Int. J. Exergy, Vol. 26, No.

4, 2018 435

Thermodynamic analysis of the human body in

different climate regions of Turkey to determine the
comfort conditions with exergy method

Firat Ekinci*
Faculty of Engineering,
Energy System Engineering Department,
Adana Science and Technology University,
Adana, 01120, Turkey
Email: fekinci@adanabtu.edu.tr
*Corresponding author

Mehmet Bilgili
Faculty of Ceyhan Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering Department,
Cukurova University,
Adana, 01330, Turkey
Email: mbilgili@cu.edu.tr

Abstract: Thermodynamic analysis of human body is studied to determine the

thermal comfort conditions. In this context, exergy and energy analysis in the
air conditioning of buildings is necessary for efficient use of energy.
Thermodynamic analysis of human body is carried out for seven different
climate regions of Turkey based on the use of meteorological parameters such
as minimum and maximum and average monthly temperatures, atmospheric
pressure and average relative humidity by implementing energy and exergy
analysis. Human body, which is the subject of this study, was in the light
activity level quantified as 58.2 W/m2. Analysis results have indicated that the
major energy loss with 39.28 W/m2 is due to heat transfer with radiation,
convection and conduction. Furthermore, the energy loss rates by water vapour
diffusion from the skin, respiration, temperature difference and sweating
were determined as 11.13 W/m2, 4.29 W/m2, 0.73 W/m2 and 0.02 W/m2,
respectively. The maximum exergy consumption rate by the human body was
2.33 W/m2 for the cold and semi dry – less humid climate region (CR-7), while
the minimum exergy consumption rate was obtained as 0.91 W/m2 for the hot
and semi dry climate region (CR-1). Information presented in this study is
expected to contribute to the design of air conditioning systems in order to
choose more efficient energy systems.

Keywords: human body; energy loss; entropy generation; exergy consumption;

exergy efficiency.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Ekinci, F. and Bilgili, M.

(2018) ‘Thermodynamic analysis of the human body in different climate
regions of Turkey to determine the comfort conditions with exergy method’,
Int. J. Exergy, Vol. 26, No. 4, pp.435–453.

Copyright © 2018 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

436 F. Ekinci and M. Bilgili

Biographical notes: Firat Ekinci has been working in Adana Science and
Technology University as an Assistant Professor.

Mehmet Bilgili graduated from his PhD in 2007 at Cukurova University in

Turkey. Presently, he works as a Professor at the University of Cukurova in
Adana/Turkey. He has published number of papers in various national and
international journals. His research field is energy.

1 Introduction

Most of the daily activities of human body involve energy transfer and energy exchange.
The human body, which is a familiar example of the biological system, functions as a
heat engine and is thermodynamically considered to be an open system in which the
chemical energy of food or body fat turns into other energy types such as heat and work
(Dinçer and Rosen). Energy and mass for the vital processes of the human body are
supplied from external sources (foods, liquids), and then this energy produced in the body
interacts with the environment. These transformation and interaction mechanisms
are very important due to thermal sensation or thermal comfort (Prek, 2005; Djongyang
et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2011).
Living organisms, as a known reality, require energy, in the form of both heat and
work in terminology of thermodynamics, to sustain their life (Kuddusi, 2015). As
endothermic organisms, human beings produce metabolic heat, which is exchanged with
the environment through different physiological driven mechanisms to achieve a constant
apparent body temperature (Prek and Butala, 2010). There is a heat balance between
human body and surroundings to maintain body’s internal temperature around 37°C.
Changes in environmental conditions determine whether this heat is too much, too little
or appropriate. If human body in a light activity level does not lose heat to the
environment, where it is totally insulated, the body core temperature increases by about
1°C per hour and the person could die within a few hours. Therefore, energy and mass
transfer into the human body and heat generation within the human body must be
balanced by heat losses from the body (Parsons, 2002; Bilgili et al., 2015). In this
thermoregulation system of the body, ambient air temperature, radiation temperature,
relative and specific humidity and air movement are the basic environmental variables
that affect human response to thermal balance.
The external heat transfers of the human body occur by conduction, convection,
radiation and evaporation of perspiration. The body has an important role in temperature
regulation. Also, the human body produces heat by means of catabolism and energy
metabolism and loses heat generally by evaporation and diffusion of body liquids
(Caliskan, 2013). For human health and thermal comfort, creating a rational strategy for
controlling the built environment is a very important issue. Therefore, it is necessary to
have a better understanding of the adaptability of the human body for thermal
environmental change through the thermal regulatory system. The human
thermoregulation system against thermal environmental changes works to ensure that the
body core temperature remains unchanged within a narrow range (Tokunaga and
Shukuya, 2011; Sakoi et al., 2007; Kurazumi et al., 2008a, 2008b; Juusela and Shukuya,
2014).
 Thermodynamic analysis of the human body 437

