l) u caa rump i ana laa :t. a p a n t u - :t. u

roo- causal here fear l e s t h i t foo t - erg
' He ' s frightened of the kangaroo in case i t kicks him ' .
'He ' s frightened the kangaroo might kick him ' .
( 4 . 123) m u ni a fl i c a a - ka ana 1) 1I w a
crouch her e - ¢ l e s t see
'He crouched over so he wou ldn ' t b e s e en ' .
( cf . ( 4 . 73) Not e t hat t he use of I) u wa as opp o s ed to I) a fl i j i ind i c a t e s
the A o f t h e lest c l ause cannot b e co-referent ial w i t h S i in t h e main
c laus e . )
( 4 . 124) rump i caa p i l a - p i l a c i pa - j a mu c u n - t u l) u a n a i ca

fear here chi l d . t h i s - caus hawk� caus lest bite
p i k u - I) k u a n a p i fl C i m i li i
c law- erg l e s t scratch e y e s
' The chi ld is frightened t h e chic ken hawk ' l l b i t e him
and c law his eyes ( ou t ? ) ' .
( 4 . 12 5 ) iuku - j u i ca k U - l) i
dog erg b i t e l e s t -me
-
' The dog might b i te me ' .

( The us e o f this c on s t ruc t i on impl i e s a sense o f ' I hope he won ' t ' .
The free form l a m u i s used where one i s mere ly spec ulating ab out what
might happen . )
( 4 . 12 6 ) i t i -j i p u j u I) a n i a ma ku- k i n , i t i -j a ma l a m p i r a
man- erg if find l e s t-you re turn- imp qu ick ly
' If someone comes across you, come back qui c k l y ' .
( 4 . 127) ma l a m p i r a I) a i - k a a l) p a j i , j u ru ana k i na i t i -na
qui c k ly I- ¢ c o l l e c t man l e s t they re turn - they
' I am hurry ing gathering ( the yams ) in case the men
come back ' .
( The u s e of - n a as we l l as k i n a in this construc t i on i s not otherwis e
at t e s t e d . )
( 4 . 128 ) !, u l) u m p i r i c a a - ka a r k u n - a a n , l a - j i - fl c i r , fl i n - t i la - j a
bad here fight- c on h i t - alp nom y ou - erg h i t - imp
-
wa c a l i - n a
firs t - adv
' The bad one is b e l l igerent . He ' s a "hitter " . You h i t
him fir s t b e fore he hita you ' .
( 4 . 129 ) rump i caa j u r u - ka c i pa - J I j u r u - I) a r a - i u ana I) k a a
fear here man- ¢ this -e rg man- other- erg l e s t spear
j u k u - I) k u
spear- erg
' The man is afraid the ot her man wi l l spear him ' .
75
( 4 . 130) iuna-j i kaia - kaia - i i a - n - a ra � a Q - ku - k i n i i n a - j i

run- imp rub b i s h - 1oc comp- y ou- en ter s e e-you t h e y - erg
'Run and get in the rubbish so they won ' t s e e y ou ' .
(a - n - a ra a-n i a ra , �aQ < �a Q i )
( 4 . 131) li -ja cutu i u ma kunu-n

leave- imp coo break l e s t-you
' Leave the coo laman a lone . You migh t break i t ' .
CHAPTER 5
OTHER F UNCTI ON MOR P HEMES
5.1 . I N T RO D U C T I O N
Thi s c hapt er c o n s i s t s of a l i s t of funct ion morpheme s inc l uding

bound forms and free forms . I t does not inc lude case infle c t i on ,
whi c h i s dealt with in chapt e r t hree , nor t en s e , a s p e c t , mood and
voi ce marking, whi ch is de alt with in chapter four .
Very b roadly three word c las s e s can be determi ne d : nomi na l s , verb s
and adverb s . The func tion morpheme s are l i s t e d under t he headings
nominal , ve rb al and adverb morpholo gy respe c t ively . The morphologi c al
proc e s s e s of redup l i cat i on and c ompounding fo l l ow the nominal , verb a l
a n d adverb s e c t ions a n d a r e in t urn fol lowed by those fun ct i on mor
pheme s t hat are not c le ar ly nominal , ve rb a l or adverb i al . The final
s e ct ion o f the chapter c ons i s t s of a rather mi s c e l lane ous l i s t of
free func t i on morpheme s .
5.2. NO M I NAL M O R P H O L O G Y
5.2.1 . -jan C O N COM I TA N T
- j a n means having s omet hing concre t e , having a charac t e ri s t i c , a

property or a c ondi t ion . I t may be added t o any nominal w i th the
pos s ib le e xc ep t i on o f the personal pronouns ( b ut see last e xamp le ) .
However , although it may be added t o any ( 1 ) nomi nal by a general
syntac t i c rule , s ome i n s t ances o f nomi nal p l us - j a n have i diomat i c
me anings and mus t b e l i s t e d in the l e x i c on .
(5. 1) j uku-jan f) a i i f) ka - m i ma c u m p a - a
spear- con I go - fut roo- dat i ve
' I wi Z Z go for the kangaroo with a spear ' .
(5.2) f) a i laa p u1u r-aan c u t u - j an
I now good c on e a r - c on
-
' I have a good ear ' .
77
78
( 5 . 3) I) a i - k a I) u n k u r - a a n
I- r6 c o ld- c on
' I ' ve got a c o l d ' .
(5.4) I) a w a - j a n I) a i p u n p a t i j a l) a a l u - u
heavy- c on I speak l anguage- dat
' I 'm t a l king he avy ' . ( i . e . not in a s i mp l i fi e d way )
Note a l s o i u a r ( ' snake ' ) , i u a r a a n ( ' doc tor ' ) ; p u t u ( ' s tomach ' ) ,
putujan ( ' pregnan t ' ) ; w a m i l a ( ' temp le ' , ' s leep ' ) ; w a m i l a j a n ( ' as l e ep ' ) ;
a rkun ( ' figh t ' , ' bat t l e ' ) , a r k u n a a n ( ' b e l l igerent ' ) .
There i s one e xamp l e o f - j a n b e ing us e d with a pers onal pronoun ,
(5.5) I) a i - j a n , I) a i m i H i i a t i - na .. .
me - con me be born-part
' (She ) had me ; I was b orn . . . '
5.2.2. -iti PR I VAT I V E
( 5. 6) ma l i - i t i I) a i kunt u punpat i , wa l pala j i I) a - i u

to�gue- l e s s I not speak lose I erg
' I have no tongue; I ( can) not spe a k . I lost i t ' .
(5.7) papca - j a a l a maa , j a l a u r a - ia t i ma a - i t i
very- imp e a t : imp food s i c k - 1ntr food- l e s s
' Ea t up your fo od, [ y ou wi l Z ] get s i c k if y ou don ' t e a t ' .
5.2.3. - I) u ( with dativ e �tem� )
There are a s mal l numb e r of instances o f - I) U b e ing added t o the

dat i ve o f no uns to derive a new nomi nal s t e m . For conveni ence I have
glos s e d it as adj ( e c t i ve ) .
kula 'father ' k l a - a - j a - I) u 'ma le '

p i pcamu ' sun ' p i p c a m u - u - j a - I) u ' c lo c k ' , 'watch '
t u u- t u u ' wri t ing ' t u u - t u u - u - j a - I) u 'pen ' , 'penci l '
In the s e examples , - j a i s a l igat i ve between the dat i ve and - I) U
( s e e § 3 . 5 . 11 . , § 5 . 8 . ) . I n t u u - t u u - u - j a - I) u the dat i ve al lomorph - u
has no audi b l e re fle x as a s equence o f three i dent i c a l vow e l s i s
imp o s s ib le . The s ame app l i e s to the ne xt e xamp l e .
( 5 . 8) a r a ka paka i cut u k u u - u - j a - I) u - ka
where i t coo laman water-dat- l i g-adj -¢
' Where ' s t h e water coo laman ? '
There are a few examp l e s where I) a r p a i s s uf fi xed by the dat i ve p l us
- I) U plus - i i ( p resumab ly the locat i ve ) to e xpre s s ' b ecau s e of an
intere s t i n ' .
79
( 5.9) p i n-t i Qa rpa-a - j a - Q u- 1 i Qa i l, i - ma

you erg o ther- dat l i g adj loc me
- l e a v e - pres
- - -
' You are leaving me b eaause of another one ' .
5.2.4. -QU ( with adve�b 4 t em4 )
There are a s mal l numb er of e xamp l e s o f - Q U s u ffixed t o adverb s

to produce a nominal s t em .
i Aa ' now ' , ' today ' i Aa - Q U ' new '

1i i nta ' in the midd le ' 1 i i nt a -Q u 'midd l e '
eaja- ' o ld ' eaj a - Q u ' o ld '
e a j a - doe s not o c c ur in i s o lation . There i s an adverb e a j a - n a
' ear l ier ' , ' former ly ' .
( 5 . 10 ) u l, i Qa-e i - ka w a e a l, i - n a - Q u - k a ma r a p a i
die m e - da t -¢, fir s t - adv- adj -¢' woman
' My fir s t wife died ' .
w a e a l, i does not o c c ur in i s o lat ion as a nominal .
5.2.5. -Qujan
One could c ompare - Q U and - j a n . Synchroni c al ly the form i s p rob ab ly

unanal y s ab le .
A uw a t i ' two ' A uw a t i - Q u j a n ' twiae '

ku rpa l ' three ' kurpai -Quj an ' three time s '
m a l, 1 a ' many ' m a l, 1 a - Q u j a n ' many times '
( 5 . 11 ) Qa-1u pini pa t i -na A uw a t i - Q u j a n a-n i i n i - ka
I- erg y o u te l l- pas t two - t imes c omp - y ou remain- ¢'
, I to l d y ou twiae to s top ( there ) '
5.2.6. - pe i r NOM I NA L I S E R
- p e i r i s us e d t o form nouns from verb s . I t i s fully produc t i ve

but the re are s ome ready made de ri vat ions that ne e d t o b e rec orde d i n
the l e xi c on .
k a n i ma ' to t i e ' k a n i ma j i p e i r ' p o l i a eman '

i ea ' to b i t e ' i eaj i pe i r ' a "bi ter '"
( us u . ap p l i e d to inse c t s or inse c t - l ike c reatures that b it e )
. ( 5 . 12 ) 1u Qump i r i eaa - ka a r k u n a a n l, a - j i - p e i r
bad here-¢' savage ki l l alp nom - -
' He ' s bad, a savage k i l ler ' .

80
( 5 . 13 ) k uu - j a p uj u r - p u n i - n t l -j i - c i r
water dat hot t r w i th a/p am
- - - - -
'A copper ( b o i Z e r ) ( t hing w i t h which one makes water hot ) ' .

In a l l the available examp l e s , the ant i -pa s s ive i s used . In prin c i
p le one wou ld e x p e c t t h e p o s s ibi l i ty o f using - p c i r to form ' patient
nouns ' a s opp osed t o agent noun s c f . l a - p i n ' one who is h i t ' and l a - j i
pin ' one who hits ' . On the nat ure of t hings ' patient noun s ' would b e
unu sua l .
5.2.7. N UM B E R M A R K I NG W I T H N OM I NA L S
There i s no s ingular marker o t he r than t he free form a j a r but � a r a

' anothe r ' i s used l i ke a s t em-f orming suffix :
p i ! a p i ! a - �a r a - i i 'with the other chi Zd ' , p i ! a p i ! a - � a r a - i i . . .
p i ! a p i ! a - �a ra - i i 'wi th one chi Zd . . . with t he o ther chi Zd ' .
5.2.7 . 1 . -wat i Dual
- w a t i marks the dua l o f nominals . I t is c ommon with kinship nouns

and it is part of the s y s t em for forming the dual of the demon s t rat ive s ;
w i t h o t her nominal s it i s rarely used .
j u ru 'man ' j u r uw a t l ' two men '

pup i ' m o t her ' s brother ' p u p i wa t i ' two bro thers of mo ther '
caa ' th i s ' caa-wat i - kaJ a ' these two '
naa ' this ' naa -wat i - k a j a ' th e s e two '
paa ' tha t ' paa-wat i - ka j a ' those two '
The root wa t i also o c c ur s i n w a t i n a ' toge t her, b ot h ' , and p o s s ib ly
in A u ( w ) a t i ' two ' .
Note t ha t whe n w a t i i s u s ed with kinship nouns , it c annot refer t o
two members o f a rec iproc al p air . For inst an c e , ego c a l l s his mot her ' s
mot her m u c u and she c a l l s him m u c u , but t he pair made up of ego and h i s
mother ' s mother i s m u c u w a a p c i r . wat i c an refer to two s i s t e r s , two
brothers , two of mother ' s brother s , two of father ' s brot her s , e t c . See
a l s o under kinship , § 5 . 2 . 7 . 3 .
5. 2.7.2. - m i a P l u ra l
- m i a , l i ke - w a t i i s c ommon with kins hip nouns , is par t o f t he sy s t em

for forming t he p lura l of demons t rat ive s , and i s used only rare ly with
other nominal s .
juru 'man ' j u rum i a 'men '
pu p i 'mother 's brother ' pup i m i a 'mot her ' s bro thers '
caa caa-m i a- kaj a ' these '
na a naa-m i a - kaj a ' th es e '
81
paa p a a - m i a - k a j a ' those '

ku l a , father ' k u ! am i a ' those ego a a t t s father '
With kinship nouns - m i a refers to a numbe r o f brothe r s , s i s t e r s ,
mother ' s brothe r s , e t c . or to a numb er of p e o p le t hat o n e c al l s by a par
t i cular term e . g . k u ! a m i a 'fathers ' refers t o one ' s own fat he r and
father ' s brother s . However , l i ke w a t i it c annot refer t o r e c iprocal ly
related group s l i ke ego and hi s mother ' s brothers even t hough they may
call one anot her by a c ommon name , p u p i . S e e a l s o under kinship , § 5 . 2 . 7 . 3 .
5.2.7.3. K i n s h i p T e rm i n o l o g y a nd R e l a t e d M o r p h o l o g y
'o tder s is t e r ' pua 'father ' s mother ' pa p i ( p i )

' o tder brot her ' ia p u 'fat her ' s fat h er ' I) a c a ( c i )
'y ounger s i b U ng ' u l) k u l u 'man 's ah i tdre n ' kun kuJ u
'mo the r ' matu 'woman 's ahi tdren ' I) a l u
'mot her ' s s i s t er ' m a t u , u p a c i 'mo ther- in- taw ' wapuiu
'mo t her 's brother ' p u p i ' aross - a ous in ' m u a l) l) u
, fat her ' ku l a 'wife ' k U l) i
' fa t her ' s brother ' k u ! a , p i iata ' husband ' j ukut a
' father 's sis ter ' I) u c i r ' spouse ' m a r ku t u
'mother 's m o ther ' m u c u ( c u ) 'great grandparent
01' 'gr eat grandah i t d ' macara
'mother ' s father ' c a c i ( c i )
Notes
An o ld er ' o tder sis ter ' i s d i st ingui shed from a younger ' o t der s i s ter '
by us ing j a u n ' b ig ' and k a t a k u l u or k a c a k u ! u ' l i t t le ' . S imi larly wi t h
o t he r d i s t in c t i ons of re lat ive age .
One c a l l s one ' s mother ' s s i s t e r m a t u i . e . 'mother ' , and one c a l l s
one ' s fathe r ' s brother , k u l a i . e . 'fa ther ' . However , u p a c i and p i ia t a
a l s o oc cur for mot her ' s s i s ter and father ' s brother re s p e c t ively .
I am
not sure of exac t ly how and whe n they ar e u s ed , but they ar e u s e d in the
f o l l owing c ontext . If one ' s mother wan t s t o re fer t o one ' s mo ther ' s
s i s t e r , she u s e s u p a c i , and s imi larly one ' s fathe r r e ferring t o one ' s
father ' s bro ther us e s p i i a t a , e . g . iu n t i j a p i ia t a a n a ' Ta ke i t to y our
fa ther ' s brother ' .
The brac keted s y l lab l e s of m u c u ( c u ) e t c . appear only in the nominat i ve .
They are deleted be fore a l l suffixe s .
Moieties and Sections
The Kalkatungu were divided into two moiet i e s . Roth ( 1 8 9 7 : 5 6 ) gives

the names of t he moi e t ie s a s u ia r u and m a A a r a . I recorded u i a r u and
82
p a r k a 1 a , whi c h are t he names Roth re cords for P i t t a-Pitt a , May i

Thakurt i , May i -Yapi , Wunumara and Guwa, i . e . for pra c t i c al ly every
other tribe in the area . Each mO iety was divided int o two s e c t ions as
s hown in t he fol lowing diagram .
u 1a r u m a l- a r a
( pa r k a ta 7 )
p a 1 1 1) u m a r i n a l) u
k a l) k i 1 a l) u * 1 u n pu y u I) U
( *Roth gives t his form . I have rec orde d k a l) i l a l) u )
This s y s t em of moiet i e s and s e c t i ons ( ' s kins ' ) operat ed with resp e c t t o
t he marriage s y s t em as follow s . One had t o ch oose a marriage partner
from t he opp o s i t e moiety but from the s ame gene rat ion, i . e . from the
s e c t ion of t he s ame row in the diagram . A child be l onge d t o the s ame
moiety as h i s mot her but to the s e c t i on of the other generat ion . If a
p a 1 i l) u man married a m a r i n a l) u woman , the ir chi ldren were 1 u n p u y u l) u . If
a 1 u n pu yu I) u boy marr ied a k a l) i l a l) u girl , the children would b e p a 1 i l) u ,
but i f a 1 u n p u y u I) u girl married a k a l) i l a l) u b oy , the ir children would b e
m a r i n a l) u .
This sytem op erat e s not only in t e rms o f a div i s i on into mo i e t i e s
b u t a l s o in t erms o f a divi s i on into alt ernat e ge nerat ions . One i s in
t he opp o s ite gene rat ion t o one ' s parent s and to one ' s chi ldren but in
the s ame generat ion as one ' s grandpare nt s and grandchildren . The terms
muc uc u , cac i c l , p a p i p i and I)a c a c i all refl e c t this split int o alternate
generat ions . They are reciprocal terms by which ego refers to and
addr e s s e s his grandpa rent s and is referred to and addre s s ed by his
grandparent s , and they are also u s ed b y ego to re fer to and addre s s his
grandc hi ldre n who in t urn us e the s ame t e rms to refer t o and addre s s ego .
Thus the meaning of each o f thes e four t e rms might b e s p e c i fied as
fo l lows :
mucucu 'mot her ' s mo ther '
' a woman ' s daug h ter ' s chi Zd '
cac i c i 'mo ther ' s fat her '
' a man ' s daughter ' s a h i Z d '
pap i p i 'father ' s m other '
' a wom an ' s s on ' s ahi Zd '
I) a c a c l ' father ' s fat her '
' a man ' s son ' s chi Zd '
The s p l i t into alternat e generat ions is also reflected in the u s e of
t he suffix - w a p c i r wh i c h can be added to any of the four terms g iven
ab ove to indicate a pair of p ers ons who are m u c u c u to one another , et c .
83
The s e four t e rms with the s uffi x - w a p c i r appear in the fol l owing
forms ,
m u c uwa p c i r
c a c uw a p c i r
p a p uwapc i r
I) a c uw a p c i r
m u c uw a p c i r would re fer t o e go and h i s or he r mothe r ' s mother or a

female e go and her daugh t er ' s c h i l d and so on with the other t hree
t e rms .
The s uffix - w a t i i s u s e d for two persons holding the s ame relation

ship . Thus p u a wa t i i s ' two o Zder s i s ters ' and p u p i w a t i means ' two o f
mo ther ' s brothers ' and m a t uw a t i me ans ' two mo thers ' . The kinship
s y s t e m is c la s s i fi c at ory and the t e rm ma t u can refer not only t o one ' s
' b Z o od mo ther ' but a l s o t o 'one ' s mother 's sis ter ' , e t c .
The s uf fi x - m i a i s us e d for more than two pers ons holding t h e s ame
re lat i onship . Thus I) u c i r m i a is ' a Z Z my aunti e ' i . e . more than two o f
my father ' s s i s ters .
There i s a s p e c ia l t e rm for two persons who are re lated by a mal e
de s c ent line and another t erm f o r those n o t s o re lat e d . Thus the t e rm
j u I p a ;t a c an refer t o ' father and chi Zd ' , ' fa t her ' s father and grand
chi Zd ' , 'brother and s i s ter ' , 'fa t h e r and fa t he r ' s brother or s i s ter '
and so on . The t e rm k u n i l) ka l a i s used for two persons who are not s o
related i . e . ' m o ther and chi ld ' , 'mother ' s fa ther and c h i l d ' , 'mother ' s
mo ther and c h i Zd ' , and s o on . The s e t erms have re dup l i c at e d forms t o
indi c at e more than two people s o relat e d . k u n i k u n i l) k a l a c an b e used
t o re fer t o ' a mo ther and two chi Z dre n ' , or to ' mo ther ' s brother p Zus
mother ' s s i s ter p lus ego ' , e t c . The redup li cated form of j u l p a ;ta is
j u l p a j a p a ;ta and it could re fer t o ' ego and his or her father and
fa ther ' S brother or s i s ter ' , or t o ' ego and fa ther and father ' s father ' ,
o r t o ' ego and two or more o f h i s chi ldren ' , e t c .
The s uf fi x - a p c i ( s ee § 2 . 8 . for the morphophonemic s ) i s used with
kinship t e rms to indi cat e that the re fe rent is pos s e s s e d by a third
person .
p up i i pc i ' his 0 1' her mother ' s bro ther '

k u J aapc i ' h i s or her fa ther '
ma t u u p c i ' hi s 01' her mo ther '
I n f lection
Kinship nouns ending i n vowe l s de c line like non- s ingular pronouns .

Kinship t erms ending in c ons onant s like cons onant -s t e m nouns . kunkuj u
84
' man ' s c h i ld ' t akes a n e rgat i ve i n -!u. k u n i D k a l a and j u l p a 1 a

d e c line regu larly .
Examples in Sentences
( 5 . 14 ) caa 1 i na i D ka j u l paj a pa1a k u n k u j u - up c i - j a na

here t h e y go c h i Z d - his - too
' Th ere they go, that man and his k ids too ' .
( 5 . 15 ) D a t a - j i 1 u k u l a j i - na kun i kun i Dka l a -1u
we- erg dog h i t- p a s t -erg
' We h i t the dog, my daugh ters and I ' ( woman spe aking)
Howeve r , t he re are al s o cases like the fol lowing wi th no agre ement ,
( 5 . 16 ) D al i - j i c a a k u n i D ka l a ( j ) a na laj i c a a 1 u k u
we - erg here -and hit h ere dog
' We two, my mo ther and I, hit the dog ' .
( 5 .17) Da- c i pa p i -wat i wa n i - m u j u
m e - dat s on ' s : kids - dual p l a y - dual
'My ( woman s p e aking) son ' s kids are p lay ing ' .
( 5 . 18 ) Dalu- u D c i ma t u - u p c i - D U ini
dau - her mother-her- loc be
' The daughter i s wi th her m o ther ' .
5.3. V E RBAL MORPHOLOGY
5.3.1 . -pun i TRANS I T I V I S ER
- p u n i i s u s e d t o form t rans i t ive ve rb s from nouns and adve rb s . It

s e ems t o be ful ly produc t i ve and c an be u s e d w i t h any noun . The
fol lowing e xamp l e s re c ur and perhaps :o hould be l i s t e d in the l e xi con ,
part i c ularly those where the me aning 1 s not e xact ly deri vab le .
I have g l o s s e d p u n i as " t r" for t rans i t i vi s e r .
p i l.t i ' soft ' p i ll i p u n i ' to mas h, to s quash,

to smash, to c u t i n to
sma l l piece s '
j a rka ' far ' ja rkapu n i ' to p u t a t a di s tance '
kak i -j a n ' wounde d, ka k i j a n p un i ' to wound , to make
s o re ' sore '
( 5 . 20 ) m a r a p a i - i u rJ a i l a j i k a k i - j a n - p u n i j i - I) i
woman - erg m e h i t sore - c on- t r-me
' The woman hit m e and made me s ore (or 'wounded m e ' ) .
5.3.2. - rn a V E R BA L I S ER
- rna is used to form verb s mo s t ly tran s i t ive verb s . I t is not a

produc t ive suffix and it i s not p o s s ib l e to d e s c ribe the c la s s e s o f
s t ems with whi c h i t could be u s e d because s ome o f t h e s t ems d o not
o c c ur in i s o la t i on , but it s eems to oc c ur with nominal and verbal
s t ems ( s e e b e l ow ) :
rump i ' t o fear ' r u m p i rna ' to frigh ten '

kan i ' kno t ' kan i ma ' to tie '
I) a i rna ' to fo Z Zow, to c hase '
I) a n i a m a ' to Zook for, to find '
I) u l u r ma ' to ca tch h o Z d of '
ania 'mou t h ' a n;t a m a ' to p u t a h o Z e in '
iu-t i ' to break ' ( intrans ) ;t u - m a ' to brea k ' ( int rans )
m i n a l) a r a ' wha tchamaca Z Zi t ' m i n a l) a r a m a ' to "whatchamaca Z Z i t '"
( t rans )
I t a l s o s eems t o appear in the formation o f s ome intrans i t i ve verb s

e . g. i eama ' to Zaugh ' « i ea ' to b i te ' ) p a k a p a k a ma ' to hurry ' .
5.3.3. - ;t a t i I NTRANS I T I V I S E R
( - a t i with consonant s t ems )
- i a t i i s used to form intran s i t i ve ve rb s from nouns and adverb s .

I t s eems t o be ful ly produ c t i ve and can be used with any noun . It
o ft e n has a n inc hoat ive sense .
malia 'many, mob ' mal1aia t i ' to b e come numerous '

mimi -jan ' having breas ts ' m i m i j a nat i ' to deve Zop breas ts '
k u p a l) u r u ' o Zd man ' k u p a I) u r u i a t i ' to become an 0 Zd man '
j a r ka ' far ' j a r kaiat i ' to be a t a d i f' t ance '
p i r i na ' up, abov e ' p i r i oaiat i ' to grow up '
puj u r ' ho t ' puj u rat i ' b e come hot '
;ta i 1 ' hard ' ia i 1 a t i ' b ecome hard '
j a un ' big ' j a unat i ' b ecome b ig, grow big '
Note a l s o m i li i - i a t i ( l i t . ' b e come e y e s ' ) meaning ' to b e born ' ,
ma l i p i li i -i a t i ( l it . ' tongue b e c ome s oft ' ) meaning ' to b e dumb ' .
( 5 . 21 ) I) a - i u k a p i r p i li i - p u n i j i a-I p i l i i - ia t i
I - e rg gras s s oft- t r c omp - i t s oft - i n t r
' I crushed the grass ( se e d s ) and i t b e came s oft ' .
86
5.3.4. -nta 1 NTRANS I T I V I S E R
- n t a i s o f infrequent o c c urrenc e and s e ems t o b e r e s t r ic t e d . It

has b een found only with the fol lowing s t ems where i t forms verb s from
no un s .
UAc l 'b Lood ' uAc l nt a ' to b Le e d '
a n1a ' mouth ' an1a n t a ' to op en the mout h '
unu ' fae aes ' u n unta ' to defeaa te '
k1 1a ' araak, sp l.i t ' k l l a nt a ' to araak, to sp l.i t '
( 5 . 22 ) pa 1 a k l l a - n t a - n t l j l ( re -n t I s e e § 5 . 3 . 6 . )
mud araak - intr-
' The mud araaked ' .
( 5 . 23) p l ! a - p l ! a ma r a p a l - 1 u l a j l - n a a- I uAc l -nta
chiLd woman- erg h i t - p a s t c omp-he b L ood- intr
' The woman h i t the ahi Ld and he b Led ' .
uAc l -nta caa UAc l caa kaa n t a
u A a inta here b Lood here fLow
' ''U L ain ta '' means b Lood fLow ' .
5.3.5. -t l R E F L EX I V E A N V R E C I PRO C A L
-t l ind i c at e s both the refle xive and reciprocal . Norma l ly the

presence o f a s ingular a c t or indicat e s the re flexive and a p l ural
a c t o r the r e c iproc al . A word m u n1 u p l r may be added t o spe c i fy rec ip
roc i t y if ne c e s sary . The reflex ive/re c iprocal ve rbs are int rans i t ive .
They can be derived only from t ran s i t ive verb s and in those cas e s where
one require s a reflex ive or rec iprocal form of an int rans i t ive verb
( e . g . o k u m a ' to Look for ' ) the verb mus t fi r s t be t rans i t i v i s e d ( s e e
§ 5 . 3 . 7 . ) b e fore t l c an be adde d .
( 5 . 25 ) maka1 I oa I 1ua-t I -na

hand I au t - re - p a s t
, I au t my hand ' .
( 5 . 26 ) p a - a t l k a j a m a c u m p a - ka l a - t l 1apan1u -1u
that- dual kangaroo- � h i t - re foo t - e rg
' Those two kangaroos are kia king one ano ther ' .
ap l - t i -muj u c a - a t i ka j a
g i v e - re- the y : 2 this- dua l
' Th e s e two gave one ano ther things ' .
. ( 5 . 28) p i pc l - t i -muj u m u ni u p i r
one another
s ar a t a h - re- t h e y : 2
' They ' re s aratahing one another ' .
87
The int rans i t i ve verb for ' break ' is i u - t i and the t ran s i t i ve
' break ' i s 1 u ma ( where ma is a non-produ c t i ve c au s at i ve or t rans i t
i vi s er ) .
( 5 . 29 ) i u - t i - ua uaa f) a - c i kaun u
brea k - re-past here m e - dat dre s s
'My dress tore ' .
The normal produc t ive means o f t rans i t i vi s ing i ntran s i t i ve verbs
for the purpo s e s o f the reflexive/reciprocal is to use - p c a m a ( s e e
§5 .3 . 7 . ) .
5.3.6. - nt i TR A NS I T I V I S E R
Some t rans i t i ve verb s t ake an allomorph - m a n t i s uffi xed t o the - j i

form o f t he s t e m e . g . l a j i ma n t i ' hi t ' , i u j i ma n t i ' cook, burn ' . I have
not been ab le to di s c over the reason fo r t hi s .
- n t i i s u s e d t o perform a numb e r o f related funct ions . First of
a l l , it is us e d t o form t rans i t ive ve rb s from intrans it i ve one s :
intrans it ive
a ra ' en t er ' a rant i ' inser t '

I) u j i ' fa t t ' f) u j i n t i ' to knock down, t o push
over '
pia ' g o down ' p i ant i ' t o take some t h ing down
( from a high p La c e ) ,
wa i a r a ' come out of, wa1a r a n t i ' to wake someone up '
emerge '
j uu ' c l-imb on ' j uunt i ' to cUrrib, to mount (a horse) '
wa n i ' to p Lay ' wa n i nt i ' to p Lay w i t h s ome thing,
to p Lay ( a part in a)
corrobor e e '
( 5 . 30 ) p i l a - p i l. a c a a ! u f) a - u a . w a i a r a - n t i j i f) a i w a m i l a - j a n
chiLd here cry-past wake : up-tr me s Leep- c on
' The chi Ld cri e d . He woke me up ' .
In the cas e o f w a i a r a n t i the P o f the derived t rans i t ive c orre s p onds
to the S of the int rans i t i ve s t em . Thi s is the us ual cas e . No t e ,
i
however , t hat with a verb like j u u , the e ffe ct o f adding - n t i i s to
derive a t rans i t i ve verb in whi ch A c orresponds to S i '
- n t i may a l so be used t o indi cate that an INS TRUMENTAL , LOCATIVE or
CAUSAL actant i s b e ing expre s s e d as P ( i . e . nominat i ve , or , i f the
ant i-pas s i ve i s b e ing us e d , the dat ive ) . - nt i c ommonly oc c ur s in thi s
fun c t ion in the favo uri te cons truct i on where t he I NSTRUMENTAL , LOCATIVE
or CAUSAL actant is anaphori cally dele t e d .
88
E x a mp l e s of INSTRUMENTAL
It is rare to find - n t i used for INSTRUMENTAL in independent

c laus e s , b ut it is c ommon in de s c rib ing the act ion of k i l ling a snake
by c racking it agai ns t s omething .
( 5 . 3Ia) ma r a p a i - i u iua r l a j i - ma n t i k u n ka - p i a
woman - erg snake hi t-wi th tr e e - I o c
' The woman cracked the snake against the tree ( h i t w i th
the snake ) . '
It has a l s o been ob s erved in the fo llowing ( compare ( 5 . 3 3 ) b e l ow ) ,
( 5 . 3Ib ) I) t i a I) a - i u maa ma n i - n t i j i
money I-erg fo od g e t -wHh
'I got food with the money ' .
' I spen t the money on food ' .
Howeve r , it i s c ommon to find it in s ubordinate c laus e s as in ( 5 . 3 2 )
and ( 5 . 3 3 ) .
( 5 . 32 ) ka n ka r i caa a wa - I) i at i -pc i laa p i pc i - n t i -j i

knife · here give -me rn eat- dat c omp : I c u t -wi th - a/p
' Give me t h e knife t o cut the mea t wi th ' .
( 5 . 33 ) ma a - c i a - I) i - a w a laa man i - n t i - j i
food- dat c omp-me - g i v e comp : I g e t - w i t h - a/p
, (I wan t you t o ) give i t ( s c . mon e y ) to me to g e t food wi th ' .
( a - I) i - a wa b e c omes a l) a wa a t normal tempo ) .
- n t i i s a l s o c ommon in des criptions o f too l s .
( 5 . 34 ) k a m p u l) u caa na i p u i ua - n t l - j i - c a j a
kampungu here knife cu t - w i t h - a/p - purp o s ive
'A "kampungu " is a knife for cut ting things wi th ' .
LOC ATIVE
Almo s t a l l the e xamp l e s availab le oc cur i n s ubordinat e c lauses .
( 5 . 3 6 ) i s i n c l uded to il lus t rate that the l o c at i ve i s used for ' to
s Le e p wi t h someone ' .
( 5 . 35a) iuku nuu k u l a puru-t i
dog i i e b Lan k e t - Ioc
'The dog Lay on the b Lanke t ' .
( 5 . 35b ) iuku nu-nt i j i kul apuru
dog- erg iie-on b Lanket
' The dog Lay on the b Zanke t ' .
( 5 . 36 a ) ma r a p a i i l) k a j a J1 i - p i a a- i nuu
woman go w : man-Ioc c omp - s h e iie
'The woman is going to s Zeep w i t h the whi te man ' .
89
( 5 . 36b ) i ra - i rac i Q ka - j a kut u c i p a - a n a j a p i - i na a - i na

g i r �s · send - imp you ( p l ) this - a l l w h i t e - a l l c omp - they
n u - nt i -j i
i i e - w i t h - a/p
' Send the gir �s to the w h i t e man to � i e with him ' .
caa ka 1 i r Qa-1u i t int ij i a-I nu-nt i 1 u ku - j u
here gras s I- erg bring c omp - h e i i e - on dog - erg
' I brought the gras s for the d o g to � i e on ' .
( 5 . 38 ) Qa-1u caa �apa �! ia QUu na-nt i

I- erg here saw s tone re l s tand-on
' I saw the s tone he s tood on ' .
CAUSAL
( 5 . 39 ) laj i -mant i caa ma r a p a i c i pa - j i it i -j i

h i t - becaus e : of here woman thi s - erg man- erg
' The man hit ( him) because of the woman ' .
( 5 . 40 ) pini p a n t i c a ma t i - n a a-k i n l a j i - ma n t i
y ou t e H : on- p a s t comp - y ou hi t-becaus e : of
' You " t o � d on " ( i . e . informed) so he wou ld h i t him o v er y ou ' .
A few e xamp l e s s imi l ar to ( 5 . 4 0 ) o c c u r .
The re ferenc e i s to a woman
t e l l ing her husband that another man has made amorous advanc e s so that
the husb and then hit s the other man ' b ecause o f ' ( CAUSAL ) the woman , ' on
a c c ount of ' t he woman . Note that the CAUSAL ac tant in ( 5 . 4 0 ) i s
e xpre s s ed b y the P form o f the b ound pronoun . S e e d i s c u s s ion in §1 . 6 .
The third funct ion o f - n t i i s to mark verb s whi ch have an inanima t e
AGENT or in one or t w o e xamp l e s a n inanima t e INTRANS ITIVE S UBJECT .
( 5 . 41 ) �! i a - k u 1uar ntat i - nt i j i
s tone- erg snake crush-
' The s tone crus hed the snake ' .
( 5 . 42) kunt u pa l k u 1una - n t i
not s l ;w run-
' It ( s c . car) goes rea l fas t ' .
- n t i i s not used for e very instance o f an inanimate AGENT but there
are a number of e xamp l e s s imi lar to ( 5 . 4 1 ) .
5.3. 7. - p c a ma T R A NS I T I V I S ER
- p c a ma ( - c a m a with s t ems c ontaining a nasa l - s top c l us t e r ) i s suffixed

to t h e verb t o indi c at e t hat an underlying DATIVE i s b e i ng expre s s e d
as P .
- p c a m a c an b e ana l y s e d ( as - p e a a s in - p c a a j a , - pc a a n i and - p c a Q u )
plus m a . The ident i fi cat ion of this ma with the ma t hat o c c urs as a
causat ive in r u m p i ma ' to fri gh t en ' i s s upport ed by the fact that in both
90
instances rn a takes an irregular i mp erat ive s t em and ant i -pas s ive form
-mi . Howeve r , this ident i fi c at ion s e ems to be of l i t t l e if any s i gni
ficance in the grammar and I will treat - r c a ma as an unana lysable
e l ement , g l o s s ing it as ' -t r ' for trans itivi s e r .
I n the fi r s t e xamp l e s to be cons idered , - r c a m a in e ffect t rans i t i
vi s e s an intran s i t ive verb s o t hat i t can b e marked for re flexive/
rec iproc a l , a marking which detrans i t i v i s e s the verb . Consi der fir s t
o f a l l the fo l l owing ,
( 5 . 4 3) n a a - ka iuku n a n t i - c a ma - t i
he r e - ¢
dog bark - t r-reciprocal
' The dogs are barking a t one another ' .
Here we have an int rans it ive verb t hat takes the dat i v e or the
l o c at ive . - ( n ) c a m a i s used to advanc e this c omp l ement to P . Thi s
intermediate s t ruc tur e then contains a P core ferent ial with A . Thi s
refle xive /rec ipro c a l s ituat ion i s expre s s ed by delet ing P and marking
the verb with - t i . The resulting s entence is intran s i t ive .
I n the next e xample , - ( r ) c a ma is used t o trans itivise a verb t hat
t ak e s i t s c omp l ement in the dative ( ! u Q a Q a r p a a j a ' cry for someone ' ) .
( 5 . 44 ) ! u Q a - ni i t i - c a ma - t i maliana
cry - plur-tr-re in gre a t numbers
' They are a � � crying for one another ' .
S imilarly in the next e xamp l e .
( 5 . 45) kunt u pa ! k u i u n i - n c a Q u , a p i - n c a ma - t i - c a Q u
not s �ow run - hab i t s i n g - t r - re- hab it
,
' He runs fas t ( becau s e ) he sings hims e �f ' .

In the fol lowing e xamp l e s - r c a ma i s used to e xpre s s what would other
w i s e be e xpre s s e d in the dative as a P in the nomi nat ive . Each e xamp le
is paired w ith a c orre sponding s entence without - n c a m a .
( 5 . 4 6a ) c i pa-j i nautu n i taj i Qa-c i maa nUQu

t h i s - erg k id ; erg
stea � me - dat food hence
' This kid s t o � e my tuc ker from here ' .
C 5 . 4 6b ) c i pa - j i Qa i na u t u n i ia- ncamaj i maa nUQU
t h i s - erg m e chi �d- erg s tea �- tr food hence
' This k i d s t o t e my tucker from here ' .
91
( 5 . 4 7a ) f) a - c i f) a l u - j u kunt i ka r i f) a - c i
me - dat house a 'Lean me - dat
dau - erg
'My daughter a 'Leaned the house for m e ' .
( 5 . 4 7b ) f) a - c i f) a l u - j u f) a i k a r i - fl c a m a j i kunt i
me - dat dau - e r g m e a 'L ean - t r hou s e
'My daughter a 'L eaned t h e house for me ' .
In the next e xamp le the - fl c a ma c on s t ruct ion i s used within the
favouri t e c on s t ruc t ion . Note that the P bound pronoun for fi r s t person
r e fers t o the underlying DATIVE .
( 5 . 48) f) a - 1 u pat i -na f) a - c i ia p u uca n - k u a - f) i i fl c i - c a m i

I-erg t e H - past m e dat bro -wood - dat c omp -me a hop t r
-
' I to 'Ld m y o 'Lder brother to ahop me s om e wood ' .

( - ( fl ) c a m i i s the normal non-ant i-pa s s ive o f - ( fl ) c a ma )
The fo l l owing e xample of - fl c a m a i s fairly typical , in fac t - fl c a ma

i s part i c ul arly c ommon with n i 1 a ' to s t ea 'L ' . The funct ion o f fl c a m a
s eems to b e t o a l l ow what woul d norma l ly b e a DATIVE t o b e e xpre s s e d as
a P. This P c an then p l ay i t s part in the c o-re ference rule s . In
( 5 . 4 9 ) t h e person s t o len from c ome s t o b e expre s s e d potentially as P
and can then b e omitted from the s ec ond c lause und er c o-referenc e with
j u r u in the fir s t c laus e . - fl c a m a a l lows rec overy o f the underly ing
syntact i c c a s e relat ion and hence s emant i c role of the d e l e t e d act ant .
Note that Engl i s h has a verb 'rob ' as we l l as ' s t ea 'L ' . ' Rob ' al lows
the vic t im t o be expre s s e d as P . 'Rob ' , of cour s e , is a l e x i c a l form
that a l lows diffe rent synt a c t i c arrangement s in the e xpre s s i on o f
' th e ft s ent enc e s ' . - fl c a m a i s a morpho- synt a c t i c devi c e not c onfined to
' t h e ft s entenc e s ' .
( 5 . 49 ) caa-ka j uru a rk u naa n -at i n i 1 a - fl c a ma - c i n

t h i s - ¢ man a ngry - i n t r s t ea 'L - t r - part i c i p l e
' This man got wi 'Ld beaause I robbed him ' .
The final e xamp l e i l lustrat e s the use o f - fl c a m a with the t hree -place
verb a f) i ' to give ' . Note t hat i t enab l e s the pos s es s or/ben e f i c i ary
to be e xpre s s ed as P . Unfortunat e ly I do not have an e xamp l e with an
overt RE C I PI ENT .
( 5 . 50 ) ma r a p a i - 1 u 1uku a fl i - fl c a ma j i at i
woman - erg dog give t r mea t -
' Th e woman gave him meat for the dog ' .

92
5.3.8. - n1 i t i VERB PLURAL ISER
- n1 i t i i s quit e rare . I have glos s ed i t a s plural , but that may

not be ac c urat e ; it may indi cat e mut ual ac t ivity or co-ope rat ion or
the like .
( 5 . 51 ) ! u � a - n1 i t i - c a � u ma11ana
cry - p lur hab it
- mob adv -
' They a � � cry toge ther ' .

( 5 . 52 ) i 1 i caa 1 u n a , malta i � k a - 1 i t i - m a n1 i , a t i - p c i �k umaj i
ant here run mob g o - p lur- imperf m e a t - dat 8 e e k
' There a r e a n t8 running around h e r e , a � o t o f them, going
�oo king for meat ' .
5.3.9. - Jl c a a n i C O N T I NU I NG
- Jl c a a n i is of very low frequency e xcept wi th the s t em � u - ' to � i e ' .

I t s e ems t o indicat e imperfect aspect , ongoing a c t i vity or the l ike .
( 5 . 53) �a1u � a Jl a ma c u m p a u l i - Jl c a a n i - c i n
I- erg saw kangaroo di e - c ont in-par t i c i p l e
' I 8aw the kangaro o dying (but I didn ' t have a weapon to
put i t o u t of i t s miseryj ' .
( 5 . 54 ) kuntu kupa�uru Inl , paa � u ! i i �ka-caa n i
not o �d man b e : pr e s e n t that 8 t i � � com e - c ont in
' The o �d man is not here, he (i8 there ) 8 ti � � coming ' .
5.3.10.1 . -n1u M o t i o n a wa y f r o m t h e s p e a k e r
Th i s has been obs e rved i n the imperat i ve only .
( 5 . 55 ) 1 u n a - j i - n1 u - t u
run- imp- away-you p lural
' You mob run away ! '
5.3.10.2. -u M o t i o n t o wa r d s t h e s p e a k e r
Thi s has b e en o b s erved i n the imperat ive only .
( 5 . 56 ) i �ka-ja-u � a - c i na
go - imp- hither m e - a l l at ive
' Come here to m e ! '
5.4. A D V E R B MO R P H O L O G Y
5.4. 1 . AV V E R B I N F L E C T I O N
Adverb s are uninfl e c t e d except that t h e s t em a r a k a - appears with

-ni ( ' to ' ) , -1i ( ' a.t ' ) and -�u ( 'from ' ) ,
93
a r a kan i 'where to '

a rakai i 'where a t '
a r a k a l) u ' where from '
- I) U ( , from ' ) a l s o oc curs in
j a rka ' far ' j a r k a l) u ' from afar
p i r i na ' on top, a loft ' p i r i ll a l) u ' from abov e '
A numb e r of adverb s can be ob s erved to c arry infle c t i ons e . g . w a t a l) k a
' a t nigh t ' ( c f . wa t a m a k a l ' dark ' , w a t a l) a n a ' tomorrow ' ) , but I doubt i f
t h i s i s o f any synchronic s i gni ficanc e . They c annot b e c on s i dered
d e fec t i ve nouns as t hey c annot b e qua l i fied . a rkunt u ' savage ly,
be l ligeren t l y ' appears t o b e ar the ergat i ve/inst rumental - t u but
c ont ras t s with the nominal a r k u n a a n t u 'be l ligeren t ' in the erga t i ve /
ins t rument al ( for - a a n , s e e §5 . 2 . l . ) .
5.4.2. -na A V V E R B FORMI NG
- ll a i s used t o form adverb s .
aj a r ' one ' a j a rna ' on ly , s i ng ly '

wat i na ' bo t h '
caj ana ' onae, before, former ly '
ma lta 'mob ' maliana ' i n gre a t numb er s '
i f. a l) u 'new ' i f. a l) u n a , s oon '
w a t i do e s not o c c ur a lone but oc c urs in c a aw a t i k a j a ( ' t hese two ' )
etc . c a j a appears in c a j a l) u ( ' o ld, former ' ) .
There are nume rous e xamp l e s o f - n a s c att ered through the pres ent
work , but where t he s t em doe s not oc cur as a word I have not s eparat ed
-na o f f by a hyphen nor have I glos s ed it .
5.4.3. - m i n l) u
I have t aken - m i n l) u t o b e adverb- forming i n l i ght o f e xamp l e s such

as ( 5 . 5 7 ) b e low . Not e , however , that the adverb -forming n a may oc c ur
with - m i n l) u . - m i n l) u i s glos s e d by the Engl i s h 'as ' .
wampa 'gir l ' w a m p a - m i n l) u ' a s a gir l, when s h e wa s
a gir l '
ka 1 p i n ' y oung man ' k a l p i n - m i n l) u ' a s a y oung man, when he
was a y oung man '
( 5 . 57 ) k a l p i n - m i n l) u I) a - i u iua r l a j i - p c a l) u ma l i a
y o ung man-as I- erg snake k i t t - habi t mob
' A s a young man, I used to ki l l a l o t of snakes ' .
94
( 5 . 58) j u r u - m i n Q u -na malia j uru i u i -p i n Qiii i Q ka-c i n

man - a s - adv mob man remain -part here g o - part
kit i -k i t i u c a n - k u - wa - k a a - i na a n pa - j i
crowd firewood - dat - l i g- ¢ comp- they c o H ec t - a! p
' When there were Aborigines, a L o t of Aborig ines, Living
here t hey wou Ld go, crowds of them, gather ing firewood ' .
ka t a k u ! u - m i n Q u - n a , Q a - i u c a a I) a p a c a j a n a
sma L L - a s - adv I- erg here saw former Ly
'I saw it once, when I was L i t t Le ' .
5.5. R E D U P L I C AT I O N
S t ems exhibit ing a redup li c ated base are fa irly c ommon . In s ome
c a s e s the unredup licated base does not oc cur .
Where it does o c c ur , it i s p o s s ib l e t o s e e in the redup l i c a t i on the
s e n s e o f p l ural ity ( more t han one o f ) , intensity ( more than t he normal
degree of) or a s en s e of repet i t ion ( more than one oc c urrence o f ) .
I have wr1.t t en a hyphen between the redupl icated e lement s . Thi s 1. s
t o fa c i l itate read1.ng .
A few c a s e s of part ial redupl 1. c at ion have b e en not e d , but t here are
not enough e xamp l e s to al low any genera l i sa t i ons .
Note also t h e use o f a l i gative A b et ween vowe l s in t he last two
e xamp l e s .
iuna ' run ' iuna-iuna ' to run around '

j aka p i ' to tis ten ' j d ka p i - j a k a p i ' to t i s t en in ten H y '
puj u r ' ho t ' p u j u r - p u j u r ( or p u p u j u r ) ' v ery hot '
Auat i ' two Auat i -Auat i 'four '
pi !a-pi !a 'baby '
kuj i r i ' boy ' k u j i - k uj i r i 'boys '
wampa ! ana ' incorrec t Ly ' w a m p a -w a m p a ! a n a ' q u i t e incorrec t Ly '
I) a p i ' see ' I) d P i 1 a p i ' s tare '
i Q ka 'go ' i l) k a - A - i Q k a 'go repeatedLy, go
bac k and forth,
wa Lk around '
i p ci ' chop ' i pc i - A- i p c i ' chop repea ted Ly '
5.6. C O M PO U N D I N G
There are a numb er of e xamp les o f compounds o f the t ype noun-plus

noun and noun-plus -verb . The appare nt order ' modifier-head ' in the
fir s t e xamp le i s exc ept iona l .
p i l i i - ma ! i ' s oft ' + ' tongue ' , soft ' ( o f speech) , 'dumb '
i u ni a l - p u t u 'moon ' + ' s tomach ' ' crescent moon '
k ui u-waia r a ' brain s ' + ' c ome out " to be angry '
95
m i li i - p ui u r - a t i ' ey e s ' + ' good ' + ' t o open one ' s e y e s '
intran s i t i vi s er
m i li i - wa k i n i ' ey e s ' + ' spin ' ' to be intoxica t e d '
( al s o he ard as m i l i a wa k i n i )
5.7. - j ana ' and ' , ' too ' C O - OR D I N AT I N G C ON J U N C T I O N
( 5 . 60 ) I) a t a a r i - l i - p i n m a a - c i - ka a t i - p c i - j a n a - ka
we e a t- alp- part food - dat - � m e a t - dat - conj - �
' We are eating food and mea t ' .
( 5 . 61 ) mali a n g caa ari-l i c i pa-a I) a r k u n - k u , a n i a m u r u - ia t i
in mobs here e a t- a lp thi a - dat wa L L - dat fLo a k - intr
waka l a - j a n a kaca p i - j a n a
crow� conj hawk - c onj
' In gre a t numb ers they eat the wa L Laroo, they fLock
toge ther, b o th crows and hawks ' .
( 5 . 62 ) pini a r i - l i -m i at i - pc i 1
M.M. you e a t - a/p- fut m e a t - dat
' Ar e y ou going to eat meat ? '
B.B. ma a - c i ( maa = ' ve g e tab L e food ' as opp o s e d to at i 'meat ' )
fo od- dat
' Food ' .
M . M. I) a i - j a n a I) i i i ma a - c i ar i - l i at i - pc i - j a n a
m e - conj here food- dat e a t -alp m e a t - dat - c onj
'And I down here wi L L e a t food and mea t too ' .
5.8. -wa , -ja L I GAT I V E S
- w a and - j a were de s c ribed i n 3 . 5 . 1 1 . in re lat ion t o cas e mark ing

and in 5 . 2 . 3 . with re ferenc e to - I) U .
- w a i s also us ed b e tween the dat i ve allomorph - k u and the pros odic
suffix - k a e . g . u c a n - k u - w a - ka t fir e - dative - l i gat ive- � ' . I t may a l s o
o c c ur fol lowing t h e dat i ve a l l omorph - k u where nothing e l s e fol lows ,
e . g . u c a n - k u - wa . As far as I c an s e e it i s not of any syntact i c s i gni
ficanc e . This final - w a c ould b e a lenit e d all omorph o f - p a ( s e e
§ 5 . 9 . 2 . ) b ut i f i t i s , w e would have t o p o s i t fre e variat ion b etween
- pa and - w a .
5.9. P RO S O D I C S U F F I X E S
5.9. 1 . - ka
- k a appears t o have no fun c t ion at t h e informat ion l e ve l . It is

di ffic ult t o s ay much about t h e princ iples det ermining whe n it i s u s e d .
It is e xt remely c ommon . It may b e c l i t i c i s e d to any word . It i s
96
c ommon a ft er disyl lab i c words , much more common than after l onger words .
Numerous e xample s are s c att ered t hrough t h i s book . They have b e en
glo s s ed as � a s e xp lained in the introductory not e .
5.9.2. - pa
- p a appears to have no function at the informat ion l e ve l . It oc curs

mainly in the speech o f Lardie Moonl i ght , c l i t i c i sed t o a variety of
words .
5 . 1 0. F R E E F O R M F U N C T I O N MO R P H E M E S
5.10. 1 . l u u I NT E NS I V E PART I C L E
( 5 . 63) caa -ka 1 uu I) a n i a m a j i caa c u ru j a n - ka k u n t u I) a r pa - i u - k a

here-� 1nt find here eahidna-� not o ther- erg- ¢
caa l uu c i pa - j i
here 1nt this- erg
'He found the eahidna, no one e lse did. He found i t hims e lf ' .
( 5 . 64 ) l i j i - ka l uu - ka I)a i l a j i - I) i
3s : erg-� 1nt - � me hit-me
'He hi t me ' .
( a l s o occ urs a s l i j i I) a i l u u k a l a j i l) i )
5. 10.2. p a - V E F I N I T I S ER
The demons t rat ive p a - funct ion s as a ' de finit i s er ' partic ularly in
c orre lation with a re s t rict i ve qua l i fying nominal or restrict ive quali
fy ing c laus e :
( 5 . 65 ) ma r a p a i - i u caa pa-j i u ! ku u r i -iu 1 aj i iuar -ka

woman- erg here t h a t - erg t a l l - e rg ki l l snake
' The ta l l woman ki l led the sna ke ' .
( 5 . 66 ) I) a i I) k u m a j i p a - u j u r - ku I) u u n i i a - j i - n a
I seek that- dat man- dat rel s tea l - alp - past
I) a - c i -w a - k u ma a - c i
me- dat- lig-dat food- dat
' I 'm loo king for the man who s t o le my tuaker ' .
5.10.3. ini A UX I L I A R Y V E RB
The verb i n i ( ' to be prgsent, to remain ' ) is used as a means of u s i ng

t ens e , a s p e c t and mood marxe rs with nominal s in equat ional c laus e s , the
tense or aspect marker b e ing s uffixed to i n i .
( 5 . 67 ) ma c u m p a m i li i muc u pa r i i n i - na
kangaroo e y e s b lind b e - pas t
' The kangaro o was b lind ' .
97
( 5 . 68 ) I) a i i n i -m i at i - i t i , j a r i ka - j a n - a t i -m i
I b e - fut mea t - Less hungry c on - intr fut - -
' I wi L L be without any mea t . I ' L L be hungry ' .

( 5 . 69 ) wi i f1 i n i puiu ra i n i - ka I) a i kia i n i -maoi i
query you good be-¢ me L i k e b e - impe r f
p ui u r a - ka ? puiura i n i -j a I) a i kia
good- ¢ good b e - imp m e L i ke
'Are you b e ing good? Being good L i k e me ? Be good L i ke m e ' .
5.10.4. p a f1 c a I N T ENS I V E V E RB
p a f1 c a corresponds to Eng l i s h ' very ' in meaning . I t i s a verb but

s eems to o c c ur only in paral le l with a l e x i c a l verb with wh ich it agre e s
in t e ns e , aspe c t , mo od , refle xivene s s/re c iprocalne s s and pers on/numb e r
marking .
( 5 . 70) ma�u -1at i I) a i ma k a i i w a t i o a , k u n t u I) u l u r ma j i - m i a

weak- intr I hand both not ho Ld-poss
p a f1 c a j i - m i a
inten s -p o s s
'My hands are weak, I can ' t ho Ld it ( s c . mi c rophone ) t i g h t ' .
5.10.5. l) u f1 c a , l) u f1 c a p u n i ' to m i s s ' , ' to fai L '

l) u f1 c a appears as an intrans it ive verb meaning ' to have fai L e d t o do '
or ' n earLy to have done ' the act ivity d e s c rib e d by anot her verb o f the
s ame phrase or a verb t hat i s understood from the c ont ext , l i ngu i s t i c
o r e xt ra - l ingu i st i c . l) u f1 c a p u n i i s the t rans i t ive equivalent .
( 5 . 71) I) a i c a l) k a a l i l) u f1 c a - o a I) u j i - o a
I here fai L-past fa L L- past
'I near Ly fe L L ' ( o r 'I e scap ed (from ) fa L Ling ' )
( 5 . 72) I) a - :t. u caa I) u fl c a p u n i j i p u ku c u r
I- erg here fai L mouse
'I nearLy caug h t the mouse ' ( or 'I missed t h e mou s e ' )
5. 1 0 . 6 . I) a m p u ' comp Le t e Ly '

I) a m p u means s ome thing l i ke ' comp L e t e Ly ' .
( 5 . 73 ) j u ku i l) k a - na I) a m p u u i a a l) a r a - i i
spear go- past right o t h e r : s i de - l oc
' The spear wen t r ight through to t h e other side ' .
( 5. 74) kunt u I) a i ku ! u- ku ! u i t i -m i na u o a I) a m p u I) a i kaa n t a
not I again r e turn- fut hi ther for : good I go
' I ' L L never come her e aga in . I 'm going for good ' .
98
( 5 . 75 ) I) a m p u c a a I) a - ;t, u a t i - ka p i flC i j i p i l1 i p un i j i
att h ere I- erg me a t ·- ¢ cut break/smas h
' I c u t t h e m e a t a r t u p into piece a ' .
( 5 . 76) k a ;t, i r - ka laa I) a m p u m a n i j i - na
gra s s - ¢ now a t t burn - past
' The grass a t t got burn ed ' .
( al s o given as I) a m p u c a a l a a k a ;t, i r k a ma n i j i na )
Note a l s o I) a m p u - ;t, a t i ( ' to disapp ea2" ) , I) a m p u k a n ;t, a - k a n;t, a ( ' bac k of

head ' ) .
( 5 . 77) kunt u caa -ka I) a m p u -wa nuu caa I) u r k u n U - fl c a a n i m i l;t, i
not t h i s - ¢ who t ty - ¢ i i e here on ty i i e - c ont in e y e s
' H e ' s n o t rea t ty as t e ep . He ' s j u s t pre tending t o b e a s t e ep ' .
5.10.7. uca , jus t '

( 5 . 78) caa fl i n - t i at i ka I) u j i n t i j i m u - l u - k a uca a r k u n - k u -wa
here y ou - erg mea t - ¢ drop ground- l o c - ¢ jus t figh t - d a t - ¢
' You dropp ed the meat on the ground just to cau s e troub t e ' .
( 5 . 79) I) a i - k a u c a i l) k a - n a fl u n - k u laa n a fl i - j i
I-¢ j u s t go- past you - dat cO?lp : I s ee alp -
' I j u s t came t o s e e you ' .

S e e also e xamp le ( 5 . 9 2 ) .
5.10.8. lamu 'might '

( 5 . 80 ) at i i -m i l a mu
fa n - f ut ;' ight
, It mig h t rain ' .
( 5 . 81 ) ;t, u l) u m p i r i na a - k a m a a - k a wa t a c i - ka , fl i n - t i l a mu a r i -m i
bad here-¢ fo od-¢ fr � i t - ¢ you- erg ;' ight eat- fut
' This fru i t ' s not too go od; y ou might e a t i t ' .
( 5 . 82 ) i A a - I) U - n a c a a - k a c i r i k u - ;t, u l a j i , j a pa c a r a - ;t,a t i - m i l amu
now- adj - adv her e-¢ bone- erg k i t t we t t- int rans - fut ;' igh t
' B tackfe t ta b i n catch ' im a tong bone . B e m ig h t g e t a t t righ t ' .
( i A a l) U na means' recen t ty ' )
( 5 . 83 ) ;t, u k u l amu c a a - k a w a ;t,a r a - m i macumpa lamu
dog ;' ight her e - ¢ emerge- fut roo might
' He might come out [reincarnated as ] a dog or perhaps a
kangaroo ' .
5. 1 0 . 9 . kunt u N EGAT I V E
( 5 . 84 ) k u n t u I) a - ;t, u � a l) a ca j a - n a - k a
not I- erg saw former- adv-¢
' I ' v e never s e en him before ' .
99
( 5 . 85) c i pa - j i kupa Qu r u - tu caa p a t u - ma kuj i r i kunt u a- i

t h i s - erg o ld man- erg here te l l - pres boy not comp - he
pant i -j i
te Z Z- a/p
' The o ld man to ld the boy not to t e l l (anybody ) ' .
5.10. 10. wa n t a N EGAT I V E W I TH I M PERAT I V E S ( ' don ' t ' )

( 5 . 86 ) want a la - j a
don ' t h i t - imp
' Don ' t hit i t ' .
5.10. 1 1 . miar ' v ery '

m i a r can be used to indicate empha s i s a s in the rir s t e xamp le be low
or it c an be used fo l l owing a nomina l to ind i c at e t he sense of ' v ery ' .
( 5 . 87) t u p u - Q k u ka r i - j a - Q i mi�r
soap- erg wipe- imp -me emph
' Wash me we l l w i t h soap ' .
( 5 . 88. ) Qa i k u n t u a r i - 1 i - J1 c a Q u , a t i - ka ta i 1 m i a r -ka
I not eat- alp - hab it m e a t - !6 hard emph-!6
' I don ' t e a t ( s c . ga la h ) , the meat ' s too tough ' .
( 5 . 89 ) jaun miar i Q ka -m i a
big emph g o - p o s s
' The "b igg es t " ( s c . p lane ) might aome ' .
5. 10. 12. kia ' li k e '

k i a i s a part i c le meaning ' tha t way ' or ' t his way ' . U s e d aft e r a
noun phra se it c orre sponds to Engl i s h ' li ke ' in the sense of ' r e s emb le ' ,
and it may b e c l i t ic i sed t o a preceding nominal .
( 5 . 90 ) Qa i kia naa n a u r - ka
me l i ke h ere � hi ld-!6
' The a h i Zd l ooks l i k e m e ' .
( 5 . 91) caa - ka muniu - ka k u ! a - a J1 c i kia
here - !6 faa e - ¢ father-his l i ke
'He looks l i ke his fa ther ' .
( 5 . 92 ) J1 i n i - k a u c a p u n pa - p u n pa t i k i a - ka a r ku n - ku
you - !6 jus t ta l k that:way-p fig h t - dat ive
' You ' r e ju s t ta l king l i k e t ha t to aause a fight ' .
kia Qa i i Q ka ( ac compani ed by pointing)
that way I go
' I 'm going that way ' .
100
5. 10. 13. k i a l) u , this way '

k i a l) u ( k i a + I) u ) means ' this way ' , ' l ike this ' , ' thus ' and ' equa ls ' :
( 5 . 94 ) I) a t a - j i kunt u u1a n t i j i k i a l) u - k a ucan k i aka r
we- erg not possess such-¢ fir e make
' We didn ' t have that kind of thing that makes fir e ' .
( S ent ence re fers t o 'ma tches ' . )
( 5 . 95) k i a l) u , l i -j a I) a i . . . . • . . .
l i k e this leave- imp me

( O ffering an e xample t o e xp lain a pOint ) ' L i k e this, leave me ' .
( 5 . 96 ) k u l1 u u r k i a l) u maka1 i - a j a r -ku a t i i - p c a l) u
bro lga hand one- dat Zay-hab itual
' The bro lga lays as many as fiv e eggs ' .
( This s entence was given among desc rip t i ons o f the hab i t s
of various bird s . k i a l) u corre s ponds t o a paus e that fo l l ows
a topic as in 'as for x, he . . . . . . ' cons truc t i ons .
5.10.14. puj u ' if '

puj u ( ' if ' ) usually occur s a s second word in a - p i n claus e ,
( 5 . 97 ) k a n i ma j i p c i r puj u i l) k a - c l n , I) a r unuan i -m i a
po lic eman if come-part I rejoice -pos s
' If the p o l iceman comes, I might b e happy ' .
( 5 . 98) kuntu puj u la - p i n caa l) a - 1 u p i n i c i pa - j i i ca -m i a
no t if k i l l - part here I-erg you t h i s - erg b i t e - pos s
' If I hadn ' t k i l led i t, i t wou ld have b i tten you ' .
5.10. 15. mut u ' toget her '

mut u ( ' a heap, p i l e ' ) oc curs in c ont e x t s sugge st ing that b e s id e s i t s
l e x i c a l me aning it h a s the func t ion of meaning ' c o l lective ly, together ' :
( 5 . 99 ) c a a - ka j uku I) a l i - i mut u - u
here-¢ spear we - dat to g e t her- dat
' The spear be Zongs to both of us ' .
5.11 . I) u R E L AT I V E P A R T I C L E
I) u i s a relat ive part ic le . It i s o f infrequent o c c urren c e and it i s

di ffic ult t o produce e xamp l e s o f i t by dire c t e l i c i t at ion . The range
of e xamp l e s avai lab l e is uns at i s factory and it is not p o s s ib l e to d i s
c us s the syntax o f I) U construc t i ons ful ly .
There are some re latively st raight forward e xamp l e s in which I) U
appears t o be a re lat ive pronoun ,
101
( 5 . 10 0 ) Q a t a ta t i QUU tu-j i -na ( Quu = Q U augment ed )

sit rel burn a ! p - pa s t -
' The one who burned him i s s i t t ing down ' .

( 5 . 10 1 ) Qa-iu ca a j u r u Q a n i a ma j i Q a - c i - wa - k u iuku - u
I- erg here man find me - da t - li g- dat dog - dat
rJ u u l a-j i -na
rel h i t a !p - past
-
'I found the man who hit my dog ' .

Where A o f the Q U c lause i s c o-refe rent ial with an actant in the
governing c laus e , t he ant i-pas s i ve i s used in the QU c laus e . There are
no e xamp l e s avai lab l e in whic h A o f a QU c lause is co-re ferent ial with
an A .
There are s ome e xamp l e s in which t he actant marked by the re lat ive
is t he P o f the re lat i ve c l ause and the re lative app ears a s Q u n a ,
( 5 . 10 2 ) k a a nt a - na p a ka i - k a ka l p u r u - i i Q u p i n-t i Q u na �apa
Leave - p a s t that-¢ Bou Lia-ab l y o u - erg rel-acc saw
' The o n e whom you saw Left Bou Lia ' .
( 5 . 10 3 ) Qa i u !a n t i j i - na pa-u na u r - k u p i n- t i Q un a laj i
I L o o k after-past t ha t - dat chi Ld - dat y o u - erg rel-acc h i t
' I ' v e been Zooking after that k i d you b e Z ted ' .
I have glo s s ed Q u - n a as relative + accusat ive . I f t h i s int erpret at ion
is correct then this woul d be t he only appe arance of the accusat ive
marker anywhere in the language . - n a i s an a c c usative marker in many
Aus t ralian languages and so it s appearance as an a c c u s at ive in Kalka
t ungu is not too s urpri s ing .
A t t empt s t o e l i c it e xamp l e s o f the relat ive in other c a s e relat i ons
have fai l e d . For e xamp l e , t he sentence ' I saw the rock he jumped from '
was tran s l a t ed a s ,
( 5 . 10 4 ) Qa- tu caa � a pa nt i a QUU c u � p a - na pa - Q u �t i a- p i aQu

I-erg here saw rock which j ump - past tha t - ab l r o c k - ab l
( l it . : ' I saw the rock which h e jumped from tha t rock ' . )
and the s ent ence ' I didn ' t s e e what he was frightened of ' was t rans
l at e d as ,
( 5 . 10 5 ) kunt u Qa-tu �apa QUu r um p i - k a

not I- erg saw rel ;ear-p
'I didn ' t s e e wha t he was frightened of ' .
S ince t he c omp lement o f the verb r u m p i i s alway s marked by the causal
case , one would have e xp e c t e d s ome mark ing on Q U . The s e e xamp l e s may
be c orre c t , b ut I s uspect them, as they are c ont rary to the genius o f
t h e language , which normal ly make s c a s e relat ions e xp l i c i t .
102
Att empt s to e l i c i t e xamp l e s o f Q U represent ing an actant in a

LOCATIVE relat ion produced .
( 5 . 10 6 ) Q a - 1u �apa nt i a QUU na-nt i

I- erg saw ;'� a k rel s tand-on
' I saw the roak he s tood on ' .
Thi s appears to b e partly genuine in that - n t i i s used to e xpre s s
the LOCATIVE via the verb , but t h i s should produc e a tran s i t ive verb
� a n t i ' to s tand on ' and I would have e xp e c t e d - n a s uffixed to Q U - .
There are a l so e xamp l e s where Q U i s used with a verb suffixed by - m i
( futur e ) or - na ( past ) plus - 1 i ( locative ) . For e xamp l e ,
( 5 . 10 7 ) Qa-1u wa t e r ba g ku u - Q k u p u t a ma a n t i Q u -wa i Q ka -m i - 1 i
I- erg wat erbag wa ter-erg fi l l rel-¢ go- fut- loc
'I fi l led the wa terbag when I was leaving ' .
( 5 . 10 8 ) caa Qa - 1u i n1 a ka i pu n i j i ka n ka r i - ka Qa i QUU
here I- erg forge t kn ife :" ¢> I rel
a r i - 1 i -na-1 i
e a t - a/p- pas t - loc
' I forgot the knife when I ate ' .
( 5 . 10 9 ) j a r ka - pun i -j a at i QUU a a ! -m i -1 i
far - t r - imp meat r e l p u t - fut - loc
'Mov e the meat away so tha t I aan pu t i t down ' .
( 5 . 110) Qu l urm i -j a caa pi l api la naa m i naQa ra QUU
grab - imp here a h i ld · h ere th lng rel
aa ! -m i -1 i bandage w a Q ka - p i a
put - fut - l oc shin- loc
' Grab the kid 8 0 I aan put that thing, tha t bandage, on h i 8
l eg ' .
There are also examp l e s where an adverb i s added to expre s s the not ion
of ' befor e ' or ' after ' .
( 5 . 111 ) kuu caa Q a - 1u apa Qam p u Q u1una Qu-wa la -m i - 1 i

water here I- erg gave b efore rel-f> ki U - fut - loc
' I gave him wat er before k i l ling him ' .
( 5 . 11 2 ) caa ucan caa an1a1u - j a c a Q ka a 1 i ma� kana QUU i n i -m i -1 i

her e fire h e r e light-imp her e - loc la ter rel s top fut - loc
-
' Light a fire here after we 8 top ' .