Energy is a conservative property according to the first law of thermodynamics. On

the other hand, exergy is non-conservative due to the entropy generation or irreversibility
according to the second law of thermodynamics. Exergy is partially consumed in an
irreversible process. However, it is only protected for a reversible process. For a real
process, the exergy input always is higher than the exergy output due to entropy
generation or irreversibility (Prek, 2005). Exergy analysis is a powerful thermodynamic
analysis technique for evaluating and improving the efficiency of processes and systems,
as well as for improving or increasing environmental and economic performance (Dovjak
et al., 2015; Liang and Du, 2008; Chu and Jong, 2008; Bilgili et al., 2017). Applying the
second law of thermodynamics to the human body, exergy is destructed as a result of heat
and mass transfer or conversion. Exergy destruction rate is dependent on the human
thermoregulation system and the environmental conditions (Prek and Butala, 2010;
Bulcao et al., 2000; White and Cabanac, 1995).
The human body produces specific mechanisms of irreversibility. According to the
second law of thermodynamics, the minimum exergy consumption of the human body
constitutes the relatively maximum useful work performed by the human body. In other
words, the formation of minimum exergy consumption in the human body provides the
best or optimum human performance (Wu et al., 2013). Exergy analysis is applied to
assess the quality of the energy conversion processes occurring in the human body, and to
develop indicators of thermal comfort based on the concepts of exergy consumption rate
and exergy efficiency (Mady et al., 2012, 2014; Schweiker et al., 2016; Simone et al.,
2011; Henriques et al., 2016). Different parts of the world have different climates.
Outdoor weather and climate conditions also affect exergy consumption rate and exergy
efficiency of the human body (Wu et al., 2013). Especially, outdoor air temperature is
used as the environmental temperature in the exergy balance calculation, and it can also
be used in an adaptive model for prediction of the indoor thermal comfort temperature
(Isawa, 2015). When examined in the literature, it has been found that the analysis of
energy and exergy of the human body is required to be made according to different
climatic regions. Therefore, in this study, the rate of exergy destruction of the human
body under different climate regions was calculated by using the exergy balance
equation, and the magnitudes and mechanisms of the irreversibility were determined. In
addition, total heat loss from the human body was obtained by using the energy balance
equation.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Energy analysis

The human body consists of two subsystems for thermodynamic modelling: the core and
the shell as shown in Figure 1. The core is one subsystem whose temperature is
maintained nearly constant at 37°C almost independently from the variations of
surrounding temperature and humidity variations; while on the other hand, the shell is the
subsystem whose temperature is rather dependent much on their variations (Shukuya
et al., 2010).
438 F. Ekinci and M. Bilgili

Figure 1 Modelling of a human body consisting of two subsystems: the core and the shell
following the same approach as Liu et al. (2011) and Shukuya et al. (2010) (see online
version for colours)

The energy balance equation of the human body can be expressed as follows (Caliskan,
2013; Gebremedhin and Wu, 2002; Wang et al., 2016a; Wang et al., 2016b):
EnM ,gen ∓ Enwork = Enloss, dif + Enloss,sweat + Enloss,res + Enloss, ∆T
(1)
+ Enloss, rad,conv,cond + Enstored

EnM ,gen , Enwork , Enloss,dif , Enloss,sweat , Enloss,res , Enloss, ∆T , Enloss, rad,conv,cond and Enstored are
the metabolic energy generation, external work, energy loss by water vapour diffusion
from the skin, energy loss by sweat evaporation, energy loss through respiration, energy
loss from temperature difference, total energy loss with radiation, convection and
conduction and the stored energy in the human body, respectively.
In the human body, the process of converting chemical energy contained in food into
heat and work is called as catabolism. The rate at which the chemical energy is converted
into heat and work is called as metabolic rate. The metabolic rate depends on the activity.
It is normally measured in the unit met. A met is defined as the metabolic rate per unit
area of a sedentary person and is found to be equal to 58.2 W/m2 (Fanger, 1970; Fanger,
1982). The metabolic energy generation ( EnM ,gen ) is the total of the metabolic energy
rate by a person’s activity ( EnM ,act ) and the metabolic energy rate for shivering
( EnM ,shiv ) .