Th i s t hen l eave s a res idue of c a se s where we have Q u na and the verb
suffixed by - m i + 1 i . I pres ent the s e be low with glo s s e s and t he infor
mant s ' t ranslations .
i Qka Quna � u -m i -1 i
go rel l i e - future-locat ive
' I go 80 you aan lie down ' .
103
( 5 . 114) Q a i ka i Qka mara Q u na I) u - p c a a n i - m i - i i

I go now l i e - cont in- fut ure - l ocat i ve
' I ' m going ti l l he lay ing down ' .
( 5 . 115 ) ka r i -t i - j a m u ni u - u i Q ka -m i - i i
wa s h- re - imp faa e - dat g o - fut ure - locat ive
' Wash your faae before you go ' .
( 5 . 11 6 ) na ka p i n -t i caa p i ! a - p i ! a uiant i j i maa -c i Q u o. a i u j i - m i - i i
w hy you- erg here a h i l d keep food-dat c o ok - fut - l o c
' Why do you have y our kid with y ou whi le y QU are aook ing the
tuck er ? '
pini Quna i t i -m i -i i t a u n - k u n a p a p l i k a u r - k u o.a k u ! u - k u ! u
you re turn- fut - loc t own - al I ho t e l - all again
tuu-tuu anat i i « a-n i at i i )
wri ting comp : you : pu t down
' When you go baak to town, to the pub, y ou wi l l write i t down ' .
The s en s e o f the Q u na c lause in ( 5 . 1 1 3 ) c l early re fers t o 'before ' ,
in ( 5 . 11 6 ) to ' whi le ' , and in ( 5 . 1 1 7 ) t o ' after ' . As far a s I c an s e e
Q u n a in the ' t ime ' c laus e s i s not s i gn i fi c antly different from Q U .
Whet her Q U or Q u n a i s use d , the s ubordinat e c l ause seems to re fer t o
t ime ' befor e ' , ' when ' or ' after ' . I t l ooks as i f the not ion o f re lative
t ime i s l e ft to the cont e xt , but c an be made e xp l i c i t by the use of an
adverb i f nec e s sary . Apparent ly the sense o f ' in order to ' is also
within the amb i t o f QU c laus e s ( s e e ( 5 . 11 3 ) ) .
5.12. I NT E RROGAT I V E S E N T E N C E S
Mo st int e rrogat ive s ent ences c ontain an interrogat ive pronoun or

adverb or verb . The int e rrogat ive word i s almo st a lways the first word
in the s entenc e . The only interrogat ive sentenc e s wit hout an interro
gat ive word are polar que s t ions marked by ri s ing int onat ion ( s e e e xamp l e
( 5 . 1 32 ) ) .
Not e that n a k a may mean ' what ? ' or ' why ? ' or it may mark a p olar
que s t i on . n a k a j a , n a k a j a k u w a 'V n a k a a k u w a ( na k a + j a + k u + w a )
n a ka j a n ( naka + j an ) s e em t o b e synonymous a l l meaning 'why ' .
n a k a !. u Q u may also expre s s 'why ? '
n a k a i i , the locative c a s e o f n a k a e xpre s s e s ' ho w ? ' , not n a k a i u a s one
would expect .
( 5 . 118) nan i i pa 1 7 ka 1 i
who name not know
' Wha t ' s his name ? I don ' t know ' .
( 5 . 11 9 ) nan i iuna-m i at i -pc i a-i man i -j i - ka 7
who run- fut mea t - dat comp- he get - a/p- ¢
' Who wi l l run and get the meat ? '
104
( 5 . 120 ) nan-ku naa iuku?

w ho- dat h ere dog
' Whose dog is tha t ? '
( 5 . 12 1 ) naka pini j a l) a a l u ? j a l a � l) a , k a l k a t u l) u ?
w hat y ou language Ya lar>nnga Ka l ka tungu
' What ' s your language ? Ya larnnga or Ka lka tungu ? '
( 5 . 122) caa macumpa Qaka - i i p i n-t i laj i ? j a l p i -p i a naa
here roo wha t - 1oc you- erg ki l l n e t - 1oc h ere
I) a - i u laj i
I- erg kiH
' How did y ou ki l l t h e kangaroo? I k i l led i t in a n e t ' .
( 5 . 12 3 ) Qa ka j a k u w a p i n -t i laj i caa j u r u l) a r a - k a ? 1i -ja !

why y o u - erg h i t here man- other- ¢ leave- imp
' Why ar e you h i t ting this o t her man ? Let him a lone ' .
( 5 . 12 4 ) n a ka n a a p i n- t i i t i nt i j i pan t a - pa n t a l) a - c i Qa
w hat h ere you- erg bring: back woo d : adder me-all
' Why d i d you bring t h a t wood adder b a c k to me ? '
( 5 . 12 5 ) Qa ka - j a n p i n -t i caa j u ru-ka laj i ? p u i u r a I) a t a i a t i - p i n
wha t - con y o u - erg here man-¢ hit good s i t- part
' Why did y ou h i t t h i s man ? ' 'He bin good. '
( 5 . 126 ) Q a k a - i u l) u p i n-t i m a i l - m i '/
what- caus you- erg rub': fut
' Why are y ou going to massage him ? '
( 5 . 12 7 ) Qaka- j a n- a t i -m in a - n pini?
wha t - c on- int r- imperf-you you
' What are y ou doing ? '
( 5 . 12 8 ) Qaka- j a p i n-t i i u n t i j i - ka I) a - c i ma r a p a i - k a ?
what- dat y o u - erg take-¢ m e - dat wo�an - ¢
' Why did y ou take my wife ? '
( 5 . 12 9 ) Qa k a - j a n - a t i caa? iuku l amu c a a - ka waia r a -m i
wha t - c on- i ntr here dog ;;; i ght here emerg e - fut
' What wi l l he become ? He mig h t come out a dog (when he d i e s ) ' .
( 5 . 130 ) naka - j a n - pun i j i ?
w hat- con-tr
' What is he doing ? '
( 5 . 131) Q a m i l) u pini apa? Auat i
how many y ou gave two
' How many did he give y o u ? Two ' .
( 5 . 1 32 ) Q i a l) u pini i t i -m i ? w a t a l) a Q a
when y ou re turn - fut tomorrow
' When wi l l you come bac k ? Tomorrow ' .
' Where (at ) ' is e xpre s s ed by a r a ka i i , ' wher e to ' by a rakaQ i and
' where from ' by a r a k a l) u .
105
( 5 . 133) a raka pa k a i c u t u - ka k u u - u - j a - Q u - ka
where that aoo laman- ¢ water - dat - lig-adj - ¢
' Where ' s t h e aoo laman to p u t t h e wa ter in ? ' ( ' aoo laman
be long water ' )
( 5 . 1 34 ) a ra ka l i )1 i n i 7 Qili
where you here
' Where are y o u ? Here ' .
( 5 . 135) a rakan i )1 i n i 7 k i a - ka
where 7 t o y o u t h i s : way - ¢
' Where are you going ? This way ' .
( 5 . 136) kia )1 l n l ( i Q ka ) 7 k i a - ka
wh i a h : way y ou go this : wa y - ¢
' Whiah way a r e y o u going? T h i s way ' .
( 5 . 137) n a k a l i c a j a n )1 i n - t i l a j i - k a ma c u m p a - k a ? i )1 c i j i n a a
how y ou - erg ki l l- ¢ kangaroo hit t here
Qa-lu �t i a - ku ( i )1 c i ' to hit with a mis s i le ' )
=
I- erg s tone- erg

' H o w d i d you ki l l the kangaroo ? I h i t him with a stone ' .
Po lar inte rro gat ive s are e xpre s s e d , ( a ) b y us ing interrogat ive in
tonat i on , ( b ) with w i i or w i I i , or ( c ) n a k a •
( 5 . 138) )1 i n - t i a - Q i - la ? n a k a a k u wa )1 i n - t i Qa i l a - m i - ka 7
y ou- erg comp-m e - h i t why y ou - erg m e h i t - fut ure - ¢
'Are y o u going t o h i t m e ? Why ar e y o u going t o h i t m e ? '
( 5 . 139) wi i )1 i n i pulu ra ini7
query y ou good be
'Are you b eing good ? '
( 5 . 140) wi I i )1 i n - t i w a k u - ka c i a j i - mpa - n 7
query y ou - erg s k in - ¢ take out/off-perf-you
'Hav e you taken the s kin off? '
No s i gn i fi c an c e appears to at tach t o the distinction between w i i and
w i T i ; b ot h o c c ur with intran s i t ive and t rans it i ve verb s for instanc e .
w i i may s imp ly be w i l i with I deleted in acc ordance with the t endency
to delet e consonant s between like vow e l s ( s e e § 2 . 1 3 . ) .
5.13. INDEFIN ITES
The interrogat ive s are not us ed a s inde fini t e s a s i n s ome language s .

Q a r p a i s t he inde finite ' s ome areatur e ' . Q a r p a . . . • Q a r p a Q a r a may b e
u s e d for ' ( t h e ) one . . . . . ( t h e ) other ' . m i na Q a r a i s ' s ome thing ' . m i naQara
i s also used in a way that c orre sponds t o our use o f t erms like
' whatahamaaa l li t ' and there i s a verb form m i n a Q a r a ma 'to wha tahamaaa l li t ' .
Q a r p a and m i n a Q a r a dec line l i ke regular nouns .
CHAPTER 6
WORD ORDER AND THEMAT I C STR UCTU R E
6 .1 . IW R D O RD E R I N T H E S I M P L E S E NT E N C E
There i s a good deal o f var iat ion i n word order , but i t s eems t hat
the most frequent pat t e rns for int ran s it ive and transit ive s ent ences
are :
( a) intransi tive : S i V
( 6 . 1) w a m pa caa i I) k a
girt here go
' The g i r t goes ' .
(b) transitive A P V
(6.2) m a c u m pa caa l) a i � a l) a
kangaroo here m e saw
' The kangaroo saw m e ' .
However , t he patt ern A V P is fairly c ommon too . Verb le s s s e nt en c e s
o c c ur t oo o f cours e :
( 6 . 3) pini caa j a fl i
y ou here white man
' You are a whi t e man ' .
O ft en t he topic i s s e t o f f from the comment by c a a or n a a a s in the
e xamp l e s ab ove .p a a may a l s o b e used but only i f t here i s r e ferenc e to
a locat ion re lat ive l y distant from the s peaker , whereas c a a and n a a need
not have any d e i c t i c func t i on ( s e e § 3 . 2 . 4 . ) .
( 6 . 4) l) a r k u n paa iuna l) a m p u i a t i
wa t t there run di sappear
' The w a t taroo is running away ' .
c a a and n a a s eem t o be us e d also as ' he s i t at i on fi l lers ' . For e xamp l e ,
an i n formant in t rans lating a di fficult Engli sh s entence w i l l o ft en use
c a a or naa in front of each group o f words t rans lat ed . They are a l s o
107
10 8
used for pros odic effect . In the fol lowing example , for ,ins t anc e , the
func t i on o f c a a i s t o b alan c e k u n t u and more import ant ly t o s e t o f f t he
s e c ond phono logi cal phras e from the first .
( 6 . 5) n a n - ku �! i a7
w h o - datmoney
' Whos e money is it ? '
kunt u I) a - c i - k a , caa j a ,n i - i
not m e - dat ¢ here white man- dat
-
' It ' s not mine, i t ' s the white man ' s ' .
Adverb s and adverb - l ike noun phra s e s ( e . g . locat ive s ) t end t o fol low
the S i V, A P V, A V P patt e rns l i s t ed ab ove . Negat ives and int erro
gat ives , howeve r , are virt ua l l y alway s in s ent enc e - init ial pos i t i on .
( 6 . 6) kunt u p i n-t i a pa p u iu r - ka , p i n t i a pa i U l) u m p i r i
not you- erg gave good- ¢ y ou - erg gav e bad
' You didn ' t give him good (food ) . You gave him bad (food ) ' .
Locat ive phra s e s are o ft en a c c ompanied ( pre ce ding or fo l lowing ) b y
a n adverb e xpre s s ing a spec ific orientation :
( 6. 7) iua r nt i a - p i a p i r i Ua
snake roa k - loc on top
'The snake is on the roak ' .
6.2. N O U N P H RA S E
Within the noun p hra se the modi fier ( det ermined seman t i c a l l y ) norma l l y
fol lows t h e head :
(6. 8) pini i I) ka nt i a - a-
na j a u n - ku u a
y ou go � t - al l big-all
' You ' r e going to the big moun tain ' .
H oweve r , demonstrat ive s and adncminal dat ive s normally precede the head :
(6. 9) I) a - i u pini c i pa-j i a t i -uiu i pc i -m i

I - e rg you t h i s - erg meat- erg h i t - fut
' I ' l l hit y ou with this meat ' .
( 6 . 10) I) a - c i pa p i p i m i u a l) a r a m a j i - p c a l) u k a r i j i - p c a l) � mu r u - u
m e - dat f ' s m whatahamaaa l l i t- hab it a lean- hab it �
c a p dat -
'My granny wha tahamaaa l l i ts . . . eh . . . a leans the aamp ' .

I t i s c ommon , part i c ularly with ergat ive noun phra se s , t o s p l i t the
c o n s t it uent s , o ft en by putt ing one ( or more ) in senten c e init ial p o s i t ion
and the ot her ( or other s ) in s entenc e final p o s it ion :
( 6 . ll ) I) a - c i - k a ku l a -j i 1 aj i iua r malia j a pacara -iu

m e - dat - ¢ fa:' erg k i H snake mob a l ev er - erg
'My a le v er fa ther k i l led the snake s ' .
109
Not e t hat a l l c ons t it uent s o f a noun phra s e , whether they are

s eparated or not , r e c e ive the c a s e marking appropriate to the s yntac t ic
fun c t ion o f t he phra se as a who l e . The only e xcept ions are dative
adj unc t s whic h are s omet ime s not marked , p ar t i c ular ly in A funct ion , as
in the prec eding and the following examp le s :
( 6 . 12 ) I) a - c i l ku ! a - j i a � k a - mani i -i u !aj i caa i U l) u m p i r i

m e - dat fa erg -a i Z- imperf-erg ki Z Z here bad
' My s ic k fa ther k i Z Zed the bad man ' .
B e s ide s noun phra s e s c on s i s t ing o f demons trat ive and/or nomina l head
and/or nominal modifi er there is a type consist ing o f a non- s ingular
personal pronoun fo l l owed by a nominal further sp e c i fying the re ferenc e
o f the pronoun . Thus I) a ! i k U l) i , l it era l ly 'm e : two wife ' means 'my w ife
and I ' , k U l) i spec i fying the non first -per s on re ferent of I) a ! i .
I) a ! i p i n i ' you and I '

I) a ! i j a p i ' the whi t e man and I '
I) a ! i m u a � l) u - w a p c i r 'my cousin and I ' ( m u a � l) u
' cou8in ' - w a p c i r ( se e § 5 . 2 . 7 . 3 . )
i i na j u l paj a paia ' they, a fa ther and his 8on8 '
( se e § 5 . 2 . 7 . 3 . )
6.3. V E R B P H RAS E
The verb phras e cons i s t s of a verb or of t wo ( or more ? ) verb s s t ruc

t urally in paral l e l , i . e . sharing the same t en s e /aspect , vo ic e , mood and
transit ivit y ( e . g . - t i , - p c a ma - ) markin g . In mo st ins tanc e s the verb s
are s emant i c a l ly equip o l l ent , i . e . there i s no head and no mod i fie r .
( 6 . 13) I) a m p u caa I) a - i u a t i - ka p i pc i j i p i U i pun i j i
comp Z e t e Z y here I- erg m e a t - ¢ cut chop
'I chopped up a Z Z the meat ' .
( 6 . 14 ) k u p a l) u r u c a a I) a - i u �apa n u - pc aa n i - c i n a n ka - c i n
o Z d man here I- erg saw i i e - c ontin- part a i Z - part
'I saw the o Zd man Zying down i Z Z ' .
( 6 . 15 ) p i ! a - p i ! a ma t u - u p c i - j a - k u I) a n i a m a j i - n a p a p c a j i - n a
chi ld m o - h i 8 - lig- dat l o o k for past v ery - past -
' The chi l d 8 earched hard for his mot her ' .
I t i s pos s i b l e t hat the para l l e l verb s rep resent s eparat e c onst i t uent s
of the s ent ence or o f a predicate phrase rather than of a verb phra s e .
Howeve r , I c an find no instance where one o f the verb s but not the other
i s mod ified b y an adverb .
llO
6.4. C O - O R D I N AT I O N O F N O U N P H R A S E S
Two o r more noun phra s e s may b e j oined b y - j a n a ( and) s uffixed t o

the non- init ial phrase o r phra s e s , o r to a l l t he phras e s .
( 6 . 16) i t i -j i m a r a pa i - 1 u - j a n a p i ! a - p i ! a laj i - na
man- erg woman- erg-and chi Zd hi t-past
' The man and the woman hit the chi Zd ' .
N o un phra s e s may al s o b e co ordinat ed wit hout any c onj unc t i on . Where
r e ferenc e is made t o t he part o f a who l e , it is normal t o use nominals
in app o s i t i on for the whole and the part r e sp e c t i vely . Pre vious ly I
reported t he s e who le-plus -part sequenc e s ( e . g . Q a r k u n 1 a p a n t u ' wa Z Zaroo
foot ' i . e . 'wa Z Zaroo ' s foo t ' ) as const itut ing a noun phras e . Howeve r ,
Tsunoda has point ed out t hat each nominal probab ly represents a s eparat e
phrase and c an be modi fied independent ly of the other . The appo s it i ve
nominals are not ne c e s s arily j uxtaposed , but it is norma l in Kalkatungu
for const i t uents o f a noun phras e to b e s eparated w ith the modifier
b e ing nominali se d . See ( 6 . 11 ) .
6.5. C O M P L E X S E NT E N C E S
Comp l e x s ent e n c e s have been d e s c ribed i n chapt ers four and five . Here
i s a c he c k l i st of t ypes of s ub ordinate c laus e :
(a) favourit e construct ion

(b) , l e s t ' construct ion
(c) part i c ipial c l aus e s (i) -p i n
( 11) - m a n1 i
( d) t emporal/re lat ive c laus e s
( e) - p c a a j a c laus e s
( f) t ime c l au s e s i n - p i n , - p i n t a
Thi s leave s the fo l lowing cons t ruc t ion unde s c rib ed s ince there i s no
morphological peg to hang it on .
6.5. 1 . I NV E P E N V E N T C L AUS E AS P
The verb s p u n p a j i ( ' to as k ' ) , p a n t i j i ( ' to inform ' ) , p a t i ( ' to order,

t o inform ' ) o c cur with independent c laus e s funct ioning a s their PATIENT .
( 6 . 17 ) p u n pa - j a c a a marapa i 1unt i j i pa-j i Qa-c i cutu
ask- imp here woman take tha t - erg m e - dat coo Zaman
' A s k that woman if she took my coo Zaman ' .
( 6 . 18 ) Qa - 1 u pini pat i -na Qa-c i mat u i Qka-m i Q a - c i na
I- erg you t e Z Z - pas t me- dat mo go- fut me- a l l
' I to Zd y ou my mother was coming to ( s e e ) me ' .
111
Howeve r , i f t h e P o f t h e govern ing verb represent s t he n e gat i ve o f

a command , the negat i ve i s e xpre s s e d by k u n t u n o t w a n t a .
( 6 . 19 ) Qa-iu rini pat i -na kunt u Qa i -ka � u wa - Q i

I- erg you t e l l - past n o t me-¢ 8 e e : imp-me
'I to ld you n o t t o look a t me ' .
( b ut not e that ' don ' t ' i s normally e xpre s s ed b y w a n t a )
A few e xamp l e s occur i n which the verb o f the P c l aus e i s marked b y

-r i n .
( 6 . 20 ) r i n-t i Qa i kun t u pat i -na caa cut u r i n-t i ma n i - r i n

y ou - erg me not t e l l- past here coo laman you - erg t a k e - part
' You didn ' t t e l l me y ou had ta ken t h e coo laman ' .
6.5.2. WORV O R V E R I N C O M P L EX S EN T E N C ES
The favour i t e cons t ruc t ion , the ' le st ' c onst ruct i on and the - r c a a j a
construct ions regu larly fo llow the ma in c laus e o f the sentence s i n whi c h
t hey o c c ur . - r i n and - m a n i i c laus e s follow the main c lause i f they
qua l i fy P in the main c l ause b ut they may b e embe dded fo l lowing the 8 i
or A of a main c l aus e ; s imi larl y , ' re l at ive ' c laus e s in Q U . . . . . . . i i
almo s t alway s fo l low the main c laus e .
Whe reas the word or der of independent c laus e s e xhi b it s a good deal
of variat i on , there t ends to be a fa irly r i gid word order in s ub ordinat e
c laus e s . I n t he favourit e construc t i on , for instanc e , the word order
is :
AGENT c omp lement i s er + b ound pronouns verb

" " " "
PATIENT
With the ' l e st ' construc t ion the verb i s a lmos t alway s s entence final .
There are insuffi c i ent e xamp l e s of ' le st ' construct ions with P repre s en
t ed b y a noun phra s e t o make it c lear whet her P alway s precede s a n a or
k u o u ( s ee § � . 4 . ) as one would e xpect by analogy w i t h the favourite
c ons truc t i on . A s e ems to c ome first in the ' le st ' c o ns t ruc t ion .
The verb i s alway s sentence final i n Q U . . . . . i i cons truct i on s , b ut
there are t o o few e xamp l e s of noun phra s e s i n t h i s c on s t ruct i on t o indi
c at e how fixed their p o s it ion might be .
Where Q U or Q u o a o c c ur func t i oning as relat i ve pronouns they s e em t o
o c c ur a s t h e s e c ond const i t uent i n t h e Q U c laus e , t he order b e i n g N P
Q U verb :
( 6 . 21 ) a ra k a paka i r i n-t i Qu-na Q a n i a m a j i - k a u t u pa

where i t you- erg rel-acc find- ¢ frog
' Where ' 8 the frog you found ? '
112
T h e word order wit hin - p i n c laus e s s eems to e xhib it s ome vari at ion
and since mo st o f the - ma Q1 i c laus e s a re int ran s i t i ve not much c an be
said ab out their word ord e r .
Two dominant tenden c i e s that can b e found in s ub ordinat e c l aus e s
are :
( a) the verb is a lmo st a lway s c l ause- final whereas in independent

c l aus e s the patterns VS i and AVP are not too unc ommo n .
(b ) a grammat ical part i c le or part i c le-pIus -bound pronoun appears

regularly as the s e c ond cons t i t uent o f a s ubordi nat e c lause if there
i s a non-verb cons t i t uent pres ent :
)
1 2 3
adverb a- verb
ob lique NP ana
+ bound pronoun
A kUQu
P uQu
I) U
6.6. C OM P O U N D S E N T E N C E S
Simp le sente nce s may b e c o ordinat ed simp l y b y using the non-ris ing
n on-fa l ling final intonat ion c ont our ( /�/) on the non-in it ial sentenc e s
o f the sequence .
( 6 . 22 ) p i n i - ka 1una • I) a - c i k u l a - k a ma n u
y ou- � run me- dat fa� ¢ s tow
' You are fas ter than my fa ther ' .
( 6. 23) pini I) a i - I) u p i l a -p i ] a I) a i k u p a l) u r u
.
you me- loc ahi td I o td man
' I 'm o tder than y ou ' .
( 6 . 24) c a a - ka j aun u l u j a n - ka I) a r p a l) a r a ka t a ku l u
here - ¢ big eag t e - ¢ o t her sma n
' The eag te i s the bigges t bird of a t t ' .
Overt co-ordinators are not common . -j a n a ( ' and ' ) may be used to c o
ord inate sentenc e s ( see § 5 . 7 . ) , in which c a s e it i s suffixed t o the
fir s t word of the co -ordinat ed c lause .
A c ompound sentence may be formed by omit ting S i or A from the non
init ial c lause .
( 6 . 25 ) p a a -m i a ka j a i l) k a - Q a • l aj i -n a
tha t plura l g o - past
- hit -
' Those wen t , hit
In such a con s truc t i on or inde ed in any c o- ordinate construc t i on ,
there d o e s not seem t o be any evidence of the ergat ive princ ip le we
113
find operat ing i n subordinate c laus e s . We do not have a c ho i c e betwe e n

us ing - j i o r omi t t ing it . We cannot c o -ordinate on the ba s i s of P being
r e ferential wit h 8 or wit h A . I n ( 6 . 2 5 ) t here i s n o p o s s ib i l i t y o f
i
omit ting - j i from l a j i t o give t he meaning ' were h i t ' . To e xpre s s
'went and got hit ' one would have t o introduce Q a r p a a s an inde finite
agent .
( 6 . 26) paa-m i akaja i Qka -ua , Qa r pa - lu laj i -na

t ha t - plural go-past i nde f-erg h i t - past
' They wen t and someone hit them ' .
Co-ordinat ion is most c ommonly e f fe cted by a combinat ion o f int on
a t i on and bound pronoun s . E s sent i a l ly we have independent s entenc e s
co-ordinated only inasmuc h a s the non- final c l au s e s o f the sentence are
marked by /+/ . Where c laus e s are so c oordinat e d , it is normal t o r epre
s ent 8 and A by the 8 /A set of b ound pronoun s ( § 3 . 3 . ) in the non
i i
init ial c lause s . The s e bound pronoun s may be used in a sentenc e - init i a l
c lause o r indee d in any indep endent c laus e . P may a l s o b e repre sent ed
by a bound pr onoun but the series o f P pronoun s app e ar s t o be defec t i ve .
The fir st p er s on and third p er son s ingular in 8 i or A fun c t ion i s repre
s ented by zero .
( 6. 27) mpaj a k u n t u Q a nlama i - ua Q u r kuna i t i -na -mpa-uu

y ou : 2 n o t find-past emp ty - h r e turn-past-perf- y ou : 2
' You two didn ' t find a n y a n d y ou came b a c k emp t y - handed ' .
( 6. 28 ) m a r a pa i -lu � a ra t ha t c a a , i Q k a - ua - j u lumpa r a r a - a ,
woman - erg saw that here go-past - they : 2 Z i zard- dat
i t i -nt i j i -na-j u , la j i -j u lumpa r a r a
re turn-tr-pas t - they : 2 k i Z Z - they : 2 Z i zard
' The women saw tha t . They wen t for the Zi zard, brought it
back and ki Z Zed i t ' .
(6. 29) ma r a pa i - l u Qa i laj i ka k i - j a n - p u n i j i - Q i
woman- erg me hit wound- c on-tr-me
'The woman h i t me and wounded me ' .
The verb o f non- init ial c laus e s de s crib ing a se quen c e o f a c t ions may
be suffixed by - m p a .
( 6 . 30 ) caa Qa-lu m a n i j i lua r - ka j a ra r i man i j i -mpa laa wa k i n i

here I- erg get sna k e - r6 tai Z get-seq now spin
l a j i -ma n t i j i -mpa m u - lu
h i t -w i t h s e q ground- loc
'I get the snake by the ta i Z, get it and ki Z Z it by whipping
it on the ground ' .
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6. 7 . T H E MAT I C S T R U C T U R E
The pre c eding genera l i s at i ons about word order were made wit hout
re ference to t hemat ic struc ture . A c on s iderat ion of the t hematic struc
t ure brings out two c l ear princ ip l e s :
(a) t he topic pre c edes the c omment
(b) the s entenc e - initial posit ion i s one t hat can be used for foc u s .
Con s ider for e xamp l e sentenc e s such a s the foll owing where t he spe c i fic
prec e d e s t he generic , the spec ific obvi ously represent ing the t op ic .
( 6 . 31 ) pi ri l i caa k u p a l) u r u
Ny iri li here o ld man
' Nyir i l i is an o ld man ' .
( 6. 32) k u n ka paa p i np i r i
tree there coo libah
' That tree is a coo libah ' .
A l l other t hings be ing equa l , A precedes P . Howeve r , mos t o f the
we l l-known top ic a l i s at ion tendenc ie s override t his underl ying orde r .
I f A i s inanimate or inde finit e i t tends t o fol low P , part ic ularly i f
P i s human , mo st e sp e c ially i f i t i s fir st p erson .
( 6 . 33) I) a i - k a u n 1 a j i k u u - I) k u
I- ¢ soak rain- erg
' I got caught in the rain ' .
( 6 . 34 ) caa j uniu I) a - c i iuku p i li i p u n i j i c i p a - j i n t i a - ku

h e r e arm me- dat dog crush this - erg r ock- e r g
I) u j i - p i n - t u
fa l l - past erg -
' The fa l ling rock crushed my dog ' s paw ' .

(6. 35) caa p u s s y c a t I) a - c i I) a r p a - i u laj i
here c a t me- dat someone- erg ki l l
' Someone k i l led m y cat ' . ' My cat got ki l l ed ' .
The u s e of I) a c i fo l lowing i t s head i s unusual .
Regarding point ( b ) , that the sentence-init ial p o s i t ion may be used

for focus , t he fo llowing e xamp le s are offered . The foc us will o ften b e
in i t s ' norma l ' p o s it i on within t h e c omment , but almo s t as o ften i t i s
moved to t h e front o f t h e s ent enc e .
I n the first e xamp l e , i p c i j i i s i n fo cus . Not e that la - , t he verb
used in the que s t i on , me an s ' hi t by contact ' or ' ki l l ' and it is used
where t he det a i l s o f hitt ing or k i l ling are not known . i p c i on the
other hand means ' to hit wi th a missi l e ' or ' to chop ' :
115
( 6 . 36 ) n a ka i i ca j a n p i n-t i l a j i - ka ma c u m p a - k a ?
how you - erg k i t L - ¢ kangaroo- ¢
' How did y ou ki n the kangaroo ?
i pc i j i naa I)a - i u I) t i a - k u
hit here I- erg s tone- erg
'I hit him with a stone ' .
( 6 . 37) p i pa n i ca a j u ru
c l ev er here man
' He ' s c L ever that b lo k e ' .
( 6 . 38 ) c a - I) k a j a l) u m a � a I) a i i l) k a - n a k u a - l a l) u
t h i s - ab 1 now I g o - p a s t c r e e k - ab 1
' This is t h e c r e e k I came from ( t his morn ing) ' .
c i pa-j i k u n ka - k u Iai caa iua r , c a l) ka a i i
t h i s - e rg s t i c k - erg hi t here sna ke her e
n u - pc aa n i - c i n anii i j a
i i e - cont in- part m o u t h : 1oc
' T h i s is the s ti c k I u s ed to h i t t h e snake w h o was ly ing
in the doorway ' . ( ' Wi t h this s t ic k I hit . . . ' )
( 6 . 39) L.M. l) a - 1 u I) u l u r m a j i wa k a r i
I- erg catch fish ·
' I caugh t [ s ome ] fi sh ' .
M.M. wa k a r i m a n i j i I) a - c i - w a - i u ma r a pa i - iu ; malta
fis h get m e - dat - 1ig -erg woman-erg mob
w a ka r i m a n i j i I) a - c i - wa - iu ma r a pa i - i u
fish get m e -dat - 1 i g -erg woman-e rg
' ffy wife got [ som e ] fis h; my wife got a l o t of fi s 1
( 6 . 40 ) B . B. nami p i l a - p i .l a a t i j i
h ow many ch i ld produ c e
' How many chi ldren does she have ? '
M . M. k u r pa i c i p a - j i at ij i
three t h i s - erg produce
, She ha s three ' .
( 6 . 41) B.B. ' How wou ld y ou catch u t i l) a r ? '
M.M. j a l p i - I) k u , j a l p i - I) k u I) a - i u laj i u t i l) a r - k a
n e t - erg k i l l emu - ¢
n e t - erg I-erg
' Wi t h a net, I ki l l emus with a n e t ' .
Oa j i is not to be t aken l it era l l y )
( 6 . 42 ) M.M. nan i p i n-t i pat i -na?

who y o u - erg t e n -past
' Who did you t e n ? '
L.M. iki I) a - i u pat i -na
Hic key I-erg t e L L - past
' I to ld Hickey . . . . . ,
116
( 6 . 43) B.B. ' Where were you born ? '

M. M . j a m i l i - j am i l i -i i I) a i I) a - c i mat u - j u
O Z d Hammer Zy � loc me m e - dat m o - erg
'A t O Zd HammerZy my mother had me ' .
( 6 . 44) ma c u m p a n a ka i i p i n-t i la j i ?
kangaroo how y o u - erg ki Z Z
'The kangar o o . How did y ou ki Z Z i t ? '
jal pi -pia naa I) a - i u laj i
n e t - loc h ere I-erg ki Z Z
' I caught i n a n e t ' .
Not e in ( 6 . 4 4 ) t hat ma c u m p a appears out s ide the s entenc e a s a preposed

top ic . Th i s familiar devi c e i s not unc ommon in Kal katungu .
6.8. D E L ET I NG A AND P
Since t hird person s ingular i s repres ent ed norma lly by zero , there
will b e many e xamp l e s o f indep endent c laus e s with no overt A or P even
apart from e ll ip t i c a l s entenc e s . Howeve r , apart from this , it s eems
t hat one c an omit an inde finit e A . Thus one fin d s senten c e s such a s ,
( 6 . 45) I) a - c i ku l a naa ka t i j i - n a I) i i i
m e - dat fa t her h ere bur y - past here
' My fa ther was buried here ' .
However , I) a c i k u l a in ( 6 . 4 5 ) i s P not S i ( i t would be repr e s ented i n
t h e a c c u s at ive i f reali sed a s a b ound pronoun ) . I think we must c on
s ider t hat t here is a third person A pre sent , real i s e d by z ero .
Apparent ly this z ero third person form can be used for an inde finite A .
Thi s c ho i c e of an i nde finite A and the related fact that I) a c i k u l a in
( 6 . 4 5 ) is t o p i c give the impre s s ion that thi s is an i ntrans i t ive pas s ive
l i ke s entenc e . Howeve r , s t ructurally i t i s tran s i t i ve .
Any examp l e s o f the omi s s ion o f an inde finite P involve the ant i
pas s ive , e . g . m a ! u ,t, u j i ' mo th e r cooks ' .
CHAPTER 7
KAL KATUNGU I N COMPARAT I VE / H I STOR I CAL P E R S P ECT I VE
7.1 . C LA S S I F I C AT I O N B Y L E X I C O S T A T I ST I C S
I n 1 9 6 6 O ' Grady , Wurm and H a l e pub l i shed a le xic o s t at i s t i cal c la s s i

fi cation o f Austral ian language s based o n the ' p e rc entage o f c o gnat e
lexical it ems ' ( O ' Grady and Klokeid 19 6 8 : 2 9 8 ) that languages had in
common . The c l a s s i fi c at i on app eare d in t he form of a map ( s e e refe ren
c e s ) , but a l i st o f Austral ian language s c l as s i fied a s on the map
appeared in Anthropo logi c a l Lingui s t i c s 8 : 2 . The met hod s used to arrive
at the c la s s i ficat ion are desc rib ed in O ' Grady and K l okeid 1 9 6 8 . A
revi s e d ver s i on of the c la s s ification appeared in Wurm 1 9 7 2 .
The c l a s s i ficat ion has b e en s t rongly crit i c i s ed by D i xon ( 19 7 2 : 3 3 7 )
o n the grounds that i t t akes t o o lit t le a c c ount o f b orrowing , but never
t he le s s the c la s s i ficat ion provide s a u s e ful orient at ion .
O ' Grady and co . c l a s s i fy two communalec t s sharing over 7 0 per c ent o f
vocab ulary in c ommon a s dialec t s o f t h e s ame language . Communal e c t s
s haring b etween 51 per c ent and 7 0 per c ent are c l a s s i fi e d as language s
of the s ame sub group ; those sharing between 1 5 per cent and 2 5 per c ent
are c la s s ified as memb ers of t he s ame fami ly , and those s haring l e s s
t han 1 5 per cent are c la s s i fi e d a s memb e r s o f s eparate fami l i e s .
The c l a s s ificat i on recogni s e s 2 9 fami l i e s ( 2 7 in Wurm ' s revi s i on )
with one fami ly , the Pama-Nyungan , c overing over t wo-thirds of the
cont inent and the other 2 8 ( 2 6 in Wurm) b e ing conc entrat e d in a cont in
uous b loc running from Dampier Land in West ern Austra l i a to the w e s t e rn
coast o f the Gul f o f Carpentaria in north-w e s t Queens land . A s can b e
obs erved from t h e map , the Pama-Nyungan family h a s an enc l ave i n north
east Arnhem Land .
Kalkat ungu i s c la s s i fied by O ' Grady and co . a s the s o l e memb e r o f
the Kalkatungic Group within t h e Pama-Nyungan family .
S ince Kalkatun gu i s on the northern periphery of the Pama-Nyungan
area and s in c e from c a s ua l obs ervat ion it appears to l ac k many of the
117
118
w e l l - known wid e spread Pama-Nyungan words suc h a s t i n a 'foot ' and ma r a

' hand ' , it i s intere st ing t o c he c k t o s e e i f Kalkatungu r e a l ly i s Pama
Nyungan .
The fo l l owing figure s indicate t he proportion of words Kalkatungu
s hares with it s neighbours and near ne ighb our s . The fir s t figure in
each entry , t he vulgar frac t ion , indicates the actua l numb er of it ems
that were common to the l i s t s being c ompared and the a c t ua l number o f
i t ems comp are d . The s e c ond figure e xpre s s e s t h i s rat io as a perc entage .
The figur e s were obt ained by compar ing as many it ems as p o s s ib le from
a variety of sourc e s .
The ent ry listed as ' Curr 9 7 ' i s the vocabul ary numbere d 9 7 in C urr
and presented as a vocabulary o f ' Mykoo lan ' ( /m a y i k u l a n/ ) . Howeve r ,
neither t he locat ion nor t h e ac tual words given tally with what we know
from other s ourc e s for ma y i ku l a n . The location is given as ' b etween
the Gre gory and Leichardt [ s i c ] Rivers ' . Providing they were well up
along the s e rive r s ( i . e . we l l to t he sout h ) , the speakers o f voc abulary
97 would have b e en neighb ours or ne ar ne ighbours of the Kalkat ungu .
The language of 9 7 i s c l e arly of the May iyapi typ e , i . e . re lat ed to
Mayikut una , Mayiyapi , N gawun , Mayikulan , Mayithakurti and Wunamara . I t
a l s o contains t h e h ighe s t perc entage of what are fairly obvious ly l oan
words from Kalkatungu of any of the Mayiyap i-type sourc e s . Th i s sugge s t s
that the name Mayikulan i s incorrect a s Mayikulan was c ertainly not
cont iguous wit h Kalkatungu . The loc at ion given in Curr sugge s t s that
it b e longs in the southern part o f Mayikutuna t e rrit ory and inde ed it
contains a few di st inctively May ikutuna t erms such as m u t a ' bad ' , y i r m a n
'man ' and m u n i ' tongue ' . I w i l l leave i t as s i mply Curr 9 7 but the
patt e rn of s hared vocabulary items , not only it ems s hared with Kalkat un
gu but a l s o with other Mayiyap i-type c ommunalec t s , s ugge st s that it i s
prob ably ' s outhern May ikutuna ' .
Kalkatungu and Wanyi 5/1 5 0 3%

" "
Mayiyapi 32/2 00 16 %
" "
' Curr 9 7 ' 2 4/1 09 2 6%
" "
May ithakur t i 3 8/1 50 2 5%
" "
Wunamara 22/100 22 %
" "
Guwa 30/200 15%
" "
Yanda 1 5/102 1 5%
" "
Yalarnnga 71V1 6 7 4 3%
" "
Warluwara 22/900 2%
" "
Bularnu 9/200 5%
" "
Yaruwinga 3/15 0 2%
119
The s e a r e raw figur e s w i t h n o a l l owance for probab l e b o rrowings .