EnM ,gen = EnM ,act + EnM ,shiv (2)

The metabolic energy rate for shivering in a cold environment is defined as follows
(Caliskan, 2013):
EnM ,shiv = (19.4)(34 − Tsk )(37 − Tcr ) (3)

where Tsk and Tcr are the skin and core temperatures of the human body, respectively. The
energy loss by water vapour diffusion from the skin is calculated by:
Enloss,dif = 0.00305( Psv ,Tsk − Pv , a ) (4)

where Psv ,Tsk and Pv , a are the saturated water vapour pressure at skin temperature and the
 Thermodynamic analysis of the human body 439

water vapour pressure in the ambient air, respectively. The energy loss by sweat
evaporation is determined as (Caliskan, 2013):
Enloss,sweat = (0.42)( EnM ,gen − Enwork − 58.15) (5)

The energy loss through respiration is defined as follows (Caliskan, 2013):

Enloss,res = (0.0000172) EnM ,gen (5867 − Pv , a ) (6)

The energy loss from temperature difference can be computed by:

Enloss, ∆T = (0.0014) EnM ,gen (34 − Tra ) (7)

where Tra is the room air temperature. The total energy loss with radiation, convection
and conduction is found by:
Enloss, rad,conv,cond = (Tsk − Tcl ) / [( 0.155) I cl ] (8)

where Tcl and Icl are the cloth temperature and the clothing insulation, respectively.

2.2 Exergy analysis

The exergy balance equation of the human body can be expressed as follows (Caliskan,
2013):
ExM ,gen + Exgen,core + Exgen,shell + Exabs,rad + Exinh,air = Exdisch,rad + Exconv
(9)
+ Exexh,air + Exsweat + Exstored,core + Exstored,shell + Excons

where ExM ,gen is the metabolic exergy generation, Exgen,core is the exergy generation of
the liquid water in the core, Exgen,shell is the exergy generation of the liquid water/dry air
in the shell, Exabs,rad is the absorbed radiant exergy rate by the body surface, Exinh,air is
the inhaled humid air exergy rate, Exdisch,rad is the discharged radiant exergy rate from the
body surface, Exconv is the convection exergy rate to the air, Exexh,air is the exhaled humid
air exergy rate, Exsweat is the water vapour/air exergy rate from the sweat, Exstored,core is
the stored exergy rate in the core, Exstored,shell is the stored exergy rate in the shell, and
Excons is the exergy consumption rate.
The metabolic exergy generation is defined by (Caliskan, 2013):

 T 
ExM ,gen = EnM ,gen  1 − o  (10)
 Tcr 
where To and Tcr are the outdoor air (environmental) and body core temperatures,
respectively. The exergy generation of the liquid water in the core is determined from:
   T  R  Psv ,To  
Exgen,core = Vw,core ρ w c p , w (Tcr − To ) − To  ln cr   + To  ln  (11)
   To   X w  Pvo  
440 F. Ekinci and M. Bilgili

where ‘ Vw,core ’, ‘ ρ w ’, ‘ c p , w ’, ‘R’, ‘ X w ’, ‘ Psv ,To ’ and ‘ Pvo ‘ are the velocity of the liquid
water generated in the body core, density of the liquid water, specific heat capacity of the
liquid water, gas constant, molar mass of water molecules, saturated water vapour
pressure at reference temperature and water vapour pressure of the reference air,
respectively. The exergy generation of the liquid water/dry air in the shell is calculated as:

   T  R  Psv ,To  P − Pvr  P − Pvr   

Exgen,shell = Vw,shell ρ w c p , w (Tsk − To ) − To  ln sk   + To  ln +  ln  
  To  X  Pvo  Pvr  P − Pvo    (12)
  w

where ‘ Vw,shell ’, ‘ Tsk ’, ‘P’, and ‘ Pvr ’ are the velocity of the liquid water generated in the
body shell, skin temperature, atmospheric air pressure and water vapour pressure in the
room space, respectively. The absorbed radiant exergy rate by the body surface is found
by (Caliskan, 2013):

(Ti − To )
2

Exabs,rad = f ef f cl ai ε cl hrb (13)