Each compari s on invo lves two non- lexical it ems , name ly the root s for
' I ' and ' y ou ' . In thos e c a s e s where t he s e t wo words c ould not be
found , they were a s s umed to b e c ognate with Kalkatungu . The root s ,
Q a - ' I ' and N Y u - N Y i 'you ' , are found in prac t i c a l l y every P ama-Nyungan
l anguage and can be found in languages or diale c t s c l o s e ly related t o
t h o s e s ourc e s i n wh ich we find they are not rec orde d .
The fol lowing li s t s give t he words t hat are common to Ka lkat ungu and
each of the neighb ouring languages I c ompared Ka lkat ungu with . The
it ems marked by a cro s s ( X ) to the l e ft of Ka lkat ungu entry are t h o s e
which I c on s ider to b e loan words as opposed t o genuine c ognat e s or o l d
b orrowings .
There are doubt l e s s phonet i c inac c urac i e s in the se l i s t s but this
should not affect the figures based on a c ompar i s on o f the s e l i s t s .
Wanyi
Engl i s h Wany i Kalkat ungu

I Qaka Qaj I
you n I pc I p i nt I
crow waaku l a X wa k a ! a , w a a k a ! a
corroboree c U l) p a 1 c U l) p a { 'j ump ' }
rock wa l. l.aby Qa! I Qa ! I X Qa ! I Q a ! I
Mayiyapi
Engli s h May iyapi Kalkat ungu

y oung man japlj l ri X j a pa r l r l
fa t her ' s mother pa p i X pa p l ( p l )
hair wa r um p u wa r u p u
eye mi l l mlHI
beard j a n pa r j a l) p a r
s toma ch waj l r wa l r a { ' hear t ' }
Qa p u r a put u { ' s tomach ' }
nav e l. cUQku c I I Qku
excrement wan1 u , w a n a unu
sores kak I ka k I
kangaroo m a c u m pa , kuru X ma c u mpa
wa l. l.aroo Qarkunu X Qarkun
kangaroo rat c I ka 1 X c l ka l { 'bandicoot ' }
bandicoot p l ku r a , wun l X p l kura
fZy ing fox mUQ u r mup l { ' bat ' }
fis h pa l p l , waka j l wa k a r l
120
eag l e hawk k u r i 1a l a X k u r i 1a l a
w i1-d t u r k e y p a r k a m u , 1 u r u l) a X p a rkamu
koo kaburra/ja c k a s s c a r u l) k u l X c a r u l) k u l ( ' j a c ka s s ' }
crow 1 u l) u p a r i , w a j a wa ka ! a , w a a k a ! a
b la c k duc k k a r a pa , p l nt u ra X k a r a p a ( ' duc k ' )
f1- y m I 1 1) a , pimu1 X m I 1 1) a
fe a t h e r ku1 1 X ku1 1
sun k uk u r u , p l p c amu ? wanaka , p l p c a mu
t hunder j a n pa r l , pa r I j a n p l r l ( ' l i g h tn i ng ' }
s to n e m I 1) 1 I I) t l a
tr e e k U l) k a , p u k u k u n ka
g ra s s ka1 l r /kac l ra X ka 1 i r
j a l k up
b oomerang j a l ka pa r l X j a l ka pa r l
woomera j I 1 ma n X j u 1 ma n
s h i e ld j ampu ru X j ampu r u
meat ka1 i at i
big j akun j aw u n
dar k w a r a i) k a e t c . w a t a l) k a
b la c k ma r c l n X mac l n , ma r c l n
s i t, s tay j InI I nI
see n a ma I) a -
t hr e e ku r pa r a , k u r pa j l k u r pa l
I I)a j I k u I) a I
you j unt u p i n I , p l nt l
Curr 9 7
Engl i s h Curl' 9 7 Kalkatungu

wa l laroo I) a r k u n X I) a r k u n
p e 1-i c an wa 1 k I r I p a r i X wa 1 k i r i p a r i
whi t e cockatoo j a w u r a \� a r i X j a u i ra
crow wukan X u k a n , wa k a n , wa k a ! a
mos qui to m l ka X m i k a � a , m l kaa
fly m I 1 1) a X m i 1 1) a
three k u r pa J I kurpai
y oung e r s ib 1 -i n g s kacakura k a c a k u ! u ( ' sma l l ' )
y oung man u pa r l pc l X u pa r l pc l
baby p i !api ]a X p i !apI !a
h e ad k a n1 a r k a n 1a
eye mi l i ml H i
ear p l na i n 1 a [ n ormal ] , p l na
[ rare ]
hair wa r um p u wa r u p u
121
b eard janpar
grass kai i r x
exarement kuna unu
reed spear kunkun kunka
woomera j u l ma n X j u l ma n
shi e ld miii r 1 m i ia r
tomahawk ma r i X ma r i a
s tar c i rka X c i rka
dar k w a r a l) k a w a t a l) k a
day n i l a / n i la i Aa
I I) a j i k u I) a i ( nominat i ve )
you j u wa n t u p i nt i ( ergat i ve )
sit jini- ini ( ' remain ' )
May i thakurti
Engli s h Mayithakurt i Ka lkat ungu

young man j a pa r i r i X j a pa r i r i
fat her ' s mother pa p i n X pa p i ( p i )
mother - in - law wa p u i u X wa p u i u
hair wa r u m p u wa r u p u
ey ebrow m i Ac i r i n m i li i ( ' eyes ' )
b e ard j an pa r j a l) p a r
e lbow j u r umuku j urumuku
brea s ts I) a m a k u r a , ia m p u I) a m a n a ( 'chest ' )
s tomaah I) a p u r a put u
big toe c a n a mat u p i k u ( ' n ai l ' ) ma ! u
exarement wunt u wunu
kangaroo mac umpa X macumpa
m a l) u r u l) u
wa l laroo I) a r k u n x I) a r k u n u
kangaroo ra t I) a ! i I) a ! i X I) a ! i l) a ! i ( 'rock wal laby ' )
eahidna ( 'poraupine ' ) wac i nan X wac i naan , cu ruj an
p lain goanna mamp u r u pa r i X mampu ( r u) p a r i ( 'prentie ')
lizard w a l ka a t u X wa l k a a t u
eag le hawk k u r i la l a X kur i ia l a
type of hawk k a c a pa r i X k a ca p i
wi ld turkey pa r kam X pa r k a m u
pe l i aan wa l k i r i pa r i X wa l k i r i pa r i
aore l la ku l u ra X ku l ut a
b la a k dua k ka r a p a X k a r a pa ( ' duc k ' )
spider kupu X kupu
fly m i 1 1) a X m i 1 1) a
122
mosquito mi kaj a , l i w i r X m i ka � a
flock pigeon c i r u wa l i X c u r uwa l i
thunder j a n pa r i j a n p i r i ( ' lightning ' }
wa ter j a p u , kun u kuu
gras s kal i r X kai i r , etc .
boomerang j a l kapa r i X j a l ka pa � i
woomera j u 1 rna n X j u 1 rna n
nu l la ia l i m p i r i X ia l i m p i r i
s h i e ld m i la X m i ia r
s tone knife k a l) k a � i , k a m p u X kanka � i
axe rna r i j a X rna r i a
l i t t le k a ca k u r u , et c . kacaku ! u
s i t , s tay j ini ini
see n a l) ( k ) a m a
,:! a
thr e e k u r pa i a k u r pa i
I 7 I) a i
you 7 rini
W unamara
Engl i s h Wunamara Ka1kat ungu

fa t her ' s s i s ter k U l) i X k U l) i ( 'wife ' )
fa ther ' s mother pap i n X pa p i ( p i )
head k a nia k a nla
hair wa r u m p u wa � u p u
eye mi 1 i mi Hi
beard j anpar j a ,:! p a r
bre a s t s I) a m a k u r a I) a m a ':l a ( ' che s t ' )
s tomach I)a p u r a put u
vu lva jur i 1a X i ri 1a
excrement wunt u unu
wa l laroo I)a r k u n X I) a r k u n
b andi coot p i kura X p i k u ra
p lain goanna mamp u r u pa r i X mampu ( ru ) pa r i ('pren t i e ' )
Z i z ard wa l k aa t u X wa l k a a t u
eag l e hawk k u r i ia l a X k u r i 1a l a
crow w a r ka r a n X wa k a ! a , w a k a n
ga lah k i l aw u r u X k i l aw u r u
f ly m i l l) a X m i l l) a
mosquito m i ka j a X m i ka �a
flock pigeon c i r u wa l i X c u r uwa l i
woomera j u l ma n X j u l ma n
123
nu l. l.a ia l i m p i r i X ia l i mp i r i
I I) a i
you Jl i n i
Guwa
Engli sh Guwa Ka1kat ungu

fa ther kupa kupa , kupakupa ,
k u p a l) u r u ( ' o l.d man ' )
head kaia ka uia
e l.bow j u r i c i mu j u r umuku
bre a s t :t, a mp u , I) a m a n a I) a m a n a ( ' che s t ' )
s tomach ma ( j i ) c a , puru p ut u
tes tes I) u t u I) u t u
anus mi r I , miii m i i i ni i
fa eces kuna unu
body hail' p U Jl c u p U Jl c u
l.ightning r U l) ka r U l) ka ( ' thunde r ' }
thunder wa � t i , j a n p i r i j a n p i r i ( ' l.i g h tn ing ' }
kangaroo macumpa X macumpa
ma l) k u r u l) u
wa l. l.aroo I) a r k u n a X I) a r k u n
fi s h wa k a n i , p a l p l waka r i
sand goanna pa r i para X pa r i pa r i ( ' carpet snake ' }
bro l.ga k u li u r u X k u li u u r
pe l.1:can wa l k i r i p a r i et c .x wa l k i r i p a r i
eag l. ehawk k u r i ia l a e t c . X k u r i ia l a
k i t e - hawk kaca pa r i X kacap i
crow wa k a � a X wa k a ! a , w a a k a ! a
ga l.ah k i l a wu r u X k i l awu r u
k i I a Jl c i
wi l.d tur key p a r kamu X p a r ka m u
egg kuiu kuiu
c o o l.ibah rna k a r u X maka r u
g idyea pacara X pacara
s h i e l.d k u n p a r a , j a mpu r u X j ampu ru
s tone knife ka n ka r i X k a n ka r i
d i l. l.y bag p U l) k u p U l) k u w a r i
fishing n e t m u k u wa r i X m u k u wa r i
tomahawk p a r amp a ra X wa r am p a t a
three ku r pa r a k u r pa i
go away ka n t a kaanta
see !l a k a �a-
124
I I) a j a I) a i
you i n tu fl i n i
Yanda
Engl i s h Yanda Ka1katungu

kangaroo maiumpa X macumpa
bro tga p u ra l ka X pu r a l k u , etc .
crow w a ka ! a X waka ! a , w a a ka ! a
egg kuiu kuiu
fis h wakar i 7 wa k a r i
crayfi s h iumpan X iumpan
eye mij i I m i li i
hair p U fl C U p U fl C U ( ' body hair ' )
s tomach puru put u
excrement kuna unu
tomahawk wa r a m p a i a wa r a m p a i a
I I) a fl c a I)a i
y ou i n pa fl i n i
meat kat i at i
s i t ( and ' remain ' ? ) !!. i n a in i ( 'remain ' )
eag L e hawk kur i t i i i X k u r i ia l a
Ya1arnnga
Engli s h Ya1arnnga Ka1katungu

push a l) k a X a l) k a
this ca l a caa
nav e L c i j i I) k u X c i i I) k u
spear c i I ka X c i I ka
s tar c i r k a , p u t u r u l) u X X c i r ka , p u t u r u l) u
nose j i c i ( j i c: i ) i c i fl C i
now, t oday j i la I i i t<. a
man j iri j uru - it i
b erry j a l p u l) u X j a l p u l) u
b ig j an u j a un
yam j a l) k a t a I) ka a
far j a r ka X j a r ka
cr e e k j u ka k u wa
fLy j um u n t u r u X j um u n t u r u
j um u n t l r i X j u m u n t i r i , m i I l) a
arm j u !!. i u X j u !!. i u
an t j uiuiu iii
125
fa t he r ka ! u kula
w i t c h e t ty grub ka pa ra X kapara
wash ka r i ka r i
boy kuj i r i X kuj i r i
t y p e o f p i g e on ku l u pac i X ku l upac i
excrem e n t kuna unu
no, not k u nt u 7 k u nt u
water kunu kuu
o � d man k u pa ( kupa ) k u p a ( k u p a ) , k u p a l) u r u
s p i der kupu X kupu
f�ame ku[a 1 i X ku[a! i
magp i e kuratapu X kuratapu
grin d s t o n e ( � owe r ) macam i l a X ma c a m i l a
tired macu r i X ma c u r i
coo Zibah ma k a r u X ma k a r u
fo od m a o. i a maa
unmar r i e d ( of m e n ) m a o. i a w i i a X ma � t a w i ia ( ' s ing � e men ' s
get ma n i c amp ' )
X ma n i
s e eds of nut gra s s m a l) a r u X m a l) a r u
mosquito m i ka r a X m i ka r a
eye mi I i miUi
b � owfty m i I l) a X m i I l) a
b r ea s t s mimi mimi
camp mut u muu
when o. a l a l) u o. i a l) u
who o. a n k u o. a n i
s i t, remain o. i n a in i
see nan i
. . I) a - , � a p i
r o c k wa L Laby I) a ! i I) a ! i X I) a ! i I) a ! i
eat I) a r i ari
w a � �aroo I) a r k u n u X I) a r k u n
give I) u p i a p i etc .
w i � d turkey pa r kamu X pa r kamu
very p <l p c a r a papca
y e L L ow pa ru X paru
if pu l a puj u
t h e y two pu l a puj u
b ody hair pupcu pupcu
ur i n a t e p u ra p u r a l ( ' p u b i c hair ' )
s tomac h put u put u
t hunder [ u l) u l a X r U l) u l a
126
bite !aca i ca
where t o ia r i mpa l a a ra ka n i
emu fea t her 1 i l i jara x 1 i I i ara
ahop 1 i l) k a i pc i
die w u l a l)a u!i
fir e wac a n i ucan
heart waj i r a wa i r a
that wa j a paa
arow wa k a ! a x wa k a ! a
s kin, p e Z t waku X wa k u
hit wa l a !a-
tomorrow wa t a l) a m p a wa t a l) k a { ' dar k , n i g h t ' }
sing wa w i ap i
s hade wa ! uwa X wa ! uwa
tomahaw k warampat a X wa r a m p a t a
meat wa r i at i
hail' wa r p u n .t u r u wa�upu
dar k wa t a ? wata
War 1uwara
English War1uwara Ka1kat ungu

oLd man pu!ya u J k uw u r i ( ' big ' )
girL wamba ? wampa
s tone ahi se L k umpal1a ? k umpa1a
a o o Laman/aorkwood pi 1 i pi! i { arad L e for ' a o o k i n g '
p i turi i n }
bag p U l) g uw a ! i ? p U l) k u wa r i
fi s hing "l i n e ka t a p i wa t u k u
for ehead mq i ( ka n1a ) mi r i mi r i
armp i t k i f. i k i f. i k i f. a k i f. a ma ( ' t i a k l. e ' )
b r ea s t I) a ma I) a m a l) a { ' a h e s t ' }
vagina 1 i n1 i n i ? 1inti
exarement kuna unu
b e s L ow m a l) u r i m a l) u
wa L l.aroo I) a r k u l) u X I) a r k u n
duak c i p i f. a X k i p u f. u / c i p u f. u { ' dua k/
w h i s t L er dua k ' }
dua k/wood du a k 1lpi!i 7
:I:. i p i f. i
arow wa k u ! a X waka ! a
w i l. l.y wagtai L c i nt i c i nt i 7 c i nt i p i r
sna k e 1uwa na 1uar
127
frog cara l ku x ca ra l ku
tre e, s t i c k j uy u j uk u ( ' spear ' )
c o o l.ibah ka ! a c a x ka ! aca
g i dyea k i j a l pa r i X k i a l pa r i ( 'w e s t , c h e s tnu t '
( of hor s e s ) )
y e How ochre pa r u X pa r u
shade w a ! pac i wa ! uwa
s i t , s tay fl i n a ini
where ;t, a r a ara
when n a l) a � 9 a n i anta
I I) a n a I) a i
you j i pa fl i n i
Bularnu
Engl i s h Bularnu ' Kalkat ungu

s nake ;t, u w a t i 1 ;t, u a r
I I) a � a I) a i
y ou j i pa fl i n i
forehead miti ( k a n;t, a ) mi rimi r i
eyebrow mil i I iri m i l;t. i ( ' eyes ' )
faeces kuna unu
crow wa k u l a X waka ! a
ga 'lah ki 1 ak i 1 a X k i lauru, k i 1 ak i 1 a
wi'ld orange wa ! a c i X wa t a c i
sma 'l 'l ;t, a p u k u t u ;t,a p i k u l a , kat aku ! u
who I) a n i nan i
dig pai i w a ;t, u k a t i
Yaruwinga
Engl i s h Y aruwinga Kalkat ungu

teeth a t i y i n;t, a a t i n ;t, a
I 7 I) a i
y ou 7 fl i n i
The fol l owing figure s indicate the percent age s o f voc abulary Kalka
t ungu shar e s with i t s neighbours aft e r probab l e b orrowings have b e en
e x c l ude d .
The pre c e ding l i s t s contain s ome pairs o f s imi l ar forms that di ffer
s omewhat in me aning betwee� Kalkatungu and the other language invo l ve d
i n the compari son . The s e Here no t count e d as p l us in arri ving at t h e
origi nal figure s and h e n c e have n o t b e en s ub t ract ed i f t ho ught t o
re flect b orrowing . Thus k U l) i ' father ' s s i s ter ' i n Wunamara i s probab l y
128
a b orrowing shared with Kalkat ungu k U l) i ' w i fe ' , kinship t e rms c onunonly
be ing borrowe d . However, the di s c repancy in the gl o s s e s rules t hem out
as e xamp l e s of related forms for a c ommon c ontent item . I n s ome c a s e s
di s c repanc i e s in glosses were dismi s s e d as inacc urac i e s in t he s ourc e s .
Kalkat ungu and Wanyi 2 /1 5 0 1%

" "
May iyapi 19/200 10%
" "
C urr 9 7 11V109 11%
" "
May it hakurti 1 3V 1 5 0 9%
" "
Wunamara 9/100 9%
" "
Guwa 17V200 9%
" "
Yanda 8/102 8%
" "
Yalarnnga 3 8V 1 6 7 2 3%
" "
Warluwara 15/9 0 0 2%
" "
Bularnu 6/200 3%
" "
Yaruwinga 3/150 2%
Ka lkat ungu share s a much higher percent age o f i t s voc ab ulary w i t h
Y alarnnga than wit h any o t h e r language . Indeed it i s o n l y t h i s fi gure
t hat enab l e s Kalkat ungu to gain membership in the Pama-Nyungan fami ly
a c c ording t o the criteria o f O ' Grady and co . Remember t hat two c orrumuna
l e c t s must share at least 15 per cent of their vo cabulary to be members
o f the s ame fami l y . S in c e Kalkat ungu s hares 2 3 p e r cent with Y alarnnga ,
Kalkat ungu and Yalarnnga rep re s ent s eparat e groups within the s ame
fami l y and Yalarnnga i s Pama-Nyungan having 2 7 per cent in conunon wit h
Yanda which in t urn has 31 per cent in conunon with Guwa and s o on .
The P ama-Ny ungan fami ly i s det ermi ned by c haining l anguage s t o gethe r .
The vast mas s o f conununale c t s c overing the southe rn t hree-quart ers o f
Aust ralia c an b e chained to get her a s a fami ly where every memb e r s hare s
at l east 1 5 per cent in conunon with at least one other memb e r . K a lka
t ungu s c rape s int o the fami ly by virtue of i t s re lat ionship with Yalarnnga
and Yalarnnga by virt ue of i t s relati onship with Yand a . Yanda has a
st rong l e x i c al relat ionship with Guwa ( 3 7 % ) and Kunggari ( 3 5 % ) ( Breen
1 9 7 1 : 8 2 ) . Guwa and Kunggari have st rong l e xi cal l inks with a number o f
other language s o f the Pama-Mari c Group ( Breen 1 9 7 1 ) .
The relat ionship o f Kalkat ungu to other Pama-Nyungan languages can
b e shown diagranunat i c a l ly t o be o f the fol lowi ng kind :
129
Kalkat ungu
I
23
I
Yalarnnga
I
27
Yanda
/
37
/ � 35
//
Guwa
�
Kunggari
//\ / I�
The O ' Grady and co . method depends rat he r t oo much o n t h e pre s ence
o f cert ain links to e s t ab li s h the c l as s i fi c at ion . As c an b e s een from
t h i s di agram , Yalarnnga , and there fore Kalka t ungu, would not have been
admi t t e d t o the Pama-Nyungan fami ly i f we did not have s ome Yanda
mat erial . In fact we have only one s ourc e , Curr l i st No . 1 0 3 . Yet
Yalarnnga i s a very typi cal Pama-Nyungan language , having a fair number
o f l e xi cal root s t hat are widespread in Aus t ral i a and part i c ularly common
in the Pama-Nyungan area , and more important l y , it has a morpho - s yntact i c
s y stem that i s typically Pama-Nyungan both i n st ruct ure and i n the form
of some of it s funct i on morphemes .
7.2. T H E P A T T E R N O F B O R RO W I N G S
A c ompari s on o f t h e l i s t s gi ven above reve a l s that K al kat ungu was

involved i n borrowing with its northern , east e rn and s outhern neighbours
b ut hardly at all with i t s w e s t e rn neighb ours . It is o ft e n pos s ib l e t o
pick b o rrowed it ems b e caus e o f their geographical d i s t ribut i on , phono
logi c a l i dent i t y and their s emant i c s c ope . Lexi cal i t ems for faun a ,
flora , art e fact s a n d kin are commonly found di s t ri b ut e d over a n are a
i rre s p e c t i ve o f the b o undaries b etween s ub - group s , group s and fami l i e s ,
irre spect ive of the re lative s i mi larity between t he language s in the
are a . Phono logi cal ident i t y , making al l owanc e s for s ome change s that
are con s e quent on the phonemot a c t i c const raint s of part i c ul ar l anguage s ,
i s a l ike ly marker of b orrowing . I n a favourab l e case phono l ogical
ident ity is a s trong marker o f b orrowin g . Tn the case o f Yalarnnga and
Kalkat ungu, we find that Kalkat ungu has undergone a numb e r of phono
logi c a l changes not s hared by Y alarnnga . Thi s means t hat words found
in Yalarnnga and Kalkatungu t hat reflect the phono logi c a l changes i n
1 30
Kalkat ungu c an be a s c rib ed to an older period , b e ing part o f t he common

gene t i c i nheritance of the two languages or anci ent borrowings . Words
that are i dent i c al are likely to b e more recent borrowings .
Some o f the p utative borrowings marked by a c ros s in the tab l e s
above are e xamp l e s of i t ems t hat are wide spread in t h e area and in
t h e s e c a s e s it is di fficult to det ermine the dire c t i on o f b o rrowing e . g .
pa rkamu ' w i ld turkey ' . In other c as e s a word i s wide spread in the area
and appears to b e a borrowing but we find that it i s s c at t e red around
Aust rali a . S uch an item is w a k a r i ' fi s h ' . It is found in K alkat ungu ,
Mayawarli ( re l at e d t o Pi t t a- P it t a ) , Yanda and Guwa . It is found in
Mayikut una and May iyapi as w a k a y i , pre s umab ly with lenit ion o f inter
vo c a l i c r, a change at t e s t e d e ls ewhere . I t s e ems as i f it may b e a
b orrowing , b ut when one finds w a k a r i 'mea t ' in Thargari in West ern
Australia ( K lokeid 1969 ) and s c at t ered here and there over the cont in
ent , one reali s e s that we are probab ly dealing with the re flexes o f a
word t h at goe s b ack to an ancient prot o-language b ut whi c h appe ar s in
s i mi lar form b ecause o f the phono logi c a l s imi larity o f mo s t Australian
language s .
I n the c a s e o f put at i ve borrowings between Kalkatungu and communa
l e c t s of t he May iyap i c group ( s e e map ) , it appears t hat the main
dire c t ion of b orrowing was from Kalkatungu into the adj a c ent Mayiyap i c
c ommunal e c t s . I n a numb er o f i n s t a n c e s t he shared it ems are found on l y
in t ho s e Mayiyapic communa l e c t s which bordered o n Kalkatungu e . g .
o a ! i o a ! i 'rook wa l laby ' i s shared with May it hakurt i , wa l k i r i p a r i
' p e l ioan ' i s shared wit h May it hakurt i and Curr 9 7 , kupu ' spider ' with
Mayithakurt i and m i 1 0 a 'fly ' with May it hakurt u , Wunamara , Curr 97 and
Mayiyapi . May iyapi was not c ont i guous with Kalkat ungu and s i gni ficant ly
t he word p i m u l is also rec orded for ' fly ' in this communalec t , a word
a l s o rec orded in Ngawun , Mayi kulan and Mayikutuna . I f the s e are e xamp le s
o f b orrowing from Kalkat ungu int o Mayi yapi c t h e d i s t ribut i on is ac count e d
for . I f t h e y a r e borrowings from Mayiyap i c , w e would have t he di ffi culty
o f e xp l aining why the items t end to b e found almo st exc lus ively in the
communale c t s cont i guous with Kalkat ungu .
I n the c a s e of i tems shared by Kalkat ungu with Guwa , Yanda and
Y alarnnga I am unab l e to det ermine the main direc t i on of b orrowing with
any confi denc e .
I n t he c a s e o f Y aruwinga , Bularnu, Warluwara and Wanyi the only s i g
nifi cant feature i s t he virt ual lack of evidenc e for borrowing . I t i s
not perfe c t ly c l ear j ust whi ch languages bordered o n Kalkat ungu t erri
t ory in the we s t . The map repre s ent s an amalgam o f s o urc e s and mainly
fo l l ow s Breen ( 1 9 7 1 and p . c . ) . Breen ' s vers ion o f the tribal t erritories
differs s omewhat from that gi ven in Tindale 1 9 7 4 . Tindale shows
131
Y aruwinga ( J a r o i Q a ) as having a border with Kalkat ungu , but Breen

p l a c e s Bularnu between Yaruwinga and Kalkatungu . Breen ' s ver s ion
mak e s good l ingui s t i c s en s e . It p l a c e s t hree obvi ous l y related l an
guages Wakay a , B ularnu ( not shown on T indale ' s map ) and Warluwara in
a cont inuous b lo c . Tindale does not show Wanyi ( or Waanyi ) as having
any borde r with Kalkatungu , but p l a c e s ' W a : ka b u Q a ' between the t wo . I
have no reason to di spute t h i s . I i n c l uded Wanyi in the l i s t s given
above only b e cause the O ' Grady and co . map shows Wanyi t erritory
t ouching Kalkatungu t erritory at one point . Unfort unat e l y we have no
informat ion on Waakabunga .
In s um then Kalkatungu e xhib it s b orrowing with the c ont i guous c omm
una l e c t s o f the Mayiyap i c group , with Guwa ( with whi c h it may or may not
have had a common b order ) , with Yanda ( with whi c h it may or may not have
had a common b orde r ) and Yalarnnga ( with which it certainly had a common
border ) . Kalkatungu exhibit s very litt l e shared vo c abulary with Bularnu
and Warluwara . Note i n pass ing that the numb er o f Kalkat ungu and
Warluwara items compared was q uit e l arge - 9 0 0 .
7 .3. KA L KAT U N G U A N D C O M M O N A U S T RA L I A N
Cap e l l ( 1 9 5 6 , 19 6 2 ) point ed out t hat a numb e r o f root s are found i n

e very area ( b ut not i n eve ry language ) o f Australia . He called this
common s t o c k ' Common Aust ral ian ' . Capel l ( 19 6 2 : 1 3 ) produced a map
showing the relative concentration o f t h i s common s t ock in vari ous area s .
The map demons trat e s a numbe r of int erest i ng featur e s such as t he fac t
t hat t h e hi ghe st conc entrat ion o f CA vocabul ary l i e s in the d e s e rt
regions o f West ern Aus t ral i a .
The dist ribut ion o f CA and it s s i gn i fi c ance i s out s ide the s c ope o f
t h i s st udy , but since C apel l ' s map doe s not show part i c ular language s ,
i t i s not pos s ib l e t o a s c ert ain the percent age o f CA mat erial C ap e l l
c laims t o have found i n Kalkat ungu , and I the re fore i n c l ude b e l ow my
e s t imat e . On Cap e l l ' s map Kalkatungu l i e s on an i s oglo s s dividing a
l e s s t han ' 4 0 % ' area ( t o the north and west ) from a ' 4 0 - 4 9 % area ( t o
t he s out h and eas t ) . A c c ording to my c a l c ulation , Kal kat ungu cont ains
5 0 per c ent o f the it ems on his list .
7 .4. S O M E P H O N O L O G I C A L D E V E L O P M E N T S I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F K A L KAT U N G U
The phono logi c a l s y st ems o f Australian language s c an us ual ly b e

c l a s s ified a s normal o r aberrant . The " aberrat ion s " are mo st ly phono
t a c t i c and c on s ist o f l o s s o f ori ginal init ial cons onant s , which
disturb s the normal CVCV shape o f root s . Other ab errat i ons i nc l ude
l o s s o f an init ial s y l lab l e to expose consonant c lus t e r s in init ial
p o s ition, and met athe s i s o f vowe l s o f init ial s y l lab le s into the s e cond
132
s y l l ab le a s t h e c orresponding glide s , changes which result in s ome lan

guage s in s ome st riking init ial c l ust ers . For e xamp l e in Mbara ( s o uthern
Cape Y ork , Sutton 1 9 76 ) , an earlier p u r i ( ' fire ' ) appe ars as r w i ( with
loss of the init ial cons onant and me t at he s i s o f u into the s e cond s y l l a
b le where it appears as a glide ) .
A s i s w e l l known t o Austra l i ani st s , the abe rrant languages are c on
c e nt rat e d in northern Cape York , s outhern Cape York ( S ut t on ed . 1 9 76 )
and central Australia ( Hale 19 6 2 ) with a not able pocket in New England
( C row ley 1 9 76 ) . A few languages out s ide these are as e xhibit s ome
ab e rrat ions , one of t he s e b e ing Kalkat ungu . Kalkat ungu has s uffered
s ome l o s s o f init ial cons onant s and s ome l o s s of init ial s y l l ab le s , b ut
the changes have not been so radi cal nor so extens ive in t he l e x i c on t o
have pro duced t he very abe rrant e ffe ct one get s i n Arandic o r some o f
the C ape York language s .
I n general the phonological aberrat ions seem t o repre sent a move t o
a more marke d s t at e and one ' s first impulse i s t o look for a n h i st o r i c al
c onne c t ion between t he various widely separat e d language s e xhib i t ing
what appears to b e s c ant regard for recent theories about phonol ogi cal
univer s a l s . Howeve r , it s eems that these devi at i ons from CVCV-type
struc t ures were probab ly t r i ggered in mo st c a s e s by a shift o f s t r e s s
from t he first to t h e s e c ond s y l l ab l e . Given t h i s s t re s s , t h e deviat ions
from CVCV are not really so unnatural as c an be readi ly obs e rved in the
s p e e c h o f Engl i s h speaking c h i ldren . In any case it qui c k ly be come s
obvious t hat there can be n o h i s t orical conne c t i on between these phono
logical development s in di fferent part s o f the cont i nent . The di st an c e s
invo lved a r e great ; by and large t here are n o aberrant language s between
the s e c e nt re s o f innovat ion , and more conc lus ivel y , the aberrat ions c an
b e shown t o have t aken p lace in s i t u s ince they o ften affe c t local ly
d i s t ribut ed words which show int act reflexes out s ide the affe c t e d area
and deviant forms within . S ome o f these forms could b e borrowings from
an int ac t neighbour i nt o an aberrant language with modi ficat ion t o
adapt the borrowing t o the aberrant phonemotac t i c s b ut this w i l l not
account fo r al l c a se s .
K alkat ungu o f course i s not too far removed from the Arandic group ,
b ut it doe s share much more vocabulary with the phono logi c ally int a c t
language , Yalarnnga , than w i t h any other l anguage . Thi s sugge st s t hat
it has b e en cont i guous with Yalarnnga for s ome t i me . It doe s not dis
c o unt the po s s ib i l i t y that Kalkat ungu was in cont act with A randi c at
s ome past t ime .
The foll owing notes e xemp l i fy s ome of the change s t hat have t aken
p l a c e in the hist ory of Kalkat ungu .
1 33
Los s of Initial Consonant
'a figh t ' la r k u n ( Mayiyap i c Q . ) a rkun