(Ti + To )
where ‘fef’, ‘fcl’, ‘ai’, ‘ ε cl ’, ‘ hrb ’ and ‘Ti’ are the ratio of the effective area of the human
body, clothing area factor, absorption coefficient, emittance of clothing surface, relative
heat transfer coefficient of a black surface, and surface temperature, respectively. The
inhaled humid air exergy rate is defined as:
   X   X     Tra  
Exinh,air = Vin  c p , a  da  ( P − Pvr ) + c p ,v  w  Pvr  x (Tra − To ) − To  ln 
   RTra   RTra     To  
(14)
T  P − Pvr   Pvr  
+ o ( P − Pvr )   ln  + Pvr  ln 
Tra  P − Pvo   Pvo  

where ‘ Vin ’, ‘cp,a’, ‘Xda’, ‘ c p ,v ’, and ‘Tra’ are the velocity of inhaled air, the specific heat
capacity of the dry air, molar mass of the dry air, specific heat capacity of the water
vapour and room air temperature, respectively. The discharged radiant exergy rate from
the body surface is expressed to be:

(Tcl − To )
2

Exdisch , rad = f ef f cl ε cl hrb (15)

(Tcl + To )
The convection exergy rate to the air is computed as (Caliskan, 2013):

 T 
Exconv = f cl hccl (Tcl − Tra ) 1 − o  (16)
 Tcl 
where hccl is the average convective heat transfer coefficient over clothed body surface.
The exhaled humid air exergy rate is determined as:
 Thermodynamic analysis of the human body 441

   X   X     T 
( )
Exexh,air = Vout  c p , a  da  P − Psv ,Tcr + c p ,v  w  Psv ,Tcr  x (Tcr − To ) − To  ln cr 
   RTcr   RTcr     To  
To  P − Psv ,Tcr   Psv ,Tcr  
+
Tcr ( )
 P − Psv ,T   ln
 P − Pvo 
 + Psv ,Tcr  ln
Pvo

 
cr
 
(17)
where Vout and Psv ,Tcr are the velocity of the exhaled air and the saturated water vapour
pressure at body core temperature, respectively. The water vapour/air exergy rate from
the sweat can be determined as:

   T  R  P  P − Pvr  P − Pvr   
Exsweat = Vw,shell ρ w c p ,v (Tcl − To ) − To  ln cl   + To  ln vr +  ln  
   To   X w  Pvo  Pvr  P − Pvo   
(18)
The stored exergy rates in the core and shell are determined by (Caliskan, 2013):

 T 
Exstored,core = Qcore 1 − o  (19)
 Tcr 

 T 
Exstored,shell = Qshell 1 − o  (20)
 Tsk 

where Qcore and Qshell are the heat capacities of the body core and shell, respectively.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Physiological characteristics and climate data analysis

In the present study, the human body with a mass of 70 kg and a height of 1.73 m was
considered as a thermodynamic system. The body core and skin temperatures were
considered to be constant at 36.8°C and 33.7°C, respectively, in accordance with the
steady-state energy balance model. The DuBois surface area of the human body was
determined as 1.8 m2. So, the selected parameters such as indoor air conditions,
physiological and clothing characteristics of the human body, heat conduction and
radiation coefficients, which are determined according to the values recommended by
ASHRAE, are given in Table 1.
In order to perform energy and exergy analyses of the human body, seven different
climate regions (CR-1, CR-2, CR-3, CR-4, CR-5, CR-6 and CR-7) in Turkey were
selected. These geographic regions including Samsun, Erzurum, Eskişehir, Şanlıurfa,
Adana, Izmir and Tekirdağ provinces are presented in Figure 2. The selected provinces
reflect the average climatic conditions of each geographic area. The climate regions and
their climate classes, climate conditions, and meteorological parameters in summer
season (July month) are given in Table 2.
442 F. Ekinci and M. Bilgili