' faeces ' kuna ( Yalarnnga Q . , et c . ) (w} u n u
'meat ' wa r i ( Yal arnnga Q . ) at i
"
'sit ' n i n e: ( ) (j) ini
"
' ea t ' (
I) a r i I i ) ( ) ari ( ! i)
"
' where ' la r V a ra
, che e k ' I) u k u ( Pitj ant j atj ara W . A . ) ( w} u k u
"
' b ig ' p u l ka ( ) ( w ) u ! k u - u r i ( , l ong ' )
'ant ' l i la ( Pi t t a-Pitta Q . ) (j) i1i
, louse ' * ku l u ( prot o-Ngayarda W . A . ) ( w } u l u
'be i H ' y a l) k a ( Yal arnnga Q . ) a l) k a
, enter ' * I)a r a ( prot o-Paman , Q . ) a ra
' ceremonia l knife ' k u j i , k u j a n a ( P itta-Pitta Q . ) (w} uj l n
'teeth ' yat i la ( Mayikulan , Q . ) at i nla
( Wunamara , Q . )
The b racket ing of initial j and w in the above examp l e s i s t o draw

att ent i on to the fact t hat t he init i al dropping is phonologi c al b ut not
ent ire l y phonet i c . The phonet i c fac t s are that w i s opt ionally pronoun
c e d be fore u at the b eginning o f words and s imi larly j b e fore i . S ince
initial a o c c urs , I phonemi c i s e words like [ u n u ] or [w u n u ] and [ i n i ] or
[ j i n i ] as l u n u l and I i n i l re spect ively and c on s i de r that the glide s are
deri vab l e from the phonemi c form . There i s no contrast between forms
with the glide and forms wit hout .
Los s o f Initial S y l lable
' y am ' j a l) k a t a ( Yalarnnga Q . ) I) k a a ( see § 3 . 2 . 2 . )
" " "
' ho le ' .t a l) � u ) ��uu ( )
"
' you two ' n u m pa I a mpaj a
, s tomach ' I) a p u r a ( Mayit hakurti Q. ) pu t u
, s to ne ' m i I) � i ( Mayiyapi Q . ) I) � i a
' hit, k H l ' wa l a - ( Yalarnnga Q . ) la -
As s imi lation
A l ow vow e l i n t he s e cond s y l l ab l e h a s a s s imi l at ed to the high vowe l
o f t h e fi rst .
'faece s ' kuna ( many othe r ) ( w} u n u

'sit ' N Y i na ( prot o C . A . ) (j)ini
' b ig ' p u l ka ( P i t j ant j atj ara W . A . ) u ! k u - u r i ( , Zong , )
'ant ' l i ia ( Pitta-Pitta Q . ) (j) i1i
' they two ' pu l a ( Yalarnnga Q . ) puj u
"
'if' pu l a ( ) puj u
, s t omach ' I) a p u r a ( Mayithakurti Q . ) put u
134
Los s o f Medial Consonants
The re are s ome c a s e s of an intervo c al i c cons onant having been lost

between ide nt i cal vowe l s .
'water ' kunu ( Yalarnnga Q . ) kuu

"
' camp ' mut u ) muu
"
' food ' mania et c . ) maa
"
' th i s ' ca l a caa
"
' y am ' y a 1) k a t a 1) k a a
I ndependent ly o f t h i s there i s a synchron i c t endency in Kalkatungu

t o delete a consonant b etween like vow e l s ( s e e § 2 . 1 3 . ) .
There are s ome ins tanc e s o f I in t he s e quence V I a b e c omi ng j :
' if ' pu l a ( Yal arnnga ) puj u

"
' t hey two ' pula ( ) puj u
"
' y ou two ' n um p ;J l a mpaja
"
anti-pass ive -I i -j i ( I be fore i )
The dire c t ion of the change i s apparent from the fact that p u l a
' two ' or ' they two ' i s a wide spread form , s imi larly forms l i ke numpa l a
with I are common among Pama-Nyungan language s . Moreove r Kalkat ungu
j corre sponds to j in a numb e r o f other Pama-Nyungan language s .
K alkat ungu and Yalarnnga b oth reflect the common Aust ralian form
for ' we two ' as 1) a l i rather t han 1) a l i as e xpe cted . The c ommon Aus t
ralian e rgat ive/inst rumental al lomorph for vowel st ems o c c urs as - ! u
rather t h an the e xp e c t e d - I u , a feat ure also found in Walbiri ( - ! u ) ,
Wagaya ( - ! < * ! u ) and Walmadj ari ( - J u ) . S e e § 3 . 2 . 2 . and § 3 . 2 . 4 . Note
a l s o t he ret ention of the liquid in the ant i-pa s s i ve of - I a class
verb s . See § 4 . 1 .
The fo l l owing c orre spondence has also b een noted :
V r V <--> Kalkatungu V t V
'meat ' wa r i ( Yalarnnga Q . ) ati

, s toma ch ' 1) a p u r a ( Mayit hakurt i Q . ) put u
'man ' i ri ( Yal arnnga Q . ) i t i - ( er gat i ve s t em )
j u r u ( nominat i ve )
The numb er of words affec ted b y initial dropping appear s t o b e only

a sma l l proport ion of the present day vocabulary . In making this
135
a s s e s sment I a m th inking o f the s mall numb er of words that c an b e

shown t o have l o s t an init ial cons onant or s y l lab l e , and the sma l l
numb er o f words that b e gin with a o r with a na sal s t op c lust er . How
ever , if init ial consonant dropping op erated to expo s e an ini t ia l h igh
vowe l , i t s effect wo uld not be not i c eab le .
It i s not po s s ib le to det ermine whet her initial dropp ing was con
dit i oned or whet her it operated general ly . I t may have op erat ed
generall y , but it s effect on the l e xi c on may have b een s ub s equent l y
o b s c ured b y mas s ive borrowing from intact language s . I t i s p o s s ib l e
that it w a s c ond it ioned and t hat b orrowing from int act languages
o c c urred .
I t i s not p o s s ib l e t o s et up a s eries o f ordered rul e s to c onvert
pro to-forms into oc c uring forms , at least not a s et of rul e s t hat c an
op erat e without exc ept ions . S ome ordering i s c l ear however . As s imi
lation mus t fol low the rule de let ing intervoc a l i c c on s onan t s between
like vowe l s .
Final dropping
S ome y ears ago ( Blake 1 9 7 1b ) I sugge s t e d that Kalkatungu had lost

s ome fi nal vowe l s . I made u s e o f this as sumpt ion in at tempt ing to
e xplain the c urious alt ernations involved in the c a s e o f - j a n and
- 1 a t l ( see § 2 . 1 0 . ) . As far as I know Kalkatungu did l o s e some final
vowe l s and my att empt at e xp laining the alt ernation of - j a n with - a a n
and - 1a t i with - a t i i s still viab le . However , the amount o f evidenc e
I have i s smal l . Consider the fol lowing c o gnat e s :
' fire ' ucan Yalarnnga wac a n i

"
noun-forming suffix - pc i r - pc i r i
"
' wa t taroo ' � a r kun �arkunu
10
Mayiyapi
' br o tga ' ku11uu r Guwa k u 11 u r u
' snake ' 1ua r Warluwara 1 u wa n a
Bularnu 1uwa t i
'fru i t ' ( s p . pipip Yalarnnga p i p i pu
unknown )
"
part i c ip l e -p i n - pana
-pc i r i , � a r k u n u and k u li u r u are not o f much help i n e s tab l is hing

vowel l o s s in Kalkatungu s ince they c o uld exemp l i fy an e xt ra vow e l
that has b e en added to avoid a word-final cons onant . Yalarnnga and
Guwa do not allow final cons onant s , b ut Mayiyapi doe s . w a c a n i . 1 u w a t i
and p i p i p u do provide e videnc e for vowe l loss in Kalkatungu but unfort
unately t hey are the only e xamp l e s I can find . One feat ure of Kalka
ungu that sugge s t s vowel los s is the fac t that a sma l l numbe r of words
1 36
oc c ur with and without a final vowel e . g . p u .t, u r or p u .t, u r a 'good ' ( see
§ 2 . 6 . ) and a large number o f words l o s e t heir final vowe l i n fluent
s p e e c h e . g . - t i s t em verb s ( see § 4 . 1 . and § 2 . 1 3 . ) .
As not e d in § 2 . 10 . the ' having ' s uffix appears as - j a n with vowel
st ems and a a n with cons onant st ems whi l e t he intran s i t iviser app ears
a s - i a t i with vowel s t ems and - a t i with c on sonant st ems . I f the s e
consonant st ems once had a n ext ra a , the alt ernat i ons c ould b e e xplained
b y r e feren c e to t he rule t hat d e l e t e s cons onant s between l ike vowe l s :
* arkuna + jan > a rkunajan > a r kunaan

* .t, a i l a + .t, a t i > .t, a i ! a .t, a t i > .t, a i l a a t i
However , we are l e ft with the di ffi c ul t y of exp laining why t he vowel

a should b e involved . a i s the mo st frequent vowe l . The pat t ern c ould
have b e en e s t ab l i shed wit h a s t ems and ext ended by anal ogy . Anot her
di ffic ult y i s the fact that the s uggested rul e s yield a variant a a t i
not a t i .
7.5. PRONOUNS
I t is p o s s ib l e t o make some a s s umpt i ons about earlier forms o f

Kalkat ungu pronouns from int ernal reconstruc t i on based o n a compari s on
o f the fre e and bound forms and from c omparative reconstruct ion embrac ing
Y a larnnga and to a l e s s er ext ent other Pama-Ny ungan language s .
First of a l l l et us have a l ook at t he free pronouns in Kalkat ungu
and Yalarnnga .
K Y
Sing. 1 I) a i I) i a
2 J1 i n i [l a wa , [l U -
3 ala ! aj a
Dual 1 I) a ! i I) a l i
2 mpaj a [l u m p a l a
3 puj u pu l a
P l ur . 1 I) a t a I) a wa
2 [l u t u [l a ! a
3 .t i n a .t,a n a
K I) a i and Y I) i a can both b e derived from * I) a j a . A n un s t r e s s e d

s equence - a j a e a s i l y b e c omes i a , - a j or a i and there a r e examp l e s o f
t h i s in K , Y and other Australian language s .
I n the s e c ond person s ingular K has J1 l n i , ergat i ve J1 i n t i and dative
J1 u n k u . Y has nominat ive [l a wa and obl ique st em [l U - . The s e c ond person
s i ngular root in Pama-Nyungan i s commonly J1 i n - , I) u n , J1 i n , J1 u n , [l i n or
[l u n . The s e cond s y l l ab l e of the s e c ond person s ingular i s mo st often
137
a s y l l ab l e that appears to have b e en origina l ly a n ergat ive s o t hat

we find nominative forms like r u n t u . Di xon ( 1 9 7 7 ) argues t hat mos t
Australian language s a t s ome st age o f t h e i r deve lopment augmented
any monosyl lab i c root s they had and augment ed mono s y l l ab i c s ingular
pronouns by adding the ergat ive or a phonological filler - p a . Yal arnnga
s eems to reflect - p a in the l enit ed form - wa . The s t ern o a , which a l s o
appear s i n t h e p l ura l , i s unus ual . I n any cas e t he development here
i s pe c uliar t o Y . K has a more normal s e c ond person form, r i n i . The
s e c ond s y l lable appears to have re s ul t ed from the addit ion of - o a or
pa with s ub s equent a s s imilat ion ( p i n + o a > r i na > p i n i ) or s imply
from the repet i t i on o f the s t ern vowe l . The sugge s t ion t hat - n a or - r a
may have b e en added requires some j us t i ficat ion . B lake ( 1 9 7 9 : 34 7 )
e l ab orat e s .Di xon ' s the s i s t hat monosy l lab i c pronouns were augment ed
by c laiming that - o a or - p a , the c ommon Australian accusat ive , was
also used as an augment . This c ertainly s eems t o have b e en t he c a s e
i n Nyunga ( s -w W . A . O ' Grady et . al . 1 9 6 6 : 1 3 1 ) and Kunggari ( B lackall Q .
Breen field not e s ) where fir s t and s e c ond singular pronouns are as
fo l l ows :
Nyunga
fi rst singular s e c ond s i ngular
I) a r a ri ni
I) a c u punt u
I) a r a rini
Kunggari
first s i ngular s e c ond s ingul ar
I) a n a i na
I) a i u i nt i
I) a o a i na
As c an be s een by comparing the S lP first and s e c ond p e r s on forms in

i
Nyunga , it looks as i f r i n i could aris e from * r i n + N Y a > * p i n a > r i n i
( where N Y a repre s en t s a laminal na sal t hat is refl e c t ed as r or 0 as
out lined in D i xon 1 9 7 0 ) . The K e rgat ive of the s e c ond s ingular i s
p i n t i whi c h s e ems to refl e c t a s s imi lation from * - t u t o - t i a s p o s i t ed
for r i n i . The dat ive p u n k u obviou s ly contains the c ommon Aus t ral ian
dat ive marker - k u , so it looks a s i f we have regre s s i ve a s s imilation
in t h i s instanc e .
I am uncertain how the t hird person s ingular forms are relat ed . K
has a l a as an o b l i que s t ern with an ergat ive l i i .Y has ! a j a . Alt hough
t h e s e forms look s imilar they may not be r e la t e d . K a l a must derive
from C a la by init ial dropping as in Nhanda a W e s t ern Australian language
whi c h has a l a ( probab ly from a demons t rat i ve root * p a l a ) ( O ' Grady et a l .
1 38
1966 : 12 2 ) 1 . The common Que e n s l and t h ird person s ingular pronoun roots
are N Y u ( ma s c ul i ne ) and N Y a n ( feminine ) .
The first per s on dual in Australia i s c ommonly Q a l i . K and Y are
d i s t inc t ive in having a dental lateral Qal i . Not e in pas s ing t hat
-
K has an ergative al lomorph - ! u presumab ly from * I u ( s e e Hale 1 9 7 6 ) .

I t i s p o s s ib l e t hat an ear lier I split into 1 ( be fore i ) , I ( b e fore a )
and ! ( be fore u ) . The form - ! u a l s o oc c urs i n s ome other Pama-Nyungan
language s e . g . Walbiri ( N . T . ) .
The s e c ond dual forms probab ly reflect a prot o -K-Y * n u m p a l a . Y s e ems
to have retained the protO- form, whi l e K has lost the init ial s y l l ab le
and c hanged I ( b e fore a ) int o j . Forms s i mi lar to n u m p a l a are c ommon
among the Pama-Nyungan language s .
The th ird dual forms s e em t o reflect proto -K-Y p u l a with Y ret aining
the proto- form and K refl e c t ing the I to j change and progre s s i ve a s s im
i lation . p u l a i s a common Pama-Nyungan form for ' t hey t w o ' . In
east e rn Aust ralia i t also o c c urs as a numeral or number marker for
' two ' .
I n the first person p lura l t he Y form , Q a w a , s eems to contain the

augment - wa . K has Q a t a , b ut s inc e the corre spond ing b ound form is
- t i , it makes sense to p o s it prot o-K * Q a t i and al low for progre s s ive
a s s imil at i o n . Aust ralian language s vary great ly in t h e way they deve lop
a fir s t p er son p lura l from the root Q a - . K and Y e xhibit forms t hat
ar e not found among other l anguage s in the area .
In the s e c ond p lural K n u t u i s s imilar to t he like ly Pama-Nyungan
prot o - form *N Y u r a ( re fl e c t e d as n u r u , p u r a , j u r a et c . ) e xhibit ing
independent ly a t t e s t e d progr e s s ive a s s imi l at ion and an une xp lained
hardening o f r to t. The Y form n a l a is unexp e c t e d and is pre s umab ly
an innovat ion .
In the third p l ura l , Y contains the e xp e c t e d Pama-Nyungan form
la n a . K 1 i n a could p l aus ibly b e e xp lained as c ontaining a reint e rpre
tat ion o f uns t re s s ed variant s of a fol lowing a lamino-dent a l ( which
produc e s front ed allophone s ) .
*1an a ---> * [ 1 e n a ]
* [ 1 e n a ] ---> 1 i n a
In s um , the fo llowing prot o-K forms s eem likely :
l
I f the form l aa which I have given t entativE!ly as third s ingular nominative i s
genuine , i t c �uld derive i'rom *la j a b y the independently attested rule o f deleting
consonants between like vowel s .
139
S ing . 1 *8aja
2 *p i na
3 ( *Ca!a ob l i que s t em)
Dua l 1 * 8a ! i
2 *n umpa l a
3 * pu l a
P l ural 1 *8at i
2 *nura
3 *ia n a
7.6. BOUND PRON OUNS
K has bound pronouns while Y has virtually none . Y has only one
bound pronoun form vi z . -nu
used to mark the p l ural S i or A o f impera
t i ve s . It presumab ly refle c t s the proto-Pama-Nyungan form *N Y u r a .
I t i s not eworthy t hat it i s the only e xamp l e of an a c c u s at ive s y s tem
of marking anywhere i n t he language . Since - n u i s the only b ound pro
noun in Y and s i n c e i t i s transparently derivab l e from * N Y u r a , we do
not have much t hat looks like ve s t i gial evidence of a once e l ab orat e
s et o f b o und pronouns . Rather it s e ems t hat -uu is an i s o lated inno
vat i on and we s ugge st that K developed b ound pronouns whi l e Y did not .
I f we look at the di st ribut ion o f bound pronouns in Aus t ralia ( s e e
Blake 1 9 7 9 ) , w e find that Y i s on the edge of a s wath o f language s in
which there are no b o und pronouns while K i s on the edge o f a b loc t hat
have bound pronouns . The cont inuous nat ure of the ' bound ' and ' bound
l e s s ' areas sugge s t s t hat the growt h or l o s s of bound pronouns i s
di ffus ib l e . I n Blake 19 : 9 , i t i s s ugge s t e d that s ince fo r the mos t
part the ' b oundle s s ' l anguage s lack ve s t i gial evidence o f b ound pronouns ,
they ne ver ever had them. I t i s not eworthy t o o t hat t he language s i n
whi c h the bound pronouns are most t ransparent ly derive s from t he free
ones t e nd to be found a long the edges o f the ' bound ' are as . In general
then , we s e e evidence o f a deve lopment from ( a ) language s with no
b ound pronoun s , ( b ) languages with t ransp arent ly derived pronouns ,
( c ) l anguages with bound pronouns t hat are qui t e diffe rent from the
c orresponding free one s , to ( d ) language s with bound p ronouns t hat
e xh ib i t fus ion with one another and with other part i c l e s ( t ypic ally
non-Pama-Nyungan) .
It is int eresting then to look at the b ound pronouns in K against
this sugge s t ed l ine o f devel opment .
K employs the fo l l owing bound pronouns in independent i ndi cat ive
and interrogative c laus e s :
140
S i /A P
S ing . 1 -0
2 -n
3 -0
Dual 1 -I -Ia
2 -nu
3 - (mu) j u
P lural 1 -t -ta
2 -nut
3 -na
With the third dual , - m u j u i s used in the pres ent tense and - j u
e ls ewhere . - 0 in the fir s t and t hird s ingular o f the S i /A column
indi cat e s the ab s ence o f an overt form in those p aradi gms whe re t he
u s e of a bound pronoun i s ob l i gat ory vi z . with - m i n a ( imp erfe c t ) and
- m p a ' perfect ' . The b lank s in the P c: ol umn , s imp ly mean that no form
has b e en o b s erved . There are no paradigms whe re the u s e of a b o und
pronoun for P i s o b l i gatory in an independent c laus e .
I f we c ompare the bound S i /A with the free forms , we c an s e e s ome
lines o f derivat ion :
S ing . 1 I) a i
2 J1 i n i
3 -0
Dual 1 I) a l i
2 mpaj a < * n um p a l a
3 puj u <*pul a
P lura l 1 I) a t a < * I) a t i
2 nutu
3 t i na
Leaving a s ide the s e c ond dual and plural , the bound forms can b e
derived from the fre e by deleting the first s y l l ab le ( a proc e s s e l s e
where a t t e s t e d in Aus t ralia) and delet ing t h e last vowe l i f it i s - i .
The chan ge from 1 t o 1 in t he fi r s t dua l i s s i mp ly a cons equence o f the
phonot a c t i c s . K doe s n0t allow word-final dent a l s . Why the s e c ond
person non- s i ngular forms make u s e of the first s y l l ab le of t he free
form or proto- form is not c le ar .
Let us now look at the S i /A b ound p ronouns t hat o c c ur with the
comp l ement i s er a- :
141
S ing . 1 laa
2 an i
3 ai
Dual 1 al i
2 a o. u
3 ai lu
P lural 1 at i
2 a !J, u r
3 a i na
l a a for the first singular i s c l early s upp let ive . - n i and - l i are
derived from the corre sponding fre e forms by dropping the first s y l lab l e .
- t i pre s umab ly derive s from a prot o-form * Q a t i by t he same proc e s s . As
I s ugge s t e d ab ove , t he c urrent free form for fir s t per son p lura l c an b e
derived from * Q a t i b y an indep endently a t t e s t e d rule o f pro gre s s ive
ass imilat ion. In the c a s e o f the bound S i /A pronouns use d in independent
c laus e s , we ne eded to p o s i t a rule to t he e ffect t hat a fina l - i was
delet ed . S uch a rul e would be inhib ited here as a - p lus a b ound pronoun
c onst itutes a s eparat e phono l ogical word and the minimum number o f s y l la
b le s required for a word i s two .
The forms - l u ( t hird dua l ) and - n a ( third p l ural ) , a l s o reflect the
s e c ond syllab l e o f the sourc e pronoun s . Note however t hat t hey app ear
t o be s uffixed t o a i rather t han a - , a i be ing the t h ird s ingular form .
I c annot gue s s the pro venienc e of the - i . Note t hat the c hange 1 > j
is not a t t e s t ed in this paradi gm . I t may have b een inhib ited by the
preced ing - i . There are too few e xamp l e s o f the change for the n e c e s sary
envi ronment to b e asc ertaine d . Not e t hat the s e c ond d ua l and p l ural
forms are the same a s tho se found in indep endent c lause s .
There are some other S i /A b ound p ronouns . Let us cons ider the im
pera t i ve s :
sing. i Q ka - j a - n 'go! '

dual i Q ka - j a -mp i ' You two g o ! '
plura l i Qka-j a - t u ' You mob g o ! '
s ing . l a - j a - !iS ' Ki L ' L' ,
dual la - j a k u - m p i ' You two ki L ' L"
p l ural la - j a k u - t u ' You mob k i H ! '
We find in this paradigm two intere s t ing feat ures . First o f a l l we
find t he ' expe c t e d forms ' for se cond dual and p lural , - t u repr e s ent ing
the s e c o nd s y l lab le o f !J, u t u and - m p i rep r e s enting the s e cond and third
s y l l ab l e s of * o. u m p a l a ( > !J, u m p a j a > m p a j a > m p i j a > m p i ) . S e c ondly we
find a mys t e rious e l ement k u - in the t rans it ive imperat i ve s . Not e that
142
s ingular imperat ive s with a non-s i ngular P are a s fo llow s :
la - j a ku - j u ' You ( s ing . ) k i l l them two ! '

la - j a k i n a ' You ( s ing . ) k i l l them! '
I t s eems t hat k u i s an element c onne c t ed wit h tran s i t i ve c laus e s and
that it at trac t s the first pronoun irrespect ive of whether it is A or
P. Le t us a s s ume earlier s equenc e s with A pre c e ding P s uch as :
C7. 1) *la - j a ku � pu l a
k i l l - imp y outhem
' You ( s ing . ) k i l l t hem ' .
C 7 . 2) *la - j a ku Qutu pu l a
k i l l - imp y ou : p l them
' You ( p l ur . ) k i l l t hem ' .
I f k u attrac t s the fir s t overt pronoun , then we wil l have * k u p u l a
y ie lding k u l a > k u l u > k u j u and * k u Q u 1 u y i e lding k u t u . Th is ac c ount s
for the fac t that k u appears with forms repres ent ing S i /A and with forms
repre s enting P , at least with the imperative paradigm .
A t t h i s po int w e could e xamine the P bound pronouns , s in c e most o f
t hem involve k u .
Forms used w i t h
Forms used with F'orms used
i ndep endent verbs with a - the ' le s t '
const ruc t i on
S ing . 1 a l) i k U l) i
2 akin kuk i n
3
Dual 1 -1a ak i 1 a ku l a
2 a k um p a j a kumpaj a
3 ku . . kuj u
P l ur . 1 -ta akita k ut a
2 a kut u kut u
3 a. . k i na ku . . kina
O f the forms in t he first c o lumn , - I) i i s e xp l icab l e as a reduced form

of * I) a y a and - t a as the s e c ond s y l l ab l e o f I) a t a . Not e t hat we po s i t e d
* I) a t i as a proto- form for t h e first plural t o acc ount for - t i i n the
s e c ond c ol umn . - t a could conce ivab l y be a lat er derivat ive from the
free form . - l a is a my st ery . Some Pama-Nyungan language s in West ern
Australia have - l a as the first p lural bound form . It is probab l y t hat
- l a refle c t s a fre e form no longer found in Kalkatungu . It may be an
o ld p l ural , p o s s ibly attracted t o the dual by the presence of - 1 for the
S i /A form . I t could have t hen b e en replaced in the p lural by a ' new '
form - t a o Thi s would exp lain why we get - t a rather than - t i . However ,
143
a l l this i s rather speculative and I would not want t o pre s s i t t o o

far . The r emaining form in t h i s parad i gm , k i n , i s somewhat myst erious .
It a l s o app ears with the complement i s er a - and a glance at this parad i gm
r eveal s a pos s ible k u in every form but the first s ingular .
S ince a k u m p a j a and a k u t u s e em so c l early t o c ontain k u , it i s o f some
interest to �e e if we c an determine whether the other forms contain k u .
I f we t ake the prot o - form of the first p l ural t o b e I) a t i as s ugge s t e d
earlier , we can account for k i rather than k u in the s e c ond s ingular ,
firs t dua l and first p lural al ong the fol lowing lines :
*ku-p i n i > ku n i > kini > kin

* k u - I) a l i > kuli > kili > ki 1
* ku -uumpaj a > k u mp a j a > k u m pa j a > kum p a j a
* k u - I) a t i > kut i > kit i > kit
*ku-uut u > kut u > kut u > kut u
The t hree steps here are : ( a ) de l e t e first syllab le of pronoun ,

(b ) u > i / C i . ( c ) i > !IS / #. S t e p s ( a ) and ( c ) are independent ly
- 0
atte s t e d . Step ( b ) o c c urs in p i n - k u > p u n k u . I am unab le t o acc ount
for the fact t hat a s s imilation is somet imes progr e s s i ve and somet imes
r e gre s s ive , but in general the sy llable t hat was s t re s sed was affe c t e d
by the a s s imilat ion , a t l e a s t w i t h b ound pronouns . Of course t he rules
given above do not give t he c orre ct forms for fir s t dual and first
p lural . We ne ed to add the forms used with indep endent verb s :
ki l-la > kila

k it-ta > k i ta
Thi s may s eem rat her ad hoc , but we did find some independent reas on
ab ove for p o s i t ing - l a as a form that had s h i ft ed to fir s t dual and - t a
as a new form for firs t p lural . The s ugge s t e d l ines o f deve l opment work
fairly we l l in ac count ing for k i . The e xception is k i n a . The rules
gi ven ab ove will not produce t he corre c t form. A p laus ib le derivat ion
wo uld be k u - 1 i n a > k i t i n a > k i n a , but t here i s no obvious reason for
the ret ent ion of the first syllab l e o f the pronoun .
The forms used for P in the ' l e s t ' c ons truc t i on are probab ly the same
forms as are used wi t h indep endent verb s but s uffixe d to k u . Th i s i s
n o t perfe c t ly c lear s i nce w e d o n o t have any se cond dual or p lural forms
avai lab le in the independent verb paradigm . The fact that we have k u l a
and k u t a in t he first dual and p l ural rather than k i l a and k i t a c ertainly
s ugge s t s a t rans ference o f - l a and - t a from t he independent verb para
digm .
The ' le s t ' construc t ion remains s omewhat my st erious . Rememb e r
( § 4 . 4 . ) that there i s a c omp l ement i s e r u u u u s e d where S i i s firs t o r
s e c ond person , k U Q u where A i s firs t or sec ond person and a n a where S i
14 4
or b ot h A and P are third person . k u � u doub t le s s repr esent s k u p l us

u n u , but t h e relationship b et ween u n u and a n a remains une xplained .
Nor i s it c le ar why no c ompl ement i s er app ears when P i s first or s e c ond
person and A third person ( s e e e xamp l e s in § 4 . 4 . ) . I t i s a l s o not e
wort hy t hat two e xamp l e s o f k u may appear i n o n e c laus e ,
r um p i I) a i iuma kunu-n k i na
fear I break l e ; t - y o u them
' I 'm afraid y ou might break them ' .
A l t o gether we have the fol lowing s chemas :
V unu S (1,2)
i i
V ku u�u A(1,2) k u P ( 3)
t
V 'V ana ku S /A ( 3 ) P( 3)
i t i
V ku P( 1 , 2)
t
V ku A ( l) > P ( 2 )
t
Note t hat u n u app ears only where S i is first or s e c ond person or where
A i s first or s e cond and P t hird . a n a appears only where S or b ot h A
i
and P are thir d . I n other instanc e s n o a n a o r u n u or any corre sponding
e l ement i s used . In t he imp erat ive we found that k u wa s used in tran
s it i ve as opp osed to intransit ive c l ause s . This is true wit h the ' le s t '
c on s t ruc t ion e xcept that k u j u and k i n a represent S i in the t h ird person :
(7. 4) r ump i ana kuj u I) u j i

fear l e s t they : 2 fa Z Z
' I 'm afraid they ' l l fa l l ' .
Howeve r , k u j u and k i n a are a l s o e xceptional in that they indic at e P in
c laus e s with k u n u giving two instanc e s of k u in the one c laus e :
rump i I) a i l aa ku n u - n kuj u
fear I k i l l l e ; t - y ou they : 2
' I 'm afraid y ou ' l l ki l l them ' .
A synchronic analy s i s would have t o recogni s e the k u of k U D U a s a
s eparable e lement a s s oc i at ed with c ertain transit ive c lause s . On t he
other hand , k u j u and k i n a s e em to have b e c ome unanaly sable pronouns
functioning as S i /A or P . D iachronical ly they contain k u and they must
have s t arted out a s A or P forms or both . The e xp lanat ion for this
would be a long the same lines indicat e s for the imperat ive ( se e above ) .
* l a n a / l i n a and * p u l a / p u j u would have b een att ract e d t o k u whenever they
were next to it . I n a c lause with a third S ingular A, which wo uld
norma lly b e represented by zero , they would come t o repre sent P . In a
c laus e with third s ingular P , t hey would c ome t o repr e s ent A :
145
A P
ku ,s p lJ j U > kupuj u > kuj u
ku puj u ,s > kupuj u > kuj u
I t s e ems that k u j u and k i n a , s ince t hey mus t have represented both A

and P at one stage , were then genera l i s ed to S in ' a n a ' construc t ions
i
( and also in - m a n i i c onstruc t ions - s e e § 4 . 2 . 5 . ) . The app earan c e of
k u j u and k i n a in c laus e s with k u n u ( s e e examp l e above ) also suggest s
they have b e c ome s imp l e pronoun forms rat her t han c omb inat i on s o f k u
and a pronoun .
7.7. THE CASE SYSTEMS
T o appre c iate s ome feat ure s o f the deve lopment o f the Kalkatungu
case s y s t e m , it is u s e ful to c ons ider the Ya larnnga s y s tem at the same
t ime . The case s y s t ems of Kalkatungu and Yalarnnga exhibit a number o f
c lo s e s imi lar it i e s . With nouns , e a c h language d i s t ingui s h e s di sy llab i c
t erns , longer stems and kinship s t ems . Kalkatungu , un like Ya larnnga ,
has word-final c on s onants and t here fore has consonant s t ems . The
following table l i st s the case forms :
D i s y llabic Longer Cons onant St ems

Vowel S t ems Vow e l St ems Kin ( Kalkatungu onl y )
K Y K Y K Y K
Nom. - ,s -0 -0 - ,s -0 -0 -0
Erg. - I) k u - I) k u -iu -j u -j i -lu -Tu
Loc I -pia - I) ka -ii -j a - I) U - I) u t a -p ia
Dat . -V ( j a ) -u -V(ja) -u - v (ja) -u -ku
Purp . -ta -! a -1 a
Loc I I - I) i i - I) i 1 a - I) i i - I) i 1 a - I) i i - I) i 1 a - I) i i
C aus . e rgat i ve p l us - I) U in both language s
Abl . locat i ve I p lus - I) U i n both language s
All I dative plus -na in K, -wampa ( disyllabic) , -mpa ( longer) in Y
All II locative II p lus - n a in K , locat ive I I p l us - m p a i n Y
Nominative
No c omment required .
Ergative/instrumental
In both languages a na s a l- s t op d i s s imilat ion rule operat e s t o produc e

an al lomorph - k u for d i s y l labic vow e l s t ems when a nasal - s t op s equenc e
o c c ur s in the s t em . D i s s imi lat i on rules are fairly uncommon ( s ee Blake ,
typ e s c r ipt ) , but nasal-s top d i s s imilation rules are found i n a number o f
Pama-Nyungan language s e . g . Dyaru ( W . A . T s unoda , p . c . ) . I take t hem t o
b e a feature of a remote proto-language retained t hrough Prot o K - Y and
146
into c ont emporary K and Y . The rule does not occur with every na s a l
s t op s equenc e , thus - n t i t he causat ive in both K and Y never dis s imi
lat e s . Thi s morphological condit ioning of the d i s s imilation i s further
evidenc e o f it s r e l i c status .
The a l l omorph - T u in Kalkat ungu haB s ub-allomorphs - t u , - t u and - c u
with ap i c o-alve o lar , re troflex and palat a l s t ems r e spect ive ly .
The a l lomorph - j u for long s t ems in Y may reflect a l enited s t op .
P ama-Nyungan languages tend to e xhibit - T u with c onsonant s t ems , and
- l u or - Q k u with vowel st ems . Where both - l u and - Q k u oc cur in a
language , t hey are o ft e n d i s tribut ed according to t he long ver sus short
s t em princ iple a s here . However , while - l u is the e xpec t ed allomorph
with long vowe l s t ems , - i u or - c u doe s occur in a number of language s
e . g . : Y ulbaridj a ( W . A . O ' Grady et al . 1 9 6 6 ) , Y uulngu dial e c t s ( n . e .
Arnhem Lan d , N . T . - Schebeck 1 9 7 6 ) . Fol lowing Dixon 1 9 7 0 , I t ake - 1 u
and - c u t o reflect a laminal - T Y u , but I have no e xp lanat ion for - i u
inst ead o f - l u i n Kalkat ungu . A s I sugge s t e d above , Yalarnnga - j u
probab l y represents a lenited - T Y u s inc e int ervoc alic l eni t i on of - T Y
t o - j - i s widely atte sted .
S in c e K j reflec t s both * 1 and * j , the al lomorph - j i in K used with
kinship nouns may reflect * - j i or * - 1 i . A s c an be s e en from the t ab le
ab ove , Y ha s - l u . That - j i i s the basic underlying allomorph in K c an
be s e en from a c omparison of the ergat ive and dative of kinship nouns
( and non- s ingular pronouns ) :
i s t ems a st ems u st ems

' mo t her ' s bro t h e r ' ' fa t h e r ' ' m o t he r '
erg. pup i { j ) i ku j a { j ) i ma t u j u
dat . p u pi i ku j a a ma t u u
The dist ribut ion of t he s e a l l omorphs c an be ac count ed for by p o s i t ing

- j i a s the basic al lomorpp for the ergative and -a as t he b a s i c al lo
morph for the dat i ve . A rule of a s s imi lat ion with high vowe l s w i l l
t h e n ac c ount for a l l a l l omorphs . The noun i u k u ' dog ' has an ergat i ve
i u k u j u , malia 'mob ' has m a l i a j i and j u r - 'man ' has i t i -j i . Thi s s ugge s t s
t hat - j i may once have c overed a wider range of s t ems t han i s now the
cas e .
Locative
Just as - l u , - Q k u and - T u are common al lomorphs of the ergat ive in

Pama-Nyungan , - l a , - Q k a and - T a are common allomorphs of the locat ive .
Yal arnnga e xhibits - Q k a with disy llab i c vowe l st ems while Kalkatungu
has - p i a . However , Kalkat ungu has - Q k a with k u u ' wa t er ' ( k u u Q k a ) and
w i t h � i u u ' h o Z e ' and m p u u ' r o t t e n ' ( � t u u k a and m p u u k a with nasal - s top
147
d i s s imilation ) . Th i s i s pret t y c l ear evi denc e t hat prot o K-Y had

* - Q k a and that K has innovated with - p i a , ret aining - Q k a on a few c ommon
words .
The allomorph - 1 i for longer vowel st ems in K i s an innovation . The
al lomorph t hat we would e xpect , given that the er gat ive for long vowel
s t ems i s - 1 u , i s - 1a and this doe s o c c ur with t he l i ga t i v e s - w a and
- j a ( s ee § S . 8 . ) . - t a o c c ur s with u c a n ' fir e ' and t he part i c i p l e - p i n ,
and - t a oc curs with u l a a � ' high ( o f sun ) ' , giving further ve s t igial
e videnc e o f an earlier - 1 a « *t a 7 ) .
Y has - j a with l ong vowe l st ems , which i s e xp e c t e d , gi ven - j u as t he
ergat i ve .
Both K and Y have - Q U as the locative for kinship nouns ( and wit h
pronouns ) b ut Y has an addit ional e l ement - t a o - t a o c c ur s a s a marker
of the purpos ive in Y and the two funct ions may be relat e d . - t a is o f
c our s e a n e xp e c t e d locat ive allomorph and in s ome Pama-Nyungan languages
forms such a s - t a , - l a and - Q k a frequent ly have purp o s ive t yp e function s .
I n K the locative a l l omorph - Q U appears wi th j u r - 'man ' ( j u r - Q u ) and
1uku ' dog ' ( 1 u k u Q u ) and occas ionally with other animat e nouns .
The al lomorph - l a o c c ur s with k u a ' cr e e k ' and - l u with m u u ' camp '
( presumab ly the vowel of the s uffix has a s s imi lated to the s t e m vowe l s ) .
- l a is an e xpec t ed lo cat ive allomorph for l ong vowel s t ems in P ama
Nyungan language s .
Dative
The basic allomorph for vowel st ems s eems to be - a ( s e e above under

ergat ive ) . The a l l omorph with cons onant s t ems 1 s - k u , t he common
Austra lian dat ive marke r . k u o ft en l enit e s t o - w u fol lowing vowel s t ems
and indeed this appears to have happened in Y where the dat ive i s
Y a l s o has a b ene fac t i ve - ! a which may der i ve from a locative
- ( w) u .
form. As not ed above K ret ains - t a as a relic form of the locat ive .
The vow e l s t em all omorph in K ( - a or perhaps - v b y int ernal recon
st ruct ion ) is une xp e c t e d . S in c e - k u app ears with c on s onant s t ems , we
would e xpect to find - w u or p o s s ib ly - w u - -w i . I n Warramunga ( N . T . ,
Hale 1 9 7 3 ) complete vowe l harmony ( b ut wi thout l en it ion of the conson
ant ) devel oped to yield - k u - - k a - - k i . Thi s could have happened i n
K w i t h subs equent l o s s of K b etween ident i c a l vow e l s ( s e e § 7 . 4 . ) . Or
perhaps we once had forms such as :
' spouse ' *kuQ i -ku leniting t o k U Q i wu

1f 11
' kangaroo ' *ma c um pa - k u mac umpawu
11 11
' spider ' *kupu - ku k u p uw u
The w i n m a c u m p a w u and k u p uw u would not have been s i gni fic ant ( given
the pres ent-day phonemot a c t i c s y s t em) and they could have b e en
148
reint erpre t e d t o m a c u m p a u and k U p u u . As a further s t ep we could p o s it

l o s s of w in k U Q i w u by anal ogy . i w u i s a very unusua l s equence in K .
I ' m not c ertain that I have any e xamp les o f it , though I would think i t
c ould oc c ur . The only prob lem with this argument i s t hat we have t o
p o s it c omp le t e vowe l harmony for the dat i ve but not for the ' - j i erga
t ives ' .
Note on m a a , at i .
maa ' v eg e ta b Z e food ' and a t i 'mea t ' have d i s t inc t ive paradigms :
maa at i
e rgat i ve ma a t u a t i ni u
l ocat ive m a a ia a t i ni a
dat ive ma a c i at i pc i
or m a a c i wa or a t i p c i wa
ma a c uw a a t i p (; u wa
I t i s not po s s ib l e t o e xplain why j ust the s e two nouns have rel at e d

paradigms . C ertainly it s e ems t hat we have y e t anot her e xamp l e o f
common nouns ret aining r e l i c s o f a n earlier s y s t em . Howe ver , we can s e e
why one paradigm h a s a nasal and t h e other hasn ' t . The Y form for food
is m a n i a . Pre s umab ly it was also the p rot o-K form and this caus e d d i s
s imi l at ion of t h e nas al - s t op c luster i n t h e s uffi x . m a n i a would have
b e c ome m a a by t he rule that de let e s consonant s between l ike vowe l s .
The locat ive I I in K i s - Q i i and in Y , - Q i l a . -Qi i i s not a c ommon
P ama-Nyungan form b ut was prob ab ly a feat ure of prot o-K-Y or an early
b orrowi ng from one t o the othe r . I t is fairly well int e grat ed into t he
c a s e s y s t em of both language s , as it forms the bas i s for the al lat i ve
I I forms . The e lement - l a in Y may be a reflex of the common P ama
Nyungan locat i ve all omorph - l a o
One o f the s t riking para l le l s b e tween t he K and Y case s y s t ems i s
t h e way t h e caus a l , ab lat i ve , and al lative I I c a s e forms are derive d .
In both l anguage s the causal and ab l at ive are derive d from the ergative
and l oc a t i �e respect ive ly by the addition of - Q U , and in both the
a l l a t i ve I I is derived from the locative I I by the addition o f augment s .
The - Q U that i s u s e d to derive the causal and ab lat ive forms c an plaus
ib ly b e re lated to the re lat ive pronoun Q U in K. For e xample , s ome thing
that is from X c an b e cons idered s ome t hing that was at X . The causal
fun c t ion is often e xpre s s ed i n Pama-Nyungan l anguages by the instrume nt a l ,
so i t i s not s urpr i s ing to see a causal form derived from an e rgat ive/
i n s t rumenta l . One would a s s ume t hat t he s ame - Q U is u s ed here in
deriving the ab l at i ve . The method of deriving t he ab lative and causal
from the locative and ergat i ve/inst rumental respective l y , while not
149
b e i n g t o o p e c ul i ar i n i t s e l f , is a feature pe culiar to K and Y . It

c ould b e a feat ure o f the proto-language , b ut t h e e xa c t para l l e l i s m
l ooks suspic ious ly l i ke the r e s u l t of influence from K to Y or vice
ver s a .
I t i s int ere sting t o not e t hat the a l lat ive I i n K i s formed b y the
addit ion o f - n a t o the dat ive . Thi s - n a may b e a reflex o f the common
Australian a c c u s at ive marker - N Y a whi ch shows up in K as - n a s uffi xed
to - � u in c e rtain re l at ive c laus e s ( se e § 5 . 1 1 . ) . A few Pama-Nyungan
l anguages form allat ives by augment ing the dat i ve but I am unab le t o
general i s e about t h e s ourc e o f t he augment s . The augment u s e d i n Y
( - rn p a ) may be of locat ive ori gin ; a few P ama-Nyungan languages have
locat i ve allomorphs of this form .
The paral l e l i s m b etween the format ion of the a ll at ive I I from the
locat ive I I is s t riking and s ince the format i on i s p e c ul i ar t o K and
Y and s in c e di fferent augment s are used in each langua ge , it s e ems t hat
the princ i p l e has di ffus ed from one language to the othe r .
7.8. OT H E R M O R P H O L O G Y
Except in cas e markin g , K morpho logy con s ist s largely o f idiosyn crat i c
forms and compari s on w i t h Y i s o f limited use .
The t en s e s in Y are - rn a pres ent , - rn u past and - rn i future . K has - � ,
- n a and rn i respect ive ly . - n a i s at t e s t e d e ls ewh ere as a past t e n s e form
an d - rn u is more l ikely to be an i nnovat ion . The s eries - rn a , - rn u and
- rn i appe ars to have b e e n built up in Y with a common e lement rn . K - rn i
may b e a borrowi ng from Y . - rn a marks t he present t en s e i n t he Arandic
languages ( S t rehlow 19 4 3 : 3 1 2 , Yal lop 1 9 7 7 : 4 9 ) .
K has a number of verb morpheme s containing t he s equen c e p c , a
s equence found in para l l e l function s in Pitj ant j at j ara , Walb iri , et c .
Some o f the s e are paral l e l led in Y :
p urpo s i ve K pcaaja Y pcata

c ont inuing p ca a n i
hab i t ua l -pca�u pa�u
part i c ipial -p i n - pana
noun formi ng -pci r -pc i r i
Y p c a t a i s built up from - p e a p l us the purpos ive - � a . Y appears to

have s imp l i fi e d the p c c lu s t e r in p c a � u , s in c e it e xhib i t s p a � u . In K
the nas al- s t op di s s imi lat ion rule operat e s with the p c s e r i e s , b ut in
the case of the part i c iple we find - p i n as the b a s i c allomorph and - c i n
with nas al- s t op s t ems . P re s umably - p i n de rive s from a form with a
homorgan i c nas a l - s t op c lu s t e r as does the corresponding Y form . The
di s c repancy in the vowe ls of - p i n and - p a n a i s para l l e l l e d by the forms
150
for ' they ' : K - i i n a , Y - iana . The wide spread Pama-Nyungan form i s
i a n a ( or c a n a l . The app earanc e o f - i - i n K can b e e xp lained a s a
reint erpretat ion o f t he fronted allophone of a ( i . e . [ e ] ) we would
e xp e c t fo l lowing the laminal . Taking this as a mode l , we can s ugge s t
t h e original vowel of r i n : r a n a w a s a . I f t h e final vowel w a s l o s t i n
K a s s ugge s t ed in § 7 . 4 . , then t h e prot o part i c ip l e w a s probab ly * n c a n a .
It i s inter e s t ing to not e that the form - ( r ) c a m a - in K , whic h is
used t o ind i cate a dat ive re lationship in the verb , paral l e l s the Y
r e fl exive/rec iprocal in form if not in fun c t ion - r a ma .
TEXTS
' MY W I VE S AND C H I LD R EN '
M I C K M O O N L I GHT
I) a i uia n t i j i -na ma r a p a i - i m a l i a - a , I) a - i u na u r m a n i j i m a ka i i -
Ihave - past wo � an - dat mob- dat I - e rg kid get hand
'I had a number of women . I got ten chi tdren
I) a r a n a m a k a i i - I) a r a na . p u i u r n a u r I) a - c i , I) a - c i k U l) i puiu r .
o t her hand o ther good kid me - dat m e - dat spouse good.
' (They ' r e ) good, my kids (and) my wife i s good ' .
I)a i in i ka l p u r u - i i j a l a � l) a - a - j a - i a mu-lu uli I) a - c i - k a
I t i v e Bou tia- loc Ya tarnnga-dat - l i g- loc coun try - lac die m e - dat - ¢
I t i v e i n Bou tia i n Ya tarnnga coun try . My firs t
1
w a c a l i - n a - I) u - k a marapa i I) a - c i ul i wa c a l i n a I) u - w a uia n t i j i - ka
fir s t - adv- adj - ¢ wo m an me- dat d i e fir s t - a dv rel-¢ hav e - ¢
woman died. She di ed, the one I had firs t .
naa I) a - i u ma r a p a i u i a n t i j i i i i n t a - I) u , ii i nta ma r a p a i I) a - i u u i a n t i j i .
h ere I- erg woman have midd t e - adj midd te woman I-erg have
Then I go t a s econd woman, I g o t a s e cond woman.
k u r pa i I) a - i u p i j a p i ] a I) a - c i - w a - i u l) u m a r a p a i - i u l) u na-j a
three I- erg baby m e - dat- l i g- caus woman - caus this -caus
I ( had) t hr e e chi tdren b y this woman o f m i n e . '
[ What was she l i ke ? ] m i n a l) a r a a r k u n a a n pa ] k u mp i r i a r k u n a a n .
wha t s i t b e t t igeren t somewhat b e t tigeren t
'She was, whatchamac a t t i t, savage, a t i t t te b i t savage.
l
Compare this u s e o f I)u and the u s e o f I)u i n wacali nal)uka . The former i s a free form ,
the latter bound . Not e the difficulty in distinguishing the relative marker from the
' adj ective-forming ' suffix . As things stand , I am taking the free form to be a
relat ive and the bound form to be ' adj ect ive-forming ' .
151
152
[ What d i d y �u d o with her ? J �a-lu !uaj i .

I-erg re L inquish
, I tet her go ' .
[ Did you have t o give her a hiding? J � a - l u !aj i , ma!ia - � u j a n � a - i u ! a j i

I - er g hit many - t im e s I-erg h i t
'I hit her . I h i t her a t o t .
i � k a - na , k a a n t a - na �a-lu ! a - r i n - ka . �a r pa -la i n i - ka ,
go- past t e a v e -past I-erg h i t - part - ¢' o t her- loc remain-¢'
She went, she teft wi th me hi tting her' . She ' s tiving with
�a r p a -l i i n i - ka . �a r p a - l u ula n t i j i - ka .
o ther- loc rema i n - ¢ o ther- erg hav e - ¢'
someone e ts e , with someone e ts e . Someone e tse h a s got her ' .
[ Y o u got a third one ? J u l i � k a - l) u �a - c i ma r a pa i �a-lu ul i �ka-�u
behind- adj m e - dat woman I-erg behind- adj
'My tast woman, the tast woman I got,
ma r a pa i ulan t i j i pulur caa ma r a p a i - k a , k u n t u n1 i j i - c a � u �a-c i .
Woman have good here wom an-¢' not s co td- hab it m e - dat
s h e ' s a good woman, she doesn ' t rouse at me ' .
' MY RAC E HOR S E S '
M I C K M O O N L I GHT
[ Have you ever been t o Bedourie? J �a i pa� i l i i � ka - n a ma r a ,

I there go- p a s t indeed
'I went t here a t t righ t .
. 1
m a ! l a - 1) u j a n � a i i � k a - na pauna wa n a n a �a i unp i -c i n J a ramana ,
many - times I go-p ast there - a l l hoI's ; I take- part horse
I went there tots of time s . I us ed t o take a horse [ to J
r e I s i k:l : t unp i -c i n a- i lun a . �a - c i j a r a ma n a , kunt u

racecour s e take- part comp- he run horse
m e - dat not
the racecour s e to run . My horse, not a
j a r i - i - ka . �a - c i j a ramana a la � a r a �a-lu unp i -c i n
wh i t e : ma n - d at - ¢ horse
m e - dat s e tf I- erg take- part
whi te man ' s . I took my own hor s e to
b i d u r i - i na a- i luna . [ na n i - ka i p a l 7J i p a l - k a !l a n i - � u
B e dourie=a l l c omp- he run who-¢' name nam e - ¢' who- loc ( ? )
B e dour i e t o run . Wha t was his nam e ? H i s name was
l
Apparently an error . wanana and j a ramana should be dative .
153
r � : n p �n m i oa�a ra kur i -kur i r � : n p � n - ka .

Ranpan w ha t s i t red-red Ranpan- ¢
Ranpan (= Frying Pan ? ) and he was , wha tsi t, a c hes tnut ' .
j a r am a na - � a r a � a - i u unp i j i �a-ei A ua t i u n p i j a r ama n a

hor s e - o ther I- erg take m e - dat two take hor s e
I t o o k ano t h er hor s e . I took two horses of mine
�a-e i wat i na r � : n p�n a n d n a n i - � u i p a l - k a � a r p a � a r a - k a k l i p a l �d .

m e - dat together Ranpan w ho- loc ( ? ) nam e - ¢ other-¢ C t ipper Lad
toge t h er, Ranpan and anot her whose name was C t ipper Lad.
[ i pa 1 pui u r ] �a-iu at i i i pa 1 aia �a r a . u np i j i �a-iu
name good I- erg produce name s e tf take I- erg
A good nam e . I made up t h e name my s e tf · I had
p a u n a a oia j i �a-iu k u r pa i � a - i u r � : n p� n a t i i m i 1 e raee-kuna .
there win ( verb ) I-erg thre e I- erg Ranpan put m i t e race -al l
t hr e e wins . I put Ranpan in a mi t e r a c e .
kuntu a o ia - t i - o a . They b i n ntui j a r a ma n a �a -e i

not win-re - past pu t t horse m e - dat
He didn ' t win . (The j o c k e y ) pu t t ed him ' .
[ The j ockey was a j a p i ( = whi t e man ) ? ] , Yeah,
�a-iu �a r pa �a ra man i j i j ap i - ka , 0a n i - � u k 1 i p a l �d - k a j uu-nt i j i .
I- erg other get whi t e : man - ¢ who- loc ( ? ) C tipper : Lad- ¢ c Hmb - t r
I got another whi t e fe t ta who rode C tipper Lad.
j uu - nt i j i �a - e i j a r a m a n a k l i p a l �d . d ?1) k i - � a r a - i u a o i a - oa
m e - dat horse
c t im b - t r C t ipper : Lad j ockey- other- erg w i n - pa s t
He rode my horse, C t ipper Lad. The o t her jockey won
A u a t i - � uj a n . malia I) t i a aoiaj i . [ Did you t rain the hors e ? ]
two- times much money win
twice . I won a t o t of money .
1
�a - i u a ia � a r a iunt i -e i n j a r a ma n a . w a k i h i - m a p e i Qa-iu r ud u - iunt i - e i n ,
I-erg se t f run : tr- part horse turn- tr I- erg ? -run : t r- part
I trained the hor s e myse tf. I used to run him around,
unp i -e i n �a-iu �a i o i - �a i o i laa eu rka-iunt i e urka-iunt i -e i n
take- part I- erg t a t e - tate c omp : I ? -run : tr ? -run : t r- p art
I ' d take him out of an ev ening t o trot him . I ' d trot him ,
�a-iu kuntu �a-iu papea i -e i n iunt i -e i n , �a-iu pa ] ku e u rka-iunt i - e i n
I- erg not I- erg hard- part run : t r- part I- erg t i t t t e ? - run : tr- part
I didn ' t g a t t op him hard, I ' d j u s t trot him a b i t ' .
l
-mape i seems to be a c ausative reflexive 'make him turn himse tf ' , the -pe i being
the s ame as the one noted in note 2, p . 154 .
154
[ W a s C l ipper Lad a ches tnut ? ] m i n a l) a r a p a l k u m p i r i b r a Un . l) a - 1 u m a .l 1 a

wha tsi t L i t t Le brown I- erg many
' He was. wha t s i � b i t brown . I had a L o t
j a r a m a n a I) a - c i - k a u1a n t i j i m a lta u1 i wana ka-1u ka1 i r - i t i .

horse me - dat - � own many d i e sun - erg grass -priv
of horses but they died with the sun and laak of grass ' .
' MAGP I E '
L A RV I E M OO N L I GHT
Thi s t e xt e x i s t s i n three ve r s i ons , one given b y Mick Moon l i ght , the

other two by Lardie Moon l i ght . The ver s ion transc ribed here i s the one
given by Lardie Moonl ight to Gavan Bre e n .
n a a - ka k u r a t a p u j u u - na 1 u n i - oa k a 1 u n k a r a - 1 u l) l.l nt i a-ana a-i

the-0 magp i e r i s e - pa s t f l y - p a a t du s t - causal h i l l - all c o mp - h e
' The magp i e flew up from/beaaus e of the dust to a hi l l t o turn
I) a m p u wa k i n i . kur i c i c i n i n i -na p i r ina nt i a -p i a . mpat i -n a
turn : around peewee be -past on hi l l - l oc aa l l -p a st
his back. The magp i e - lark was on the h i l z.. He ( t he magp i e )
p i r i oa wa1a r a - n t i j i macumpa k a t i i -p i n .
up com e : ou t-tr 1' 0 0 cover- part
aa l led ou t a n d made t h e kangaroo. w h o was buried, come u p ou t ( of t h e dus t ) .
kuratapu 1un i -oa nt i a -ana wa1a ra -ni i -j i - caaj a . u r umpa-na
magp i e f l y - pa s t hi l L - al l come : ou t - tr-a!p-purp l o u d : aa i l - p a s t
The magp i e flew to the h i l l to make him come ou t . He aa l l e d out,
I) a m p u wa k i n i - o a ( n t i a - k u l) u ) 1 , nt i a -p i a k a i u n k a r a - i u l) u .
tur n : around- past h i i l - caus hi l l - l o c du s t - caus
hav ing turned around on the hi l l from/be cause of the dus t .
waia r a - p c i - j i -t u , p i n t a - c a ma - t i - t u m a l ia - o a
aom e - ou t- ? 2 - imp-you : pl sp p e ad- t r - re- y ou : p l m a n y - adv
Get uP . you mob ! Spr ead o u t in grea t numbers .
I
I presume nt i a- kul)u i s given in error for �t i ap i a , the c ausal probably anticipating
the causal ;r ka1un ka raiul)u .
2
The function of -pc i is c lear from the passage. It is a reflexive and gives to
waia ra 'aome out. emerge ' the sense of 'get up '. Thus waia rapc i would be like the
Italian verb a l za r s i 'to get up ' where - s i i s reflexive . However , waiara i s not
tran s itive like Italian a l za re 'to raise ' and in theory requires trans itivising with
-pcama before it can be made r eflexive or rec i.procal by -t i . -pc i then is in lieu
of the expected -pcama-t i - , which does occur in the next word .
155
w a l a r a - p c i - j i - t u - ka kal i r - k u a-n i ari-l i a-ni p u ku a i

com e - ou t- ? - imp-you : pl - ¢ gras s - dat comp-you e a t- alp comp-you craw l
Come o u t and e a t the grass, and craw l t o various
mu u - Qa ra muu-Qara a-n i i Q ka p i rk i -Qara p i rk i -Qa ra ,
camp-one camp - o t her comp-you go b l oodwood-one b loodwood-o t h e r
p laces, a n d go to various tr ees, a n d to various rivers,
k u a - Qa r a kua -Qara a-n i i Q ka a-n i unla - j i ka l i r - k u .
riv er- o t her river-other comp- y ou g o comp-you gra z e : on - a/p gra s s - dat
and go and ea t (or gra z e on ) the gra s s .
Qa ! i Qa ! i , Q a r kun - ka , ma c u m p a , ut i Qa r , ma�ar i , c u r uj a n - k a , luar
roo : rat wa l laro o - ¢ kangaroo emu goanna ec h idn a - ¢ snake
Kangaroo rat, wa l laroo, kangaroo, emu, goanna, porcupine, snake,
wala r a - j i - t u .
com e : ou t- imp-you : p l
come o u t ' .
( ' He made a l l them anima ls g e t up . That ' s the wor ld ' . )
' HOW I WAS BORN '
L A RV I E MO O N L I GHT
l
Qa - c i ma t u it i - na la r k i - t a r k i - l i Q u
m e -dat mo go-past Tarr k i - Tarr k i - ab l
'My mother wen t from Tarrki- Tarr ki to
2
k l onka r i - i n a a-i i Qka h o s p i t a l - k u !2 a . Qa i -j an
C l oncurry- a l l c omp - s h e go hosp i ta l-all m e - con
C l oncurry to go to t h e hospi ta l . She had
3
Qa i m i ll i l a t i - n a too q u i c k b e f o r e h e i Q k a - na
me be born-past go- past
me; I was born went
l onga hosp i ta l . Qa i m i ll i l a t i n a l on g a
cro s s i n g . Then they too k her i n ambu lan c e .
Qa i - j a n a un p i j i . naa cutu j aun i Q ka -na Qa-c i
m e - and take h ere car big go- past me -dat
And they took me too . The big car went and
l
i t i normally means 'return, go back ' .
2
The only instance o f - j a n with a pronoun .
3
lit . 'become eyes ' .
156
l
mat u - u a-i i t i nt i j i m a f) a n a a n - I< u n a un p i j i
mother-dat comp- i t take doc tor - a l l - take
took my m o t her to t h e doctor, took her to the
m a f) a l) a a n - k u n a hosp i ta l - kuna i t i nt i j i a- i ini
doctor - a l l hospita l - all take comp - s he s tay
doc tor, took her to the hospita l. so she cou ld s tay
man k a-
na a-i ia i l - a t i g e t s e t t l e d d o wn , g e t b e t t e r .
later comp-she firm-become
( t here) a whi l e t i l.l. she got s trong. '
I P LANT ! NG I
M r C K A NV LARV r E M O O N L I GH T
2
LM n a a - ka w a ,t u k a t i j i f) a - c i - k a ta n t u - ka
h e re - ¢ dig me -dat -¢ h o i�-¢
' This one here dug a h o l. e for me ' .
MM ,l; a l) t u fl i n - t i w a ,t u k a t i j i 7
ho le y o u- erg dig
' Di d you dig a ho le ? '
LM c i p a - a -wa k u n k a - a - j a - ka
this -dat-¢ tree -dat-¢-¢
, For this tree I .
MM kunka-a- j a , a-n i f) k a a j i ma n t i 7
tree -dat-¢ c omp-you p l a n t
' The tre e , are you goi ng to p la n t i t ? '
LM f) a a , f) a - ,l; u pa t i - na i ki i a- i w a ,l; u k a t i - j i
y es I- erg te l l - p ast Hickey c omp -he dig- alp
, Ye s , I to ld Hickey to dig ' .
MM nan i fl i n - t i pa t i -na 7
w ho you-erg te l .l. - past
' Who di d you te l l. ? '
l
i t i n t i j i is i t i 'return ' + n t i - but it means 'bring ' or 'take ' not nec essarily 'bring
back ' .
2
Since ,l;al) tu i s nominative and wa,l;uka t i j i i s transit ive , there must b e an A i n the
c lause . I take it that the third person A i s represented by zero and that naa i s
adverbial . However , it is di fficult to be certain that naa is not pronominal with
neutralisation of the ergative and nominative .
157
LM iki i I) a - l u p a t i - na la n t u - u a-i w a l u ka t i - j i
Hickey I - e rg te H -p as t ho iE� - dat c omp - he dig-alp
' I t o r d Hickey to dig a ho re ' .
MM na u r 7
ki d
, The k id ? '
LM I) a - l u p a t i - na na u r -ka a-i w a l u ka t i - j i ,t,a n t u - u
I-erg te H -p as t k i d - ¢ comp - he dig -alp ho L � dat
-
' I t o rd the k i d to dig a ho re ' .
MM la r g u - u a- i w a j; u k a t i - j i
ho r e - d a t c omp- h e dig-alp
' To dig a ho r e ' .
LM He b i n waluka t i j i m i !l a l) a r a - ,t,a
dig w ha tsi t - erg
' He dug i t wi th tha t whatsi tsname ' .
MM p u ! uw a r a - ,t, u
whi te - erg
' The wh i t e one ' .
LM Yeah , caa I) a - ,t, u k u n ka - ka ara-nt i , c a r a l ma j i - m p a k U - l) k u - k a
h e re I-erg tre e - ¢ e n te r - t r bathe - s e q w a t e r - erg-¢
' Ye ah , I p ranted i t and wa te re d i t ' .
MM c a r a l ma j i 7
ba the
' Wa t ered i t ? '
1
LM . .
Y e a h , wa la r a - J1 c l l c a a -m i a k a j a c i i pu w a ,t a r a naa then k u n k a - ka
emerge -re this-p 1ur s ho o t emerge h e re tre e - ¢
' Yeah, these sho o ts come ou t and t hen the tree
jaun-aan-at i !l a a laa k a n ,t,a - p i r i !l a - ,t,a t i
b i g - con-int rhere then head -up - i nt r
grows and g e t s ta r r ' .
lSee note 2, p . 154 .

158
' '
C OO K I N G BY TH E C R E E K
M I C K A NV L A RV I E MOO N L I GH T
LM Qali p i ni i Q k a - na Q ka r a - a a-li w a ,t u k a t i - j i .
we : 2 you go -past y am:dat c omp-we : 2 dig-alp
' We went to dig yams ' .
p i n-li laj i m a c um p a .
you e r g k i l l kangaroo
-
' You k i l l e d kangaroos ' .

MM ati Q a - ,t u la j i ma c u m p a .
me at I - e r g ki l l kangaroo
' I ki l le d kangaroo s ' .
LM Qali 1u j i .
w e : 2 cook
' We cooked ' .
MM ,t u j i Qali .
cook we : 2
, We cooke d ' .
LM k u a - la .
cre e k - lo c
, By t h e cre e k ' .
MM kua - l a Qali ,t u j i . kapan i Qali pini k ua - l a ma r a r i - i .
cree k - lo c we : 2 cook hunt we : 2 you cre e k-loc goanna - dat
' We cooked by t h e cree k . We hunted for goannas down b y t he cree k ' .
ma r a r i - i Qali i Q ka a-li la - j i .
goanna-dat w e : 2 go c omp-we : 2 ki l l - alp

' We we n t o u t k i l ling goannas ' .
LM a j a r - na Qa l i -j i 1a j i ma ra r i .
o ne - adv w e : 2 -erg k i l l go anna
' We k i l l e d a goanna once ' .
BB La rd i e i Q k a - na Qkara-a1
Lardie go - past y am - dat
, Lardi e went for yams ? '
MM La rd i e i Q k a - na Qka r a -a .
Lardie go - pa s t yam - dat
' Lardie we n t for y ams ' .
BB pini i Q ka - na ma c um pa - a - j a 1
you go -past kangaroo - dat-¢
' You wen t for kangaroos ? '
159
MM I)a i i I) k a - na ma c um pa - a a t i -'J1 c i laa la - j i .