Table 1 Selected parameters for energy and exergy analyses

Parameter Symbol Value

Body mass m 70 kg
Body height l 1.73 m
Dubois body surface area AD 1.8 m2
Skin temperature Tsk 33.7°C
Core temperature Tcr 36.8°C
Cloth temperature Tcl 30.23°C
Outdoor air temperature Ta 11.2–38.7°C
Room air temperature Tra 25°C
Operative temperature To 25°C
Relative humidity of outdoor air RHa 35–74%
Relative humidity of room air RHra 50%
Air speed Vair 0.15 m/s
Atmospheric air pressure P 82.22–101.23 kPa
Clothing area factor fcl 1.15
Evaporation permeability efficiency of clothing icl 0.43
Clothing insulation Icl 0.57 clo
Metabolic energy production M 1 Met
The ratio of the effective area of the human body fef 0.725
Absorption coefficient ai 0.42731
Radiative heat transfer coefficient of a black surface hrb 6.3 W/m2K
Emittance of clothing surface εcl 0.955
Average convective heat transfer coefficient over clothed hccl 3.0825 W/m2K
body surface
Temperature surface Ti 33.7°C
Velocity of inhaled air Vin 6.99 × 10–5 m/s
Velocity of liquid water generated in body core Vw,core 1.95 × 10–9 m/s
Velocity of liquid water generated in body shell as sweat Vw,shell 4.79 × 10–9 m/s
Velocity of the exhaled air Vout 4.28 × 10–5 m/s
Specific heat capacity of dry air Cp,a 1.005 kJ/kgK
Molar mass of dry air Ra 28.97 g/mol
Gas constant R 8.314 J/molK
Specific heat capacity of water vapour Cp,v 1.846 kJ/kgK
Molar mass of water molecules Rw 18.05 g/mol
Specific heat capacity of liquid water Cp,w 4.186 kJ/kgK
Density of liquid water ρw 1000 kg/m3
 Thermodynamic analysis of the human body 443

Figure 2 Seven climate regions prevailing in the provinces of Turkey (see online version
for colours)

The meteorological weather data and climate conditions of the regions are taken from the
Turkish State Meteorological Service (TSMS, 2017). As seen from Table 2, Sanliurfa
province expressed as the region of CR-1 is quite hot and dry in the summer season. On
the other hand, Erzurum province represented as the region of CR-7 is semi-moist and
cooler than other regions. While the lowest atmospheric pressure is measured in Erzurum
(CR-7) city, Tekirdağ (CR-5) is the highest measured city. Samsun city (CR-6) is seen as
the most humid and cool region.

Table 2 Climate class, climatic conditions and meteorological parameters in the summer in
every province

Monthly Monthly
Monthly Monthly average average
minimum maximum relative atmospheric
Climate temperature temperature humidity in pressure in Climate
region Province in July (oC) in July (oC) July (%) July (kPa) Climate class condition
CR-1 Şanlıurfa 24.2 38.7 35.0 94.15 Continental Winter is
climate long, cold
and snowy.
Summer is
short and hot
CR-2 Adana 22.8 33.8 71.0 100.25 Mediterranean It has a hot-
climate summer
climate with
hot, dry
summers and
mild to cool,
wet winters
CR-3 İzmir 22.4 33.1 51.0 100.51 Mediterranean It has a hot-
climate summer
climate with
hot, dry
summers and
mild to cool,
wet winters
444 F. Ekinci and M. Bilgili

Table 2 Climate class, climatic conditions and meteorological parameters in the summer
in every province (continued)

Monthly Monthly
Monthly Monthly average average
minimum maximum relative atmospheric
Climate temperature temperature humidity in pressure in Climate
region Province in July (oC) in July (oC) July (%) July (kPa) Climate class condition
CR-4 Eskişehir 13.7 28.9 57.0 92.26 Continental Winter is
climate long, cold
and snowy.
Summer is
short and hot
CR-5 Tekirdağ 18.9 28.0 71.0 101.23 Marmara It has a
(transitional) transitional
climate climate
between a
temperate
Mediterranea
n climate and
a temperate
Oceanic
climate with
warm to hot,
moderately
dry summers
and cool to
cold, wet
winters.
CR-6 Samsun 19.0 26.4 74.0 101.16 Black Sea It has a
climate temperate
Oceanic
climate with
warm, wet
summers and
cool to cold,
wet winters
CR-7 Erzurum 11.2 26.4 54.0 82.22 Continental Winter is
climate long, cold
and snowy.
Summer is
short and hot
Source: TSMS (2017)

3.2 Results of the energy analysis

In this study, summer weather conditions were applied for energy and exergy analysis of
a human body with an area of 1.8 m2 Dubois body in a room with 25°C and 50% relative
humidity. The metabolic energy rate for shivering and the external work rate were taken
to be zero. Since the human body was considered to be in a light activity level, the
metabolic energy generation by the person’s activity was taken as 58.2 W/m2. According
to the determined indoor air characteristics, the clothing properties and the activity level;
the energy analysis was applied to the human body. So, the results obtained are presented
 Thermodynamic analysis of the human body 445

in Figure 3. As can be seen from the figure, the major energy loss of the human body
(39.28 W/m2) occurred with radiation, convection and conduction. Furthermore, the
energy loss rates by water vapour diffusion from the skin, by respiration, temperature
difference and sweat evaporation were determined as 11.13 W/m2, 4.29 W/m2, 0.73 W/m2
and 0.02 W/m2, respectively.