I go -past kangaro o -dat mea t - dat c omp : I k i Z l - a/p
'I w e n t to ki l l kangaroos ' .
BB l a ma r a i t i - na mu r u - u n a .
t hen re turn- past ca�p-a l l
' Th e n (you wou l d) go back to camp ' .
MM i t i -na I) a l i muru- una .
re turn- past we : 2 camp-all
' We wo u l d go back to camp ' .
LM i ti -n t i a t i -pc i , luj i k u a - la .
re turn - t r m e a t - dat coo k cre e k - l o c
' We w o u l d bring the kangaroo back and cook i t by t he cre e k ' .
MM k u a - la ,t u j i . ,t u a j i I) a - l u ma Ua - p u n i j i wa k u
cre e k - lo c cook cut I-erg many -tr skin
' We wo u l d c o o k b y t h e cre e k . I wou ld cut t he ( k angaro o ) up i n to
i l i t i -mpa , ,t u k u apa -mpa wa k u - k a .
throw - s eq do g gav e - seq s ki n - ¢
p i e c e s and throw the s k i n , g i v e t he s ki n t o the dogs ' .
' '
T H E N AND NOW
M I C K M O O N L I GH T
1. I) a - c i ma t u - j u I) a i atij i j a m i ! i j am i ! i - l i .
me - dat mo ther-erg me produce O l d : Hamme r l y - loc
' My mo ther had me a t O l d Hamme r l y .
! u l) a - p i n I) a i mimi -i I) a - c i ma t u - u . I) a - c i ma t u - j u I) a i
cry - past I bre a s t - dat m e - dat mo the r - dat me-dat mo ther-erg me
I u s e d to cry for my mo t he r ' s breas t . My mo t h e r us e d to
a l) i - J1 i n mimi . j a r ka i l) k a - c i n laa wa n i , wa l i p i r i - i
give - past bre a s t far go -past c omp : I p lay humpy -dat
g i v e m e mi Z k . I used to go ou t a Zong way to p Zay and
laa k i akat i -j i . ucan I) a - l u anpa-c i n p U Ac u r u - k a , a t i - J1 i n
c omp : I make - alp fi rewood I- erg gather-past pu l tjuru-¢ make -past
bui Z d humpi es . I wou l d gather fi rewo od, p u l tjuru s , (and) I
I) a - l u I) a - c i - w a - la ucan I) a - l u k i a k a t i - J1 i n . uca n a n pa - c i n
I - e rg m e - dat-lig-loc fi re I - e'rg make - past fi re ga ther-past
wou ld mak e a fi re a t my (camp ) . ( I ) used to gather
a t i - J1 i n wa l i p i r i - l i anli i a-i man i i , n u u - J1 i n u ca n - ta
mak e - past humpy - loc mou th : loc comp - i t burn i i e - past fire - lo c
firewood and make a fire to burn a t t h e en trance of the humpy
160
i l i r - p i a - ka .
c o �d- loe-¢
and � i e b y t h e fire i n the co � d ' .
2. k u p a l) u r u - �a t i - p i n I) a i • mu - l u I) a i ini la a .
o �d : man - i ntr-past I camp - loe I remain now
, I 'm an o � d man . I s t op a t home now .
b u l j a - a na I) a i i l) k a - oa . I) a - c i - k a n t i a-ka naa bu l ja-p i a nuu .
Bou L i a - a l l I go - past m e - dat-¢ �oney - ¢ here Bou � i a - loe iie
I wen t to Bou�ia . My money i s h ere in Bou �i a .
n t i a-ana I) a i i l) k a - ua k a l p u r u - u oa . I) a - � u I) � i a I) i � i ma Ua
�one y - al l I go- past Bou �i a - al l I-erg money here mob
I wen t to (ge t my ) mo ney, to Bou �ia . I had a � o t of money
u1an t i j i c a j a - oa - k a . I) a - � u ma a - c u a ma n i - n t i n t i a -ka
have o �d-adv-¢ I-erg food- dat : ¢ g e t -w i t h �o ne y -¢
t h e re once . I spe n t i t on food (and) used i t
u t i ma j i - m p a ' I) a i u ! i m a j i - ua n t i a -a I) a - c i - w a - k u .
consurne - perf l I consume -past �on e y -dat me -dat-lig-dat
a H up . I have spe n t a � � my money ' .
l
-mpa c ould be sequent ial or perfec t .
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S TREHLOW , T . G . H .
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( Reprinte d from O c eania 1 2 - 1 4 , 1 9 4 2- 4 4 . )
SUTTON , P . J . e d .
1 9 76 Lang uag e6 0 6 Cape Y o � k . AAS , RRS 6 . Canb erra : Aus tralian
Instit ute o f Aboriginal S t udi e s .
165
TINDALE , N . B .
1974 A b o�iginal T�ib e4 0 6 AU4 t�alia . Canb erra : A . N . U . Pre s s .
URQUHART , F . C .
1885 ' Le gends o f t he Aus t ra l ian Abor i gine s ' . J o u� n al 0 6 t h e
R o yal Anth� o p a l o g i c al I n4 titute 1 4 : 8 7- 8 .
1886 [Kalkatungu vo c abulary ] , in Curr 1 1 : 3 2 6- 9 .
WURM, S .A .
1972 L a ng ua g e4 0 6 AU4 t�alia and Ta4 mania . The Hague : Mo ut on .
YALLOP , C .
19 7 7 Al yawa��a . A n A b o�iginal L ang uag e 0 6 C ent�al AU4 t�alia .
AAS , RRS 1 0 . Canberra : Austral ian I n st it ut e of Ab original
Studie s .
GWSSARY
KA L KAT U N G U - EN G L I S H
HUMANS
' n ew b orn baby ' p i rk i p i rk i {j an) ( = b l o o d wo o d ) . u r um a

' b aby /y oung a h i l d ' pi !api !a
'ahi ld ' na u r
' b oy ' kaQku. kuj i r i
' g ir l ' wampa . wampaampa l a ( CC) . p i �a
' h oy n e aring p u b e r ty ' kuj i r i
' g ir l n e a r i ng p u b e r ty ' wampa
' b o y aft er fir s t d egr e e i n i t i a t i on ' j a p a r i r i
, /I /I /I /I
s e ao n d upa r i pc i
, /I /I /I /I
t h ir d , kania p i a � u
' y o ung man ' ka l p i n . ka l P i n � u r u
'man ' j u r u ( er gative s t em - i t i � )
' o l d man ' k u pa . k u p a k u pa . k u pa � u r u
' g i r l after fir s t degr e e i n i t i a t i on ' i r a c i
, /I /I /I /I
s eaond , wa l uma r a
, /I /I /I /I
t h i rd , m u ni a m u n i a ( s ee ' o ld woman ) '
'woman ' ma r a p a i
' o l d woman ' m u n i a m u ni a ( s ee ab ove ) , m u c u m u c u
' w i dow ' k a r a j a u . m i nia r a
' d o a to r ' ma�aQaan
'man of prowe s s ' p i pan i
' unmarr i e d man ' ma Q t aw i ia
' unmarr i e d woman ' j uruit i . jur i t i
' s tran g e r ' r a � k i n . m a w a r . m a a wa r
' fr i end ' k a a c i . i i ma t a
' g ho s t , w h i t e man ' japi
' w h i t e woman ' miiiii
167
168
' p o l iceman ' ka n i m a J i fl c i r

' dead p erson ' p i fl C i 1
'man ' ( as ob j e ct of a woman ' s m i t am i t a
a ffection)
KIN ( See also § 5 . 2 . 7 . 3 . )
'mother ' ma t u 'mo ther ' s fat h er ' cac i ( c i )

, fa ther ' kula ' fa ther ' s mo ther ' pap i ( p i )
' o l der bro thel" iapu 'father ' s fa ther ' f) a c a ( c i )
' o lder s i s t er ' pua 'man ' s chi ldren ' kunkuj u
' younger s i b l ing ' u f) k u ] u ' woman ' s chi ldren ' f) a l u
'mo ther ' s s i s ter ' u p ac i ' husband ' j ukuta
'mother ' s brothel" pupl 'wife ' k U f) i
'fa ther ' s s i s t er ' f) u c i r ' spous e ' markut u
' fa th er ' s bro thel" p i ia t a 'mother - i n - law ' wapuiu
'mother ' s mothe r ' mucu ( c u) ' cr o s s - cousin ' m u a � f) u
'gr e a t grandparent 0 1' grandchi l d ' ma c a r a
Rare forms : ma � u ( 'mo ther ' ) , f) a � i ( ' e lder brothel" ) , J a l a c a ( 'mother ' s
bro t hel" ) , f) a � t a r ( 'mother ' s s i s t ez" ) .
BODY PARTS
' head ' k a n ia , ma p a

, hail' ' wa r pa u i u r u , wa r u p u
, grey hail" kat u !
' bl'ains ' k uiu
'fore head ' muuiu m i r i m i r i
'face ' m u ui u ( m u u i u m a k a r i 'pr e t ty face ' )
' t emp le ' p i k a U l a , w a m i ,la
' ey e ' miHi
' ey e l id ' m i l p u fl u n
, ey ebrow ' m i f) a n k a r i , m i l i n u
, eye lashes ' m i f) a n k a r i , m i l i n u
'nose ' i c i fl C i , f) U fl i r i
'flat n o s e ' f) u fl i r i ! a l a ! a l a , i c i fl c i !a l a ! a l a
'mouth ' a ula
' l ips ' a ul a p i l) k u r
' t ongue ' rna 1 i
'teeth ' a t i u la
'cheek ' uku
'jaw ' a u l a f) a ,l 1 a , uku
' c hin ' a ,l i n u k u , a u l a f) a ,l l a
169
'beard ' j " n pa r

, ear ' i ':!.ia , c u k u c u k u ( animal not huma n ) ,
p i n a ( rare )
'neck ' ka l a a ,
.
ka l a r a
. .
'nec k ' (fr on t ) ia k a r p a � ! u r p a � ! u r

'neck ' (bac:k) I)a m p u k a o'la k a O, .t a
' s hou Zdel" wa r k u , I)a p , I)a l) i
' s hou Zder b Zade ' wa t u
' armp i t ' k i c i pu l u
'arm ' j u !!. iu
'upper arm ' k u rc a l
' e Zbow ' j u � um u k u , wa r i
'wris t ' muru
' hand ' ma k a i i
, 'left hand ' k a l u r u l) u
' hair under arms ' k i c i pakua

'brea s t ' mimi , k a !!. ia I)a m a I)a m a ( ' n ipp Z e ' ? )
'chest ' m a !!. ia r , w a k i t a , I)a m a l) a , I) a ! i r i r i ,
I)a t i I i ( 'brea s t bone ' ) . i a p u ! a k a n k a n
( 'breas t bone ' )
'rib ' i a l p u , p i p a l i , p i pa l p i p a l
'rib bone ' j <I m p i
' s tomach ' put u
'nave Z ' unaka l i , un aa r u , c i ku , unukuru
'back ' m i rc i
' sma Z Z of t h e back ' I) a m p u p a l) i u
'buttocks ' muj u , iun p uliu
' hip ' O, i a ui a
' anus ' m i i i ui i
'pubi c hair ' ciii
'pen i s ' k a a ui u , kapua pura l ( ' erection ' )
'testicZes ' I) u ! u , m a ! i l) u � u
'vu Zva ' i r i l a , i i n t i , p a n t i , k u c i ra ka r a p u l u ,
k i rapu
, groin ' j a! k i
' t high ' I) u l:t. u
' kn e e ' i puru , pur u , p u r upu r u ( ' kn e es ' )
, 'leg ' wa l) k a
' ca Z f ' ma l a
' s hin ' wa l) k a
'an k Z e ' !J u k u
'heeZ ' wa � ! u
'foot ' ia pantu
'toes ' p i k u m a l a l) l) u, p i k u m a t u ( a � l) u )
170
'nai l s ' p i ku
'bone ' kunka , wa l) k a ( s e e ' shin ' )
'b lood ' uAc i
' s k in ' wa k u
'fa t ' k U !l i a l i
' body hair ' pupcu
' hairy ' pupc u l puncu l
'mus c l e ' miar
' t endons ' i a r k a - ia r k a , wa n i k a
' v ein ' p i rman
' heart ' w a ] k a r i l) u , j a n u a n t i , wa i r a
, lungs ' mu r i
, l i v er ' ut uniu
' kidney s ' m i r u l) u j a n
' b owe l s/in t e s t in e s ' unu, u l u ia p i k u ! u , unu r i curu
'mi l k ' mimi

' faeces ' unu
'urine ' kurka i
'swea t ' a A c i r , aA c i ra
, sa liva/ph legm ' ca mpa r
'nasa l mucus, a c o l d ' l) !J n k u r
'pimp le ' I) u n i
' lump ' I) a m u n
' b oi l ' I U l) a
'pox ' kaca ra
'mens trua t i on ' k u r u r um i r a
, copu lat ion ' mpuj umpuj u
, s or e ' kak i
, s car ' w a p a r u , m a r i l i , I) a l i r i
'wound ' kak i
'pain ' I) k i k i
, cramp ' c i i amanman
' corp s e ' p i nc i I
'ghos t ' j an i
'nam e ' i pa 1
ANIMALS
'mea t ' at i
'ma le ' k u l a a j a l) u
' fema l e ' k i nca
karau
171
' tai l ' kaani u , jarari

' fur ' p U f1 c u
' egg ' k u i u , f1 U U
' yo l k ' j a p a ! a ( a l s o give s as ' r e d oohre ' )
' eggshe l l ' r i mp i 1
, kangaroo ' mac umpa

' fema l e kangaroo ' p a r a f1 c a
' kangaroo t e e t h ' i r a l) k a l
' kangaroo ' s pouoh ' j a ra
' kangaroo rat ' I) a ! i l) a ! i , w a c i n w a i a l a
'wa l laroo ' I) a r k u n
'possum ' m i ra mpa , u t u ma n , i a k a m u n i a
'water ra t ' k i �t i , p i k u r a ( s e e n e x t ent ry )
'bandiooot ' ka l ka t u , p i k u r a ( R oth ) c i k a l ,
, c i ka l i
'bush ra t ' ka ! u
'bush mouse ' c i r i ma , p u k u c u r , j a t i c i , c u r u k u l) u
' eohidna ' c U f u j a n , wa c i n a a n

'bat ' m U f1 u , p i pa ! i
' flying fox ' m U l) a r
' dog ' i u k u ( not Engl i s h b orrowing - i t
d e c l ines i rre gul arly )
' dingo ' m u n u ia l) u
'pup ' wa ! ama a n
' sh e ep ' m a l) k i ma l) k i
' horse ' j a r a m a n , j a r a ma n a , w a n a n a
'bu l look ' p u l a ka , p u l i i i , n a f1 c a r a j a n , m u ! i
'goa t ' na n i k u t u
' oa t '
' ohook ' k i � t i w a t uwa t u r a , c u k u c u k u
REPTILES , F I SH , ETC .
' goanna ' ma r a r i , kunakaaca , j uru u, j u l a ra ,

' ( i n fo rman t s unab l e ' t ot d i s t i ngui s h
spe c i e s cons i s t ently )
'pre n ti e ' ma n p u ( r u ) pa r i , r a l) i r a a n
'Johnson orooodi l e ' j ut uj ut u
' l izard ' i ! i pa r i
'bearded dragon ' wa 1 k a a t u
' b lue tongue ' p a l) k a r a, i u m p a f a r a
' li zard s imi lar to b lue tongue ' m i j u l) a ! a n a , j a p u l) k u l i r i , w a l) k a t a
' un ident ifi ed types o f lizard ' m i l u ma n u , u t a t a , wa l) a t u , m i ! a t i
172
, fri H e d l i zard ' wa r a ta l) u j a n

'geako ' p a Q ! a p a Q ! a ( o ften given a s 'wood
adder ' a spe c ie s o f ge cko )
' snake ' t ar , kun t a ra , p i ru
' types of snake ' ( at t empt s at ia k u j a n , m i l k i r a , j a p i Q ! i c i , m a l) a Q ,
iden t i fic at ion incon s i s t en t ) c ! ka
' death adder ' m ku! u
' aarp et sna ke ' p a r i - p a r i , a n i a k u ! a a j a l) u
' b Zaak- headed py thon ' m a p a ma c i n
' wa t er snake ' I) u l u - I) u l u , j u t u r ( al s o given as
. 'pyt h on ' , c f . ' aroaodi Ze ' )
, arab ' m a r a ka t u , k a Q ! a r ( al s o given for
, saorp i on ' )
' arayfi s h ' tumpan , c u i pc i , mu ! u
'musse Z ' k curu , r a ka c u . wan t a ! . j a r ka l a a n
' s he Z l, ' c i k a r a , c i k i ( l i ) r i , wa n t a ! ( s ee
p re c e d ing entry )
' tadp o Z e ' un u ! u t u
' frog ' p a k u k u , u ! u p a ( ' gre en tree frog ' ) ,
c a r a a ! k u , c a w a n ( ' b ig brown frog '),
t a r a l) a n a ( ' Z i t t Z e , green frog ' ) ,
u p u n ( ' big, brown frog ' )
' fi s h ' wa ka r i
' fin ' 1i rin
' sa a Z e s ' p i rk i p i rk i (j an) ( = ' b Zoodwood ' )
' y e Z Zow b e Z Zy ' m i a ra a n
' b Za a k bream ' ma l) k a ! a , k a l k a a l) [ s i c ] , k a l k a l) u
' boney bream ' m i r i kan
' type of sma Z Z fis h ' ulu
'perah ' ia k u r u
B I RDS
' b ird ' t ll r u u Q

' b ea k ' a tl t a
'wing ' j ll u t u
, a Zaw ' tapant u , p i ku
' fea ther ' k ll t i , p u l u n , p u r l) u
' emu ' u t i I) a r

, emu feather ' ti l i ara
' eag Z e hawk ' uluj aan , uluj a u n
' ki t e hawk ' p i c u! u . kacap i
' w h i t e haWk ' k ll l l) u p a r i
' ahia kenhawk ' m ll c u Q
, eag Z e ' k ll m a l n t u i c i r
173
' crow - b lack ' w a k a n , u k a n , wa k a l a , wa a k a ! a

'pe lican ' wa l k i r i p a r i , t u l k i r i p a r i ( Roth )
' spoonb i l l ' p i la - p i la
' diver bird ' fl i l l
'jack diver ' ka l a - k a l a
' waxbi l l ' p i i t u- p i i t u
, bro 19a ' k u l l u u r , m i r i k u n p a fl a , w a Q k a Q u l l a ,
p u raa�t a , p u ra l ku
, crane ' la n k i n
' wa terhen ' k i c i c i papa
' do t ter e l ' p i �t i l - p i � t i l
' kingfisher ' ma l a �a , c a ampa
' kookaburra ' m a r k u l a ( Urquhart - O ' Re i l l y )
ca l u n ku r , ca r u Q k u l
' duck ' �anta� i , k a r a p a ( unspec i fi e d types
rather than gene r i c t erm)
' wood duc k ' ma�am i !aaka , kunampa , lurpupa r i , Qa l awa l
' b lack duck ' maQaw i r a
'whi s t l e r duc k ' k i p UA U , C i P UAU
,owl ' m i l1 i j a u n
' mopoke ' k u r k u r ku , j at i la r a , mu k a � ka
' dov e ' u l uuku�u
'p lumed pigeon ' u r i mP i t u
' n ig h t p ig eon ' k u l u ma r l
' f l o c k p ig e on ' curual i , kuraku

, brown pigeon ' u � i Qa , �apac i
' type of pigeon ' kul upac i
' p lains turkey ' pa r kamu , c a l a l u
' core l la ' . m u � u m a � i , k u l u t a ( Urquhart - O ' Re i l ly )
ma � a p u Q u
' w h i t e su lphur-cres ted coc katoo ' j a u i r a , p i r i mp a l a a n
' ga lah ' kl l auru , ki l a-ki l a
' p eewee ' ku� i c i c i n
'magp i e ' kurat apu
' budgerigar ' c i n pa r u
'parro t ' m u l p i fl ( 'green with beads around neck ' ) ,
p a l p a a c u ( ' green parro t wi th red
wing ' ) p u l u n p u l u n
,
'wi l H e wagtai l ' c i nt i p i r

' finch ' c i ku � u
' chook ' k i n t i w a l uw a l u r a , c u k u c u k u
174
INSECTS , ETC .
' in s e c t - Li ke creatur e ' i c a j i fl c i r ( ' b i ter ' ) , ulu

, sp ider ' kupu
' r edba c k spider ' m l fl c i k u r i k u r i , m i i i n i i kur i kur i ,
iun puliu ku r i ku r i
'fLy ' j umuni i r i , j um uni u r u
' b L owfLy ' m i l Qa , u n u Q u ( al s o gi ven a s 'bee ' )
' maggo t ' c i k u - c i k u , wa � k a
'bee ' mat u
' b e eswax ' umu
' honey ' i ka n
' wasp ' w a fl i m a t u
'mosqui to ' m i ka r a , m i kaa
' b u t terfLy ' k u f, a t a p u
' hairy caterp i L Lar ' c i apa ] a
, c en tipede ' iit i ri , ii t i i
' an t ' iii
'meat an t ' iii
' b La c k a n t ' wa i i
' wh i te an t ' i ra
' bu L L a n t ' m u o. i u n
' an tbed ' m i campu
, swarm ' kit i -kit i
, Lous e ' iuiu
'fLea ' iurunpu
' Locus t ' i i r i -i i r i
' w i t c h e t ty grub ' kapa ra , kapaa
' un identified types of grub ' ma Q k u t i , m a Q k u i a t i p u l a , p u � pa i i Q u
' worm ' ia l u
'beetLe ' i i ran , j u� kuQut u
, scorp i on ' k a � t a r ( al s o given as ' crab ' )
' grasshopper ' p i nt i c i r i
FLORA
' tr e e ' ku nka

'root ' t ur i -t u r i
, s t ump ' is a o. i a n m a a t u
' L og ' iunpun
' bark ' ia ka , ia ka 1
' Limb ' m a ] a Q a f, c a Q a f, c a
' L eaf ' p u ] i o. i i
' t ea Leaf ' Q ulian
175
' s ti c k ' k u n ka
' r o t ten wood ' ra put u
' n e e d l e bush ' ia n p u r u , i U Q k u r u
'firewood ' ucan
' fork ' r a fl c a , p a l l a, j a l i ( po s s ib l y j a j i )
' f l ower ' wa r i fl c a , p i D i i k a l i , w i r i r i , u k a r a ,
k u i i ( s e e 'fea ther ' )
' type of fru i t ' k a l) t u
' wi ld fig ' wa l i fl c a Q u
' s eed ' m i li i ( c ompare ' ey es ' )
'nut ' k u c a n p � r u ( unident i fi e d type o f
edible nut )
' fo l iage ' k U Qa l a
' new grow t h ' mUD kumu D k u , c i i p u
' gidyea tre e ' p a ca r a , i i 1 i ma r i
, gidyea flowers ' mu k i
' uniden tifi ed species of
Euca lyptus ' Qant i Q u
' c o o l ibah ' p i D p i r i , ma k a r u
' bean tre e ' c i ka j aa n , c ui a , w a c u
, moun tain gum ' p ui a - p u t a
' b loodwood ' p i rk i - p i r k i
' s upp l ej ac k ' a l ka r
' s i lv er leaf b ox ' k a r k a fl i
'mu lga ' u r i r a , m i aw a l i
' b e efwood ' wa c a r a , m a l a i a m p i , i i n t i p a r i
' te a - t r e e ' (Me laleuca) n u r u Q u ( al s o t ea-tree b ark and
certain things made from this ) ,
m i r a fl c i , m u n a l k a r a
' lo o s e bark of tea- tr e e ' pucun pucun
' c or kwood ' cut u
'prune tree ' c i QkaQu
' w i l d orang e ' i n p u k u t u , wa t a c i
'river wa t t l e ' ka ! a c a
'myrt le ' p u r ku l u
, lance wood ' k i a l pa r i( ' ea s t ' ,
= = ' ch e s tnu t '
( o f hors e s »
' ironwood ' i ot a p U l um a p u l u m a ( al s o given as
, coo t ibah ' )
' carbeen ' u c a awa , ut i , p i kan i
'whi tewood resin ' k u n a fl c a r
'ro l y -po ly ' Q um p u ! u
' pr i c k ly bus h ' ma k a r
, l i gnum bus h ' r i c a aw a , t a n i t a
176
' sp l i t - eye ' I) u ! u

'bush toma to ' mu ! uku
' v eg e tab l e food ' maa
'yam ' I) k a a
' type of yam ' ma k u r a , I) a t a ' kind o f makura '
'p lain yam ' k a n k uJ i
' b lackberry ' j a l p u l) u
' turp e n t ine bus h ' ma l) t u j u l) u
' sa l tbus h ' a l ampa
'grass ' k a Jl i r , ka1 i r , c i l ku r uj a n , c i l ka r i ,
' m i tche l l grass ' p i ta punuru
' grass se eds ' iii r
' spinifex ' w a c i n ( al s o ' spine, bri s t l e ' )
, burr ' curu
' re e d ' c i mpa l a
, paddy me lon ' i ! pu , pu l u ra
'gooseb erry ' m i Jl c a r u m a
, kanguberry , Jl u a n Jl u
' pigwe ed ' 1a ! u
'poison ' k a l)a
, drug ' pa l p i r (a s ub s t ance used to drug fi s h )
' un identified typ es of tree ' u k a l) t a i c a l) u
' un iden tified type of p lan t ' c i n p u n , p i p i Jl , p a 1 u l a Jl c i , t a t u n u ,
k a n 1 a 1 a k u , i l) k a A i l) k a j a l) u ,
c a m p u A c a , k u r i c i pa l ka
' un iden tifi ed types of bush ' p i r i - p i r i , pupuc i , p i r i mp i r i
SKY , TIME , WEATHER , WATER, EARTH
, sun ' ( al s o ' day ' ) p i pcamu , wana k a

' moon ' ( al s o ' month ' ) 1 u n1 a l
' cr e s c en t moon ' t un1a l put u
, s tar ' c i r ka , m i l1 i ( ' eye s ' ) , p u 1 u r u l) u
'Morn ing Star ' ma r a p u t a l) k a a ! i
' South ern Cross ' k a n a m a r a l a k i a , k u ! a l) k u ! a a j a l) u
'Seven Sis ters ' m a r k a l) u r u
'Mi l ky Way ' wa r u - wa r u
' dar k ' wa t a , wa t a m a k a l
' to grow dark ' m i wa ! u 1 a t i
' sunr i s e ' m p a m p a i Jl c i p i Jl c a m u
' shade ' wa ! u a
' br e e z e ' k u i a l) u
' wind ' u n u l) k a t i
'wi l ly-wi l ly/du s t s torm ' w a m p a t i , ma r k a m a r k a , w a r i p i r i a n
177
, s torm ' j u ra p i r i
' hai l.ston e s ' k a r a k u c u l) u
' thunder ' marapan ka , r U l) k a , r U l) u l a
, Ugh tning ' ma r° a p a n k a , j a n p i r i , j a n p i r i a n ,
r u l) k a
' s ky ' ma n a - m a n a
'mirag e ' j uma
' heat haze ' p a ':l t u
' c l.oud ' j a l p a a c a , j u r u ma , c u r k u l u ( on c e only
in a song) , p u p u l a
'red c l. oud ' I) u r u r u l u ( once only in a s ong)
' s torm c l.oud ' i ran- i ran
' rain ' ku u , la p i -lap i ku ! a ( ' l. ight rain ' ) ,
p i 1 i ( ' Ug h t rain ' ) m i U i ( ' rain
drop s ' )
' hai l. ' k a r a k u c u l) u
' water ' kuu
' dew ' k a c a , w i ll a
'mis t ' l i r al i r a
' rainbow ' j a r ua l a
' riv er, creek ' kua
, tribu tary , j U !l i u
' f l. ood ' luura
, swamp ' l a n p al a n p a
' ripp l.e s ' j am p a r j amp a r
' soak ' i pu ra a n
, spring ' ka l aat i
'dir ty ' (of wa t e r ) c U ':l t a
' up s tr e am ' m a !l i i a n a
' down s tream ' p i c i l) a n a
' ro c k l.edge, l.arge fl.at s ton e ' l u m p u ':l I) U
' bank of river ' m i pc i , ja m p i
' sand (river) ' k u a , k i kawa r a
'mud ' pata
' muddy ' p a t a n a l) U r U
, s tone ' ':I t i a
' grav e l. ' rucu l u
' hi n ' ':I t i a , w a r a p a n t i a , j a l i r a
' an tbed ' m i campu
' c Uff ' m i cala r u
' dus t ' kalun kara
'ground ' muu
' camp ' muu
' c l.aypan ' k u k al i r i
178
' trac k ' wa ,= u w a ,= u

'mound ' wa l) a
' heap ' mu t u
'r idge ' p u r ku
' t op of a hi t t 01' big roc k ' k a o.i a m a l) t u
'hote ' I) t u u , ia l) t u u , ! apu! apu
' cave ' o. a l) a , k u r k i r a
'red ochr e ' j apa ! a , k u r i , m i l a , m l li l
' y e t t ow o chre ' paru
' kopi ' p l ,= a k a r a
' w h i t e she H ' e l k l l I r l , e i ka r a
'pain t ' kap u r u
, sa t t ' m l Au
' b ta c k pain t ' uma a k a
CAMP
' camp ' muu

' humpy ' wa I I p I r i
' house ' kun t i
' windbr ea k ' wa ! u - w a ! u , wa ! u wa ! u a , u l) k u ,= i e u
' s ing t e men ' s camp ' m a l) t aw i i a
' s ing te girt ' s camp ' m a l) t a ka ! u , j a m p a r a
'bed ' i iap i , ea l ku
'rug, b tanke t ' ku l apuru
' ar e a away from the camp ' wa l u l) k a r 'right outs ide '
' c eremoni a t humpy ' j a n t u l am i r a -m i r a
' in i t ia t i on area ' 8 a l i u o. u ( p o s s ib ly not a Kalkatungu
' corroboree ground ' ma e u r u
word )
F I RE
, fire ' uean

' fir ewood ' uean
' s ticks for ma king fir e ' j a l) t a e a , i u r k u
' b t a z e , f tame ' k u r a ! I , a o.i a o. u I u
, smo k e ' p u ! u , j U l) a r k a
' c oa t s ' k a p u , wamu
' as h e s ' i u r l) u n , p u m p a
' to burn, cook ' iu-
' ho te for coo king in ' wa i l
' t o burn ' ( V and V t ) man i i
i
179
FOOD
' v eg e tab l e fo od ' maa

'mea t ' at i
' be ef ' m i pa
' wad of ahewing tobaaao or p i turi ' ku ka
WEAPONS , TOOLS , ETC .
' swag ' w a l iu r w a l:t u r

' sp ear ' j u ku , c i l ka
, s haft of spear ' n i r i mu
' head of sp ear ' ia m p i r a
' barb o f sp ear ' ! a l i , a !! l a u m u j a n
, sp ear thrower ' j u l ma n , wam i r a , u l mu n
' ho o k on spear thr ower ' !al i , k a r i m i l) u
' nu l la ' l a 1 i m p i r i , u c a u c a ( al s o heard
as w i c aw i c a )
'boomerang ' j a l kapa � i
'flu ted boom erang ' la r u r u
' ho o k boomerang ' c u ku c u ku , i !! i a j a n , i !! i a m a � i , c i m p a l a
( s t i c k t h i c k at one end and pointed
at the other , thrown a s a weapon )
' sh i e ld ' m i la r , j am p u r u
' tomahawk ' w a r a m p a t a , m a r i a , m u a ry l) u
' knife ' k a n k a � i , p u }. c i n i , w i r i n t a , k a m p U l) u
' a eremon ia l knife ' u j l n , w i i n , p U !! i u n
' ah i s e l ' kumpala
, s t ia k ' k u n k a , i u 1 a r , w a p u , wa r a wa r a , c a n p a r a
' y am s ti a k ' k u l a l) a r a
'pump ' ( decoy device for ku ! umpu
attract ing b irds )
' emu n e t ' j a! p i
'noose on s ti a k ' ( for catc hing c i nt a l ura
b i rd s )
' p o s t s of emu n e t ' p uj u 1 u
'net ' m u k u a r i , k a n t a m a � a ( al s o ' ha i rn e t ' ) ,
ucu l a
, fi sh trap ' p i ntapuru
' fi s h hoo k ' wa t u k u
' rope ' t u r i t u r i , wan i ka
' kn o t ' ka n i
, grinds ton e ' k u i l a , p i l a , ia ku , r umpa , macam i l a
{ ' lower s tone ' ) "
' aoo laman ' cut u
' aoo laman for aarrying baby ' !! a l) k u r
180
, di z.zy bag ' p U l) k u a r i , i a j a t a , i l) k i i l) k i , p a l k i

( Engl i s h ? ) , fl i t i
'water bag ' u p a l) u l) u
'me ssage s ti c k ' j U o' i u a t i
' roarer, whir l er ' p i r i -p i r i
' t oy ' wa n i n t i j i c i r
, spin ba l l toy ' pucu-pucu
' ba l l ' cut u
' t hrowing s ti c k toy ' p um p u , pumpuku
' wa l k ing s ti c k ' c a n pa ra
' hoop ' ku � a k u !aa 1 i
' corrobor e e ' wa r m a , k i A a , lam i n t am i r a
' song ' wa r ma
' song sung for dead person ' j uturu
" "
to get a woman ' ku r i mp i
' type of song ( t o g e t a woman ) ' l a m a fl a r i
' b lanke t ' ku l a p u r u
' s tring for binding hair ' pitapita
' cr o s s s t i c k headcap ' p ut uc u r
' n e t ted h eadcap ' k a o' i a m a r a ( a l s o given a s ' n e t ' in
general )
' h eadband ' m i r i - m i r i , p u A u r k a , k a r uw a l i
' no s epin ' pukurpuku r , i c i l) a t a
' n e c k lace ' ( ' grass ' ) , m i t a m i k u ( 'possum
k U fl u p a
or w a l laby fur neck lace or arm,l e t ' )
' ch e s t ornamen t ' p u 1 i fl i r i
'feather ornamen t worn on arm ' w i n 't a l a A a, u fl c a j a
'wri s t band ' ma A i r i , p U fl c u p u
'be lt ' j u r u t u , j Uo' l u r u
' p ha l locryp t ' p U fl c i n i ( ' she l l ' ) , j a m a r a
, lap - lap ' m u n ,H U , w a t i ! u ( 'possum s k in ' ) , u l a ka ,
t un ka w i r a ka ( 'gras s ' )
'body pain ting ' m a r a fl c a , t u u t u u ( markings i n genera l )
' cr i c k e t pads ' p u j um u c i
' doub l e broom ' object w a n pa

' kangaroo t e e t h ornam en t ' i r a l) k a l
' death b on e ' k a i i p i l) a , c i r i k u
' s tr ing on death bon e ' u k u r ( Roth )
' receptac l e for b lood ' upi r
' to tem ' t a m lJ
' d e i ty ' cur l ( proper name ) , n a n i i k u j u ( proper
name )
' bogey man ' m u k ,l j a r l) u
181
EUROPEAN ARTEFACTS , ETC .
' town ' taun

' house ' k un t i
'doorway ' a ul a
' ho t e l ' pa p l i ka a t u
' car ' cut u
'money ' Qt i a
' ha t ' c i k a - c i k a , c i r ka - c i r k a
' dress ' kaun
' sh ir t ' cat a , cua r i , caar
' trousers ' 1 a r a a l u , la r a a l i r
'boots ' pant i - pa n t i
' sadd l e ' i l a p i , u l a n t i j i c i r ( al s o ' chair ' )
, s t irrup ' m i 1; a n - m i t a n , j u u n t i j i c i r
' b i l ly can ' p i 1 i kan
' axe ' wa r ampa i a
' knife ' Qa i pu
' aerop lan e ' kacap i
' tobacco ' l umpa k i
' r ifle ' Q t u umaj i pc i r , ma k i n i
' tea ' j ul u l u , i i i
'grog ' kal i a
' cake ' ki ki
' b lanke t ' p u l a n kat i , p u l a n k i t i
'whee l ' k ut a - k u t aa l i
' bread ' m a a l) u
'pi l low ' maniapa
'fence ' pa� i k i r i
' c l ock. watch ' p i p c a m u u j a !) u
'paper ' U U r U !) U , pi i pa
'white man ' j ap i
' w h i t e woman ' m i l i l i , wac i ka n i
' butcher ' at i pc i laj i pc i r
'po l i c eman ' kan i maj i pc i r
' pannikin ' pan i k i n
' handkerch i ef ' a l) k i c a
'g l a s s e s ( spectac l e s ) ' k i l at a
'bed ' i iap i
' swag ' n u � u l) u ( t ea-tree bark)
'gun ' p u l i - p u l i l a j i ma n t i j i c i r
' s tew ' put u
18 2
' road ' r; u t u

' soap ' :t, u p u
'wr i ting ' t IJ U - t u u
'pen, p enci Z ' t IJ U - t u u j a l) u
, a chair ' u ;t, a n t i j i c i r
PLACE NAMES
' Buc kingham ( 8 tation ) ' wa l a ! a