Figure 3 Results of the energy analysis of the human body (see online version for colours)

According to the above-mentioned indoor air conditions, the 67.48% of the metabolic
energy generation by the human body is lost due to the heat transfer with radiation,
convection and conduction. On the other hand, the energy loss by sweat evaporation is
very small due to the thermal comfort conditions in the room, and it is 0.04% of the
metabolic energy generation by the human body. Also, 19.12%, 7.37% and 1.26% of the
metabolic energy generation by the human body is lost due to the water vapour diffusion
from the skin, respiration and temperature difference, respectively. However, the
increment of air temperature in room causes a decrease in energy loss of the human body
with radiation and convection. The increment of water vapour pressure or relative
humidity in room air decreases energy loss by water vapour diffusion from skin. An
increment of air temperature in room decreases energy loss through respiration based
radiation and convection. If the specific humidity of room air is decreased, energy loss
through respiration based evaporation increases.

3.3 Results of the exergy analysis

Results of the exergy analysis regarding the people living under different climate regions
of Turkey are given in Table 3. According to the results obtained from the monthly
minimum and maximum temperatures in July month, as seen from the table, the exergy
consumption rates of the human body located in different regions of Turkey vary between
0.91 W/m2 and 2.50 W/m2. On the other hand, the exergy efficiency values range from
3.98% to 69.05%.
446 F. Ekinci and M. Bilgili

Table 3 Results of the exergy analysis of the human body living in different climate regions
of Turkey

Exergy consumption rate (W/m2) Exergy efficiency(%)

At the At the At the
minimum maximum minimum At the maximum
Climate monthly monthly monthly monthly temper
region Province temperature of temperature of temperature of temperature of
CR-1 Şanlıurfa 2.47 0.91 28.35 20.34
CR-2 Adana 2.47 1.62 30.32 14.14
CR-3 İzmir 2.50 1.72 32.54 03.98
CR-4 Eskişehir 2.32 2.14 61.69 10.47
CR-5 Tekirdağ 2.49 2.20 44.11 14.39
CR-6 Samsun 2.49 2.31 43.69 18.83
CR-7 Erzurum 2.14 2.33 69.05 17.91

Figure 4 presents the exergy analysis results obtained from monthly maximum
temperatures of the climate regions. As can be seen from the figure, exergy consumption
rate increases with decreasing atmospheric temperature, while exergy efficiency
generally decreases. The lowest exergy consumption rate was obtained for the CR-1,
which has the highest atmospheric temperature. On the other hand, exergy efficiency was
achieved at the highest value for this region. In addition, the CR-7 was found to be the
region with the highest exergy consumption rate. The exergy consumption rates of the
human body were calculated to be 0.91 W/m2, 1.62 W/m2, 1.72 W/m2, 2.14 W/m2,
2.20 W/m2, 2.31 W/m2 and 2.33 W/m2 for the CR-1, CR-2, CR-3, CR-4, CR-5, CR-6 and
CR-7, respectively. Also, the exergy efficiency values in these regions were found as
20.34%, 14.14%, 3.98%, 10.47%, 14.39%, 18.83% and 17.91%, respectively.

Figure 4 Results of the exergy analysis of the human body for monthly maximum temperature
(see online version for colours)
60 3.00
Exergy efficiency
Outdoor air temperature
exergy consumption rate
Exergy consumption rate (W/m2)
Outdoor air temperature (oC)

45 2.25
Exergy efficiency (%)

30 1.50

15 0.75

0 0.00
CR-1 CR-2 CR-3 CR-4 CR-5 CR-6 CR-7
 Thermodynamic analysis of the human body 447

When the results of exergy analysis of human body were evaluated for each region, the
lowest rate of exergy consumption is in the continental climate region (CR-1), with the
highest outside temperature and the lowest relative humidity. Although this region has
maximum exergy efficiency for human body in the summer climatic conditions, it has
worse condition in terms of thermal comfort and needs to be conditioned. On the other
hand, when the human body is located in the CR-7 region, which is cool and semi humid
in summer, less climatisation in terms of thermal comfort will be needed than the CR-1
region. However, the human body under these climatic conditions has more exergy
consumption rate. That is, when reference ambient air conditions are close to thermal
comfort air conditions, the exergy consumption rate of the human body increases.
However, less climatisation is also required in this situation.
In order to evaluate performance of the present study, the obtained results were
compared with similar studies in literature. Table 4 gives the comparison of exergy
consumption rates between the present study results and literature values. Prek (2006)
investigated the exergy consumption rates of the human body by increasing room
temperature from low to neutral temperatures. In Prek’s study, the following parameters
were chosen: air temperature 28oC, relative air humidity 50% and metabolic energy
generation 63.8 W/m2. According to the results obtained by Prek (2006), the exergy
consumption rate of the human body was found as 1.97 W/m2. Wu et al. (2013) derived a
novel formula of human body for exergy consumption based on a human body exergy
transfer model. In their study, air temperature, relative air humidity and metabolic energy
generation values were assumed as 27°C, 50% and 69.84 W/m2, respectively. According
to these variables, the exergy consumption rate of the human body was calculated as
4.08 W/m2. Caliskan (2013) performed the energy and exergy analyses to the human
body for the summer season of the Izmir City in Turkey. In his study, the total generated
energy rate by metabolism of the human body was assumed as 58.326 W/m2, while air
temperature and relative air humidity were taken as 28°C and 40%, respectively.
According to these variables, the exergy consumption rate of the human body was
determined as 2.566 W/m2. In the present paper, on the other hand, the following
parameters were selected: air temperature 28°C, relative air humidity 51% and metabolic
energy generation 58.2 W/m2. So, the exergy consumption rate was found as 2.22 W/m2.
As seen, the exergy consumption rate in the present study is approximately 13% higher
than that of Prek (2006), while it is approximately 14% less than that of Caliskan (2013).

Table 4 Comparison of the exergy consumption rates determined in the present study with the
literature values

Exergy
Air temperature Relative air Metabolic energy consumption
Study (oC) humidity (%) generation (W/m2) rate (W/m2)
Present study 28.0 51 58.200 2.220
Prek (2006) 28.0 50 63.800 1.970
Caliskan (2013) 28.0 40 58.326 2.566
Wu et al. (2013) 27.0 50 69.840 4.080

Except for the studies mentioned in Table 4, Kuddusi (2015) determined entropy
generation rate in order to estimate the life span of people living in seven regions of
Turkey with different food habits. In his study, the first and second laws of
448 F. Ekinci and M. Bilgili

thermodynamics to the human body were applied, and it was mentioned that human body
may be considered as a thermodynamic system. It is assumed that; foods and air enter a
human body at the environment temperature and then heat rejection from a human body
as a result of metabolism of foods occurs at the skin temperature. So, the majority of
entropy generation in this system occurs due to reactions of glucose, palmitic acid and
average of 20 amino acids that enter to human body. In this context, by considering the
food habits of the people living in seven regions of Turkey, protein, fat and carbohydrate
intakes were calculated. That is, as a result, by using this knowledge, Kuddusi (2015)
calculated the entropy generation in human body due to the chemical reactions of foods
and air. On the other hand, in our present study, the entropy generation in human body
due to the radiative, convective and evaporative heat losses from the human body based
on skin surface and respiration were determined. In conclusion, the results of Kuddusi
(2015) and our present study are given in Table 5. Considering the entropy generation due
to the radiative, convective and evaporative heat losses from the human body based on
skin surface and respiration, as seen from the table, according to the results obtained from
the monthly maximum temperatures, the least entropy generation appears in Southeast
Anatolia while the most entropy generation appears in Eastern Anatolia.

Table 5 Entropy generation (kW/K) by a typical human body in different climate regions of
Turkey

Due to the
radiative,
convective and
evaporative heat
losses from the Due to the
Due to the radiative, convective human body chemical
and evaporative heat losses based on skin reactions of
from the human body based on surface and foods and air in
skin surface and respiration respiration human body
For monthly For monthly
Climate minimum maximum
region Province temperature temperature Caliskan (2013) Kuddusi (2015)
-5 -5 –
CR-1 Şanlıurfa 1.4984 × 10 0.5267 × 10 33.46 × 10–5
–
CR-2 Adana 1.5001 × 10–5 0.9529 × 10–5 30.82 × 10–5
CR-3 İzmir 1.5226 × 10–5 1.0113 × 10–5 1.53 × 10–5 28.54 × 10–5
–
CR-4 Eskişehir 1.4582 × 10–5 1.2786 × 10–5 26.65 × 10–5
–5 –5 –
CR-5 Tekirdağ 1.5374 × 10 1.3186 × 10 30.18 × 10–5
–
CR-6 Samsun 1.5357 × 10–5 1.3886 × 10–5 32.52 × 10–5
–
CR-7 Erzurum 1.3570 × 10–5 1.3997 × 10–5 33.49 × 10-5

The exergy efficiency and entropy generation with temperature curves are shown in
Figures 5 and 6 for all provinces. When the exergy efficiency and entropy generation for
all cities representing the regions are evaluated together with the temperature curves, the
similar values are observed generally located in the same latitude and in climate
characteristics. For example, similar exergy efficiency and entropy generation are
observed in Adana (CR-2) and İzmir (CR-3). Although Sanliurfa (CR-1) is located at
nearly same latitude as Adana (CR-2) and İzmir (CR-3), it differs from the exergy
 Thermodynamic analysis of the human body 449

efficiency and entropy generation due to the semi-continental climate characteristic.