'Bu8hy Par k ' m u u u n u l) u i n a - l) u i n a
' Cha t8worth ( s ta tion ) ' cacu r i
' C Zoncurry River ' p ;3 i m a r a
'Devoncour t ' m p u l a m a r; a
'Eu Z o Za ( 8 ta t i on) ' j a l ul a
' For t Wi Z Z iam ' i w i n t i :t, a u r a l a , :t, a u r a l a
' Granada ( s ta ti o n ) ' u ! ump u ! u
, Hami Z t on ' pu!u-pu ] u
' Kajabb i ' karka l aa n
'Kam i Zaroi ( 8 ta t ion ) ' J1 i r a n u
'mountain near Dajarra ' urupu
' L e ichhardt River ' :t, a r; a p a :t, a
'Lorraine ( 8 ta t ion) ' w;3 I) k u n a r; i
' O Zd HammerZy ( 8 tation) ' j am i ] i -j am i ] i
' Quamby ( 8 ta tion) ' u rn p u - u m p u
' S tanbroke ( s ta ti on ) ' p u :t, u r u , wa n t a a ! p i
DESCRIPTIVE
' happy ' u n ua n i ( Vi )

'jovia Z ' p i }. c a n
' c Zever ' j a pa c a r a
'mischievou s ' ma k a :t, i p i J1 c a r a
'carefu Z ' c i t a a n m a ( V )( ' take care of, watch
=
o u t for ) t, c i t a a n m a t i ( Vi ' reflex

ive ) ( = ' b e carefu Z ' )
' in8ane ' 1) ;3 1) i I) a l) i , I) u j u r a l) u j u r a :t,a t i , m u !! :t, u i t i
' t ired, weak ' m a l) u , m a c u r i
'noi8Y ' c i i l) k u j a n , :t, a r k a n t a
'quiet ' !! u k u r , p u r u , w a k a !! i r i
, shy ' w a k u n l. i , m u t u n a
' su Z ky ' P lJ a a � i , I) t u u p i r a
, be Z Z igeren t ' a r kunaan
' drun k ' k lJ u j a n , m i l :t, i wa k i n i ( Vi )
'greedy ' J1 lJ u j a n
183
' u n tru thfu l ' ma i t i

' na k ed ' maj a l
' ready ' laa n a
'a l one, of one ' s own accord ' J a l) k a n a
'ba ld ' c i r a n c i ra n , k a n l a ma ! a p a l a
'grey - haired ' muupa r i , kat u ! aan
' b l ind ' muc u pa r i
' b lind in one eye ' m i l1a j a r
' deaf ' i n1akaj a r a t i (V )
i
' ignoran t of ' I) u n ka l) u
' s a tiated ' maant i
' dumb ' ma l i p i l1 i lat i
' hungry ' j a r i k a j a n , j a r i ka j a n a t i (V ) ' pa i
i
' thir s ty ' man i , p u j uj a
, pl'egnan t ' putujan
' lame ' k U n l U I) U , k a n 1 a a ry k a , p u r a l) ka
' o ld ' c a j a l) u ( = ' former ' , = ' o ld ' ( o f per-
s on s , anima l s , obj e c t s ) )
'midd l e -aged ' 1u n t u ka j a
' y oung ' kacaku ! u , kataku ! u
' fa t ' m i a r a a n , k U !l 1a l i j a n
, l ean, thin ' m a n i , w i r a � u l) k a l i , j a l a u r a ( 'poor in
cond1: tion, s i c k ly ' )
'tall ' 1a 1 p a l) u
, s hor t ' m u � a l) k u l a
'ill ' ( ' i Z Z as
j a l a u r a , a n ka ( V ) ' 1a r a j a n
i
a r e s u l i of having b e en "sung " ' )
' weak ' manu
' drowsy ' wa � a r uj a n
' s trong ' I)a w a , I) a w a j a n
' we l l, l iv e ly ' j apacara
' a l iv e ' i1i
'dead ' u -l i ( ' to di e ' ) , w a i r a t i 1a t i « wa i r a -
i t l - 1a t i )
' i tchy ' k i a p i ·, c i a p i
' fr igh t ened ' i l1 i n a a n
' wounded ' ka k l a n
, sore, chafed ' piripiri
'good ' pu1ur
, correc t ' unaruur
'bad ' 1 u l) u m p i r i , 1 i k i n 1 i k i n
' ho t ' pu j u r
'cold ' i l i r , munt umunt u
'big ' j a un , j a � m a l) u ( rare )
184
' H t t le ' ka c a , k a c a k u ] u , k a t a k u ] u , 1 a p i , 1a p i k u ! a
' heavy ' !) awa , !) aw a j a n
' Hght ' ma r u ma r u
' deep ' 1a � t u
' sh a l low ' mun kun
' l ong, ta Z l ' u l kuu r i
' B hor t ' m u r a !) k u l a
'wide ' p i nta
'narrow ' c um p u n , k a l i , ca l ka , ca l ka n i ,
ca 1 k i ] i
' s traight ' 1utuku
, crooked, winding ' kut u k ut u , kut i kut i
' round ' ur i c i r i
' s t e ep ' pant u u , c u k u , m i cala r u ( ' s t e ep hi l l
· side ' )
'fla t ' ta l a , 1 u r a
' Bm oo t h ' c u r u u r , ma r u m a r u , ma r u r u
' rough ' p i r k i p i r k i an
' s harp ' m a c a r ka
' b l un t ' m ua � u , m u n t u , i !) k i a
' Boft ( to touch) , p i 11 i
' hard ( t o touc h ) , firm ' 1a i l
'wet ' k u u j a n , 1 1 1 !) i , 1 i fl u 1 a t i
'dry ' mu j ut a
'fa B t ' puunaan , p u u n t u , p u n t a , !) u a j a n
( o f c urre nt )
' s low ' r a a fl c u , r a fl C U
' hard ' !) a w a , 'l a wa j a n
' B oft ' p i 1 1 i rna ! i
' open ' p i �t a (cf. 'wide ' )
' s hu t ' c um p u n a t i ( Vi )
' t ig h t , s tuc k ' pu�t i ( Vi )
' c Z ear, bright ' m p a m p a i fl c i
' c l ear ( of wa ter) , p u 1 i l !) u
'di r ty ' m u u j a n , p a t a j a n , p a t woa !) u r u
'fu Z- l ' !) a m i c u l) p a r
' emp ty ' p u ] uma
' new ' i A a !) U
' o ld ' c a j a !) u
' high ' j u m u j a n , m i c a ( of hi l l ) ( cf : m i cala r u
' B teep ' )
' low ' pi i r
' torn, l eaking ' k i i i an

185
, sour ' ku l purujan

' b i t ter, sa l ty ' kal i a
'poisoned ' m p u u l) a j a n
, sweet ' I) u u r u j a n , r i i I ku
'rot ten ' mpuu
' t o sm e l l ' ( Vi ) mput i
'ripe (of frui t ) , m p u u l) u
' tough ( o f m e a t ) , wi raru
'fresh (of food) , i )1 a l l) u
' bare, c l ear e d ' ma ! a p a l a , ma n u
, scrubby ' curujan
'bu s hy ' I) u r u l u
, shiny ' m i )1 c a , m i i )1 c a
'rot ten ( of wood) ' t u ka r p a j a n
'right ' u n a r u u r ( al so ' corr ec t ' ) tut u k u
, left ' k a ! u r u l) U
' in sma l l p i e ce s ' ta p i k u l a
'b lac k ' ma c i n , m a r c i n , u m a )1 c a , u m a )1 c a m a )1 c a ,
u m a a ka
'white ' p u ! upu ! u , p u ! uwa ra
'red ' kur i kur i ( kur i ' r e d ochre ' )
, green ' j a l a p uj a l a p u
' y e l low ' pa r u p a r u ( pa r u ' y e l l ow ochre ' )
' c h e s tn u t (of hors e s ) , k i a l pa r i ( ' eas t ' )
'pieba l d ' wamat i t i r a a n
VERBS
Posi tion
' r emain ' ini

' b e presen t ' ini
' be abs en t ' ut i
'sit ' I) a t a t a t i
, s tand ' n. a , n a n a n p i , I) a l) p i l) a l) p i ( po s s
I) a n p i �
, lie ' I) u
' s l e ep ' I) u w a m i l a j a n ' "li e as leep '
' s tr e t c h onese lf ' k u l a , c U A c a n t i c a ma
' cur l up, coi l up ' tumat i
' bend ' ( Vi ) k u t u k u t u ta t i
' s i t with legs cro s s ed ' i n i n i liana
' squa t ' i n i p i )1 c a n a p i )1 c a n a
' s toop, crouch, bend over ' uru
186
' hang down ' kapca I i

' l.ean agains t ' m u n ia p i
' t o hide one s e l.f ' c u r uiat i , c u ! uiat i
' ta k e up a d i s ta n t p o s i tion ' j a r kaiat i
'wa i t for ' m i li i na p i
' l. i e around, b e sca t tered ' rapc i , p i t apc i
Motion
' g o wa l. k ' i l) ka
'go away, depar t ' ka a n t a , p a c a ( ' take l.eav e of someone '
( l o c at i ve ) )
' c om e ' m u n i i l) k a , i l) k a na u n a ( 'wa l.k hi ther ' )
'return ' iti , l) a p c u mu i i i a t i
' hurry ' p a k a p a ka m a , i u l a i u l a
'run ' iuna
'fl.y ' iuna
' b l. ow (of wind) , iuna
'fl.ow ' i un a , kaanta
'go up, c l.imb ' j u u , j u u n t i ( al s o ' ri de a horse ' )
' r i s e ( o f fl.ood) , a ni a j u
'go down ' pia
'go in ' a r a ( al so ' s e t (of sun ) ' )
' come o u t ' wa i a r a ( al s o ' r i s e , get up ' )
' emerge from a h o l. e ' I) t u u c a m a
'craw l. ' ul uru , puka i , p u kua i , uru
' sw im ' k a a ni a
'div e ' k a n i a a r i , k a ni a r a
'fa H ' I) u j i
' fa H head l.ong ' kania i t i t i
'disappear ' I) a m p u i a t i
' cr e ep up to ' p i kar i
' sneak a l.ong ' ania u r u
' s l. ip ' p a I aiat i , pa I a i
'go acro ss ' w a m a i u m a , w a m a l) k a a ! i
' turn around ' ( Vi ) wak i n i
' jump ' C U I) p a
' hop away ' c U l) p a
'p l.ay ' wa n i
'p l.ay w i t h ' wan i n t i
' to a l. ight ' at i i
' t o crowd toge t her ' a n ia m u t u i a t i
' t o c l.uster ' I) U k u i a t i
187
Hunting and Gathering
' c o � � e c t, ga ther ' a � pa , u nl a ( al s o ' graze ' )

' dig ' wa l u k a t l
' t o fo � � ow ' wa nl l n t l ( Vt ) , w a nl 1 ( V i )
' t o sneak a �ong ' w a k a la n l
'fo n " ow, chas e ' I) a I ma , I) a I
, creep up on ' r a pama
' hun t ' kapan l , I ma
' t o take hun t ing ' kapan l n t l
'f�ush ' ma l
, �ook for ' I) k u ma , c l nt l , I) a nl a m a
'find, m e e t ' I) a nl a m a
, c a tch, grab ' I) u l u r ma
I nduce pos ition
'put down, p �ace ' aa ! , at l I , makalat l I

' knock down ' k a !l l a Illt l , kanla p u n l , n l l n ka l
' dr op ' I) u j I n t I
'put i n to, inser t ' a r a nt I
' t a k e out o f ' cia, �t u l
' hide somet hing ' c u r u p un l , c u ! u p un i
' t o pu t a t a d i s tance ' j a rkapun l
I nduce motion
' take ' ma n I , l u ll t I , m u ma

' t a k e with one ' unp l
,stea� , !l I l a
' s end, r e � e a s e , � e t go ' I) ka , I) k a I m p a k I
' s end bac k ' l) a p c u m u l l p u n l
'bring ' I t i nt I , wa 1 I n t i
' bring back ' I t i nt I
'get ' man l , munma , muma
' c arry on the s h o u � ders ' I) a ! I m a
' carry on the back ' ka r l n t l
'carry in a c o o � aman ' lat l n t l
'pus h ' a l) k a m U !l i u p u k a a � t i
'drag ' p u k a a rJ t i
' t hrow ' lilt l , ilki ltl
'ga � �op ( a horse ) ' iunt l
'trot ( a hor s e ) , c u r ka i un t i
' to shake ' ( Vt ) m u r l ma n t l
188
Affect
'make, do ' k i a kat i

'fai l to do, miss ' I) u p c a p u n i
' bui l d, erec t ' I) k a
' own, p o s s e ss ' uta n t i
' t ake care of ' c i t aa n ma , mat i Q a p i
' a l low ' I) k a
'quieten ' a ot a t u m a
'win ' a ota
' to l eave r e l inqui sh ' 1u a
' hi t, ki Z Z ' 1a
'fight ' 1at i
' h i t with a miss i l e ' i pc i ( al s o ' chop ' )
' ki c k ' 1a 1a p a n t u !. u
' consume en tire ly, massacr e ' u t I ma
' s trang l e ' m i r i wa k i m a
' tr ead on ' nt at i
' hug ' I) u f, c a k a m a
' t hrow ' itit i
' spear, s tab ' I) k a , I) k a ma
'break ' tut i ( V i ) ' t u ma ( V )
t
' chop ' i p c i ( a l s o ' h i t wi th mis s i l e ' )
' c u t through ' :t, u a
' c u t t h e surface ' p I pc i
'butt ' ka n t a u r u
'grasp ' I) u l u r ma
' to paint (onese lf) ' ma i , i pc I t i
' crush up, pound, c u t up into p i Hi pun i
sma l l p i ec e s '
' t o f l a t ten ' :t,a l a ta l a p u n i
'grind ' r umpa
' c l ean s e eds ' cat '
' s quee z e ' almi
' s harpen ' I) t i a l i
'rub, c l ean, wip e , wh e t ' k a r i , wa i i
' t o s tr o k e ( e . g . c a t ' s fur ) , to m a r u ka r i , I) a r u p u n i
smoo th '
' t o s traight en ' c U f, c a
' t o s tr e t c h ' C U f, c a
'cover ' kata , kat i
'bury ' a !2 i a k a t l
' d ig up ' u li a
'dig ' watukat i
189
' s hut, b Lo c k ' cumpunpun i

'pour ' a o.i a l) k a
'fi n ' a o. i a o. a i fl c i
' p i L e up, ga ther up ' I) u k u p u n i , m u t u p u n i
' s hu t ' a o.ia k a m a
' t o put a ho L e in ' a o.i a m a , r;t t u u ma
'widen ' p i r;t t a p u n i
, Ught a fir e ' a o. ia i u , j a n t a i u , ma k a i a a t i
' to burn ' ( V i and Vt ) man i i
'put a fire ou t ' w i i ma
' to warm ' j umupun i , puj u r p un i
' to coo L ' i I i rp un i
' t o w e t ( of rain) , to rain (on) ' u o. i a
' t o we t ' c i ru
' to was h ' c a r a l ma
' to was h onese Lf ' ka r i t i
' t o shut in ' aniakama
' ward off ' p, a n t i
' r e s train someone ' m u o. i u n t a t i , kam i
'to tickLe ' k i A a k i A a ma
'to hurry s omeone up ' iurkanant i
' t o skin ' wa k u l a , pat i n t i
' t o gu t ' r;t t u i , u n u n t u i
' t o cook, to burn ' ( vt ) iu , p a t u p un i
' ti e ' k a n i ma
' s ew ' I) k a a
' to giv e ' a fl i
' t o exchange ' a fl i t i ( al s o ' to give accidenta L Ly '
as in 'x gav e y a c o L d ' )
'to pay ' m U fl c i
'to pay back ' j u r u nt i
'to divide up ' m a l ia p u n i
'to Lose ' u i i j a k a p i , wa l p a la
'to feed up ' p u t afl i t i
Conditions and activities o f the body
'be i n ' a n ka
'fee L ' ( V i ) j akap i t i
' b e ashamed ' k u l p u r uj an
' to swea t ' a A c i \ u i fl C i
' to be wounded ' ka k i a n
' t o b L eed ' uAc i nt a
190
' pa in ' I) k i k i
' t o shiver ' ma ! a a p c a n t i
' t o have a a o �d ' ma l) u j a n . I) u n k u r a a n
' t o get a aramp ' c i t a m a n ma n a t i
' t o b e we � � ' j apacara
' t o aure ' j a pa c a r a p u n i
' t o aonva � e s a e j a p a c a r a i a t i , m a l) a n t i
'to die ' ul i
' t o drown ' ka ! a ra tut i ( li t . 'break one ' s neak ' )
' t o b e born ' m i Lt i i a t i
' to have a baby ' p i ! a p i ! a at i i
' t o wear ' n a ni i
' t o b e i n toxiaa ted, fain t ' m i l i i wa k i n i . m i L t a w a k i n i . m i l i i i u t i
' have a headaa he ' a l) ka k a n i a a , k a n ia l) k i k l ( noun )
'see ' nap i
'wink ' m i li i m u t i
, sniff ' p i ka , pca
'pant ' wa i r a c U l) p a
' a oug h ' I) a k a , I) a r k a , I) a a k a
' sn e e z e ' c i I) k u r la
, open the mou th ' a nia n t a
' b � ow on ' p u p u la
' su a k ' p l ! i mp i , p u pu t i
' b i t e , ahew ' i ca
, eat, drink ' ari
' kiss ' a k a (V ) , a k a t i ( Vi )
t
' �i a k one ' s � ips ' ma ! i mp u t i
'poke out one ' s tongue ' ma l i m u n t u n p a n t l
' have t h e tongue hang i ng out ma ! i kapc a l i
( of dog ) '
' swa � �ow ' rukup i
' v om i t ' I) a r k um a , u l mu
' sp i t ' c am p a r lilti
' to piak up in the m o u t h ' a !l i a m p u t i
' to fi � � onese �f w i t h fo od ' putu ap i t i
' to b e fu � � of food ' p ut umaan t i
' s ara t a h ones e �f ' p i pc i t I
, shake hands ' I) u l u r m a t I
'urinate ' k u r ka i I) k a
' defeaa t e ' ku n a nt a
, a opu �ate ' m p u (V ) , m p u t i (V )
t i
191
Voca l i s ing and thought
' languag e ' j a l) a a J u

'tell ' punpa , pat l , pan t i
' ta l k , te l l , as k ' p u n pa
' a onvers e ' punpat i
' s ao ld ' p a ! a, n t i i , l) a r am a i
'reprimand ' n l l i a l) k a
' argue ' pat a t i
' swear ' maca n i iuma
' a a l l ou t ' ku n i , m p a a , m p a a t i
' ary ' ! u l) a

' bark ( of dog) , �ant i
'grow l ( of dog ) , � t u umpa
'm oan ' ku J i
, laugh ' i cama
'whi s t le ' up l , u p i mpa
' s ing ' ap i i
' ta l k about s om eone ' c i ni l
' boas t ' c i ni i c a m a t i
' know ' i ka n i
' l earn ' p a r i r i iat i
, teaah ' pa r i r i pun i
, see ' ':l a p i
' s how ' m l U l pat i
'under' s tand ' j a ka p l
' hear, l i s t e n ' j a ka p l , l oia � u
' t hink about ' i nia�uma
'dream of ' at i I wam l la i l
, forg e t ' I nia kaJ a rat i , i n t a kaj a r p u n i
'sul k ' � t u u p i ra
' te l l l i e s , pret end ' I) u r k l j; i l) um a
' to like ' wa i r a � u
' t o fear ' rump i
' to frighten ' r u m p i rna
' t o b e angry ' k u i ll w a i a r a
' take aar e of/wi th ' (V t ) c l t aa n m a
, take aare ' (V i ) c l t aanma t l
Sounds
' t o ru s t le (of l eaves e t a . ) ' uu n pa

' to make a nois e ' I) a w a p i J I , wa k a m p a k a , w a k a m p a w a k a m p a
' t o make a fus s ' c l c i ma
192
' to g o bang (of thunder, gun ) ' luma

' to g o crack, t o crack Z e ' c i 1 ar i n pa
Change of s tate
'g row warm ' puj uiat i , j umuiat i

'grow co ld ' i i i iat i
'grow dry ' muj ut aiat i
'grow hard ' ia i 1 at i
'grow up ' j umuiat i , kania p i r i n a i a t i
' s we l l ' puAcuiat i
' abate ( of rai n ) ' r a a fl c u i a t i
' g e t lost ' wam p a ! a i a t i
'grow late ' f) a i Q i i a t i
'grow dark ' m i wa ! u i a t i
QUANTITY
'one ' aj a r
' two ' Auat i
, three ' ku rpa i
' four ' Auat i Au at i
'mob ' malta
'few ' mutu ( ' a group , heap, p i Ze ' )
'many ' ulari ( ' cr owd ' ) , m a l i a
'much, in great numbers/ mal1ana
quantity '
' a l i t t Ze ' pa ! ku , p a ! k ump i r i
' none ' f) U fl C a , fl U r k u
INTERROGATIVES AND INDEF IN I TES
'where ' a r a kai i

'where t o ' a ra ka n i
'where from ' a r a k a f) u
'which way , som e way or o ther ' kia
'when ' n i a f) u
'what, s om e thing ' naka
'why ' nakaj a , nakaj a n , n a ka a , naka k u a
, how many , som e ' n a m i f) u
'who, s omeone ' na n l
po lar int e rrogat ive marker wii
'whic h ' nakal i
193
TIME
' now, today ' I f- a

' y e s t erday ' I) a i n i
' t he day before y e s terday ' I) a i n i l) a r a
' the o ther day ' p i p c a m u l) a r a
'former ly ' caJ ana
' recen t ly ' i f- a l) u n a
' l ong ago ' caj ana pu1ur
' las t nigh t ' i f- a w a t a l) k a
' in t he night ' wa t a l) k a
' tomorrow ' wa ! a l) a n a
' day after tomorrow ' wat a l) a n a l) a r a
' ear ly in the m orning ' wa r a 1 i na
' la ter ' I) a i 0 i I) a i n i
'midd l e of the night ' 1 a U u l) a r a
'when the sun is high ' u l a a ':! t a
' in the day t ime ' p i pcamu1 i
' every day ' p i p c am u p i p c a m u l) a r a 1 i
' a lway s ' I) u ! I , p i m u , m u n 1 u m u n i
' again ' k u ! uk u ! u
'sti l l ' I) u ! i
' beforehand ' l) am p u l) u 1 u n a
' later on ' m a � k a !l a , m a ,:! i i
' firs t ' wa c a l i i n a
POSITION
' up s i de down ' n i i n ka I

' c lose, near ' p i kaJ a
' here ' I) I 1 i
' a t home ' mul i
' far ' j a rka
' abov e ' p i r i na
' b e l ow ' pia
' be hind ' u 1 i l) k a
' in fron t , in fir s t p lace ' w a c a ! i na , w a c a ! i i na
' the other side ' u 1 a r l) a r a , p a � a j a , p a ,:! a m p a j a
p a � a a n :t. u n , p a l) i 1 i ') a a n t u n (
' oppo s i t e ' )
' a t the s ide ' lak i a ( a l s o ' left over, remaining ' )
' in t he middle ' 1 i i nta
' in s i de ' u l) k a n t a , u l) k a n k u n a ( allat ive form)
' h i t her ' n a u na
' th i ther ' p a u na
' hence ' l U l) u
194
' ups tream ' mani l ana

, down s t ream ' p l c i l) a n a
, e Z.s ewhere ' m u u l) a r a ( ' ot her camp ' )
' out of sight ' I) a m p u p l a
' in the opp o s i t e direct i on ' a a i. i a l) a r a i l
' nort h ' i, a p u l) k u
, s ou t h ' i, i r i wa , k a rw a ! i
' eas t ' k i a l pa r i
'we s t ' r U l) k a r i
RESIDUE
' very ' p a fl c a

' accidenta Z. Z.y , care z. e s s z.y, wam p a ! a a a
inaccurate z.y ,
' s ti Z. Z., a l.way s ' I) U ! i
'qui c k Z.y , ear z.y ' ma ! am p i ra
' Z.oud Z.y ' u ruwa
'ready ' pa ! an a
'yes ' I)a a
'not ' kunt u
'no ' kuna , k u n a j an , kunaan
' don ' t ' wa n t a
' if ' puj u
'we z. z. , now ' la a , l am a r a , m a r a
'a s Z.i c e ' wa l k a r
, s ecre t ' u l) a n a
' in return ' ( as in 'pay back ' ) pa I k i r
' on one ' s own ' j a a l) k a na
APPENDIX TO GLOSSARY
KALKAT U N G U VOCABU LARY AND E U R O P EAN C O N T E N T
To e xpre s s new refe rent s introduced by Europ eans t he Kalkatungu

used t he three st andard means of ext ending the expr e s s ion s y s t em . They
ext ended the me aning of e x i s t ing words ; t hey used t heir morpho- synt a c t i c
r e s ourc e s t o form new words and expre s s i ons , and they a s s imi lated words
from Eng lish or Pidgin Engl i s h .
Examp les
Ex tens ion o f Meaning
Kal katungu Earlier Meaning Addit ional Meaning

jari 'gho s t ' 'whi te man '
i ka n 'wi ld honey, "sugar- b ag " ' s ugar '
kaca p i ' k i te haw k ' ' ae rop lane '
I) t i a ' s tone, p ebb l e ' 'money '
tuu-tuu 'pat t ern, markings ' ' wr i t ing '
k i nt i 'water rat ' ' ch oo k '
cut u ' c o o l aman ' ' car '
Examples of words a s s imilated from Eng l i sh
Kalkatungu Original Meaning

c u ku - c u ku ' c h oo k ' ' dome s t i c fow l, choo k '
J a l a pa l a ' y e l la fe l la ' 'part Aborig i n a l person '
miiiii ' m i s sus ' ' w h i t e woman '
p ui i ka r 'pussy cat ' ' dome s t i c cat '
putu 'pot ' ' s tew '
rutu ' road ' 'road '
iupu ' s oap ' ' soap '
t ina ' dinne r ' 'me a l (other than break
fas t ) ,
195
196
p i I i kan 'bi t Zy aan ' ' b i Z Zy '

t au n ' town ' ' town '
rupu ' rope ' 'rope '
kiki 'aake ' ' aake '
kaun ' g own ' 'dre ss, fl'oak, g own '
p u l a l) k i t i ' n Zanke t ' ' b Zanke t '
pu l aka ' bu Z Zo a k ' ' bu Z Zoak '
p u I i .t. i ' b u Z Zoak ' ' b u Z Zoak '
New formations
a t i rc l laj i pc i r ( ' ki Z Zel' of meat ' ) ' bu tahel"

kuuj a puj u r pun l nt i j i c i r ( ' heater for water ' ) ' aoppel" ( 'b o i Zel" )
k a n i m a j i pc i r ( 'who ties one up ' ) 'po Ziaeman '
kan i mant i j i c i r ( 'with whiah one ties up ' ) ' Zeash '
Before European cont act t he Kalkatungu nume ral s y stem ext ended only
t o three or p erhaps four . It has b e en ext ended by t he c ommon method
o f us ing ' hand ' a s a base of five .
1 aj a r
2 Auat I
3 ku rpa i
4 Auat i -Auat i
5 m a k a :t. l - a j a r n a ( m a k a :t. 1 = ' hand ' )
"
6 I) a r a ll a a j a r ll a ( I) a r a , other ' ,
=
- na adverb forming )
" "
7 Auat i
" "
8 ku rpa l
" "
9 Auat i A uat i
" "
10 m a k a :t. i I)a r a n a
S UB J E C T I NV EX
Ab lative 47 Focus 114

Ab s o lut ive 7 Future tens e 54
Adj ec t ive 30 , 7 8 , 79
Hab i tual a s p e c t 56
Advancements 6
Hypothe t i c a l c lause 100
Adve rb s 92-94
A1 1ative 4 7 -4 8 Imperat ive 2 1 , 37 , 5 7 - 5 8 , 9 2
Ant i -p a s s ive 7 , 2 7 - 2 8 , 4 1 , 4 4 , 5 3 , Imp erfe c t a s p e c t 2 8 , 5 5 , 9 7
5 5 - 57 , 5 9 -6 0 , 6 2 - 7 5
Inde fini t e 105
Auxi l i ary verb 96-9 7
Inde fini te agent 1 1 3 , 116
Borrowing 1 2 9 - 1 3 1 , 19 1 Inde finite ob j e c t 7 , 2 8 , 1 16
Bound pronouns 6 , 2 7 , 3 5 -4 1 , 6 2 - 7 5 , Indire c t c ommand 6 2 -6 8
113 , 139-145 Inst rument a l 4 2 , 88
Inten s i ve 96-97 ,99
C a s e forms 29-35
Interrogat ives 35 , 103-105
Case re lations 5
I nt rans i t i vi s er 19 , 8 5 - 8 6
C aus a l 6 , 4 3 , 4 7 , 89
I rre alis 61
C l i t i c pronouns , s e e b o und
pronouns
Kinship te rms 18 , 80 -84
C li t i c s 20 , 9 5 -9 6
C omment 1 14 Language relationships 3 , 117-150
Common Aus t ral ian 131 ' Le s t ' c onstruct ion 39-41
Compounding 94 Lex i c o s t at i s t i c s 1 1 7 - 1 29
Concomi t ant 19 , 7 7 - 7 8 Ligat ive 4 9 , 7 8 , 9 5
C ont inuing aspec t 92 Locat ive 4 2-44 , 4 6 , 6 0 , 88
Co-ordinat i on 9 5 , 110 , 112
Moda l -type qua l i fi c at ion 9 7 -9 8
Dat i ve 4 4 - 4 6 , 89-91 Morphophonemi c s 17-25
Definite marker 96
De i x i s 3 4 - 35 , 9 2 , 10 7 Ne gat ive 9 8-99
N e w formations 192
Ergat ive 27,42 Nomina l i s at i on 7 8-79
Extens ion o f meaning 191
197
19 8
Nominat i ve 41 Re dup l i c at ion 94

Nouns Re flexive - re ciprocal 4 1 , 5 2 , 8 6 -8 7
- c on s onant s t ems 1 7 , 29 Re l at ive c lause 100-103
- vow e l s t ems 1 7 -1 8 , 2 9 Re sult c laus e 62 -68
Nume ral s 79
Numb er marking 8 0 , 9 2 , 10 0 Sequential 58
Sub j e c t 7
Part i c i p le 28 , 59-60 Sub ordinat ion 28
Past tense 54 Supras e gment a l s 2 5 -2 6
Perfect a s p e c t 58 ,97
Phoneme s 9 , 1 3-15 , 16 , 2 2 - 2 5 Theore t i c a l framework 5-8
Phonemo t ac t i c s 9-13 Third p e rs on pronouns 32-35
Phono l ogi cal change 1 31 -14 3 Time c laus e 5 5 , 5 9 - 6 0 , 10 2 - 1 0 3
Phonotac t i c s , s e e phonemotac t i c s Topic 10 7 , 1 1 4
P o s s ib i lity 60-61 Trans itiviser 8 4 - 8 5 , 8 7 - 9 1
Pre s en t t ense 54
Verb c la s s e s 51
Pro l o c at ive 48
Ve rb a l i s er 85
Pronoun hi erarchy 6 , 6 2- 7 5
Pronunc iat ion 15 Word order 107
Privat i ve 78
P urpos e c lause 5 6 , 6 2- 6 8

B-57, xii + 210 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1979. DOI:10.15144/PL-B57.1

A Kalkatungu Grammar

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A Kalkatungu Grammar

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PACIFIC LINGUISTICS

Research School of Pacific Studies

THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

Blake, B.J. A Kalkatungu grammar.

EDITOR: S.A. Wurm.

ALL CORRESPONDENCE concerning PAC I F I C L I NGU I S T I CS, including orders and

Canberra, A . C.T . 2600.

Copyright (§) B.J. Blake.

The editors are indebted to the Australian National University for

National Library of Austr a l ia Card Number and ISBN 0 85883 1 9 7 X

THE OUTLINES OF THEIR LANGUAGE THAT I MIGHT

RECORD IT HEHE FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS.

2 .5. PHONEMIC OVERLAP 16

2.14. IDIOSYNCRATIC ALTERNATIONS 21

2.15. THE PROBLEM OF THE GLIDES 22

2 . 1 6. LONG VOWELS OR DOUBLE VOWELS 25

CHAPTER 3: NOUNS AND PRONOUNS

CHAPTER 4 : THE VERB

CHAPTER 5 : OTHER FUNCTION MORPHEMES

CHAPTER 7 : KALKATUNGU IN COMPARATIVE/HI STORIC AL PERSPECTIVE

SUBJECT INDEX 197

A AGENT Intr Intransitiviser

Where a morpheme has n o apparent meaning i t i s glossed as zero.

Blake, B.J. A Kalkatungu grammar.

I NTR ODU CTI ON

Blake, B.J. A Kalkatungu grammar.

1.2. THE L ANG U A G E

Kalkat ungu i s a Pama-Nyungan l anguage c l a s s i fi ed b y O ' Grady , Voegelin

the t ext . A l l in a l l t h e s e s ourc e s y i e ld about a hundred and fifty

I would l i ke t o re cord my app reciat ion of the pat ience of the

(1.1 ) c i pa-j i i t i -j i laj i m a r a p a i - t u8u

(1. 3) pini p a n t i camat i - n a a - k i n laj i -mant i

D IRECT OBJECT in the final s t rat um.

(1.4) ma t u - j u maa l;. u j i

A word cons i s t s of at least t wo vowe l s ( according t o the interpret­

N o t e t hat t h e bar could have j ust as eas i ly b e e n p laced over C , C

' co Z Z ed ' [�Qb a i J.

C may be any cons onant except the a lveo lars ( t , n, 1 and r ) .

sequences are t aken a s unit s t h e que s t ion would aris e whether a l l

Examples I l lustrating the Phonernotactics

p paa ' there ' kupu 'sp i der '

Il n i la - 's tea l ' i I) k a n a 'wen t '

r r ump i Ifear I marapa i Iwoman '

mp mp u u 'r o t ten ' rump i Ifear r

np lunpun ,log ' ':I P a':l p a i Ito co l le c t '

Ip ja lpi 'emu n e t ' j p i jpu 'me lon �

rp ku rpa i 'three '

nm m u nma ' take ' �m

1m a lmi ' squeeze ' !m a a!m i ' wi n p u t down ,

rm wa rma ' s ong '

F r e quencies of each phoneme as initial .

29.5 3.5 11.5 13.5 26.5 84.5

Frequencies Intervocalica lly

14 30.5 19 9.5 11 16 100

Ove r a l l Fre quencies

5.5 2.5 1.5 3.5 3 6.5 22.5

4.5 3 1.5 2 1.5 3 15.5

10 10.5 5.5 6.5 6.5 11 50

Average l ength of words i s 2.5 s y l lab l e s ( b ased on head words in the

The s t op s , p. t. � . 1. c and k are b a s i c a l ly voicele s s lenis s t ops ,

Intervo c a l i c t may b e pronounc ed a s a f lapped rhot i c [ f ] or w i t h some

rhot i c but intervo c a li c r may not be r e a l i s e d as a s t op -

In word-final p o s ition r i s s omet i me s pronounced c learly as [ t ] . It

p u 1 u r, p u 1 u r a 'good ' , 'we L L '

A word cons i s t s of at least t wo vowe l s ( according t o the interpret

There is a rule that deletes t h e nasal from a nasal p lus st op sequ

iuna- 'run ' is i u n i - before the su ffix - p c a Q u : i u n i p c a Q u ' runs regu