Şanlıurfa province has hot and dry weather features in summer. As Tekirdağ (CR-5) and
Samsun (CR-6) are examined, similar values are observed in these provinces. For these
cities neighbouring the Black Sea, the temperature values are very close to each other.
For Eskisehir (CR-4) and Erzurum (CR-7), close results are observed in the minimum
exergy efficiency and entropy generation values. When compared to the maximum
temperature values in the summer conditions for entropy generation, differences are
observed while the entropy generation for the minimum temperature similar values are
observed in all province. There is an effect of latitude and climatic conditions on results.
Generally, similar results in regions that belong to the same latitude and climate values
are observed for the exergy efficiency and entropy generation.

Figure 5 Exergy efficiency in every province (see online version for colours)
100 50
Exergy efficiency for Tmin
Exergy efficiency for Tmax
80 Minimum temperature 40

Outdoor temperature (oC)

Maximum temperature
Exergy Efficiency (%)

Mean temperature
60 30

40 20

20 10

0 0
CR-1 CR-2 CR-3 CR-4 CR-5 CR-6 CR-7

Figure 6 Entropy generation in every province (see online version for colours)
2.5 50
Entropy generation for Tmin
Entropy generation for Tmax
Entropy generation x 10-5 (kW/K)

2 Minimum temperature 40
Outdoor temperature (oC)

Maximum temperature
Mean temperature
1.5 30

1 20

0.5 10

0 0
CR-1 CR-2 CR-3 CR-4 CR-5 CR-6 CR-7

4 Conclusion

People living in different regions of Turkey can be affected from different weather
conditions. Thus, it is vitally important to have a clear understanding of exergy balance of
450 F. Ekinci and M. Bilgili

the human body in order to understand in which way thermal energy demands in
buildings could be provided with minimum losses while guaranteeing comfort conditions.
In this study, the energy loss rate, exergy consumption rate and exergy efficiency of
people living in seven regions of Turkey are estimated by applying the first and second
laws of thermodynamics to the human body. According to the indoor climatic conditions
as assumed 25°C and 50%, the 67.48% of the metabolic energy generation by the human
body is lost due to the heat transfer with radiation, convection and conduction. The
energy loss by sweat evaporation is very small due to the thermal comfort conditions in
the room. Exergy consumption rate increases with decreasing atmospheric temperature,
while exergy efficiency generally decreases. The lowest exergy consumption rate is
obtained for the CR-1, which has the highest atmospheric temperature. According to the
results obtained from monthly maximum temperatures of the climate regions, the
maximum exergy consumption rate of the human body is calculated to be 2.33 W/m2 for
the CR-7. The maximum exergy efficiency value is found as 20.34% for the CR-1. On the
other hand, the minimum exergy efficiency value is obtained for CR-4. As a result, if
reference ambient air conditions are close to thermal comfort air conditions, the exergy
consumption rate of the human body increases. However, less climatisation is also
required in this situation.

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Nomenclature
AD DuBois body surface area (m2)

ai Absorption coefficient

cp Specific heat capacity (kJ/kg K)

En Energy rate (W/m2)

Ex Exergy rate (W/m2)

f cl Clothing area factor

f ef Ratio of the effective area of the human body

hccl Average convective heat transfer coefficient over clothed body surface (W/m2 K)

hrb Relative heat transfer coefficient of a black surface (W/m2 K)

icl Evaporation permeability efficiency of clothing

I Thermal insulation
I cl Clothing insulation
m Body mass (kg)
M Metabolic energy production (Met or W/m2)
l Body height (m)
P Pressure (kPa)
Q Heat capacity rate (W/m2)

R Gas constant (kJ/kg K)

RH Relative humidity (%)
T Temperature (oC or K)
V Velocity (m/s)
X Molar mass (g/mol)
Greek symbols
ε cl Emittance of clothing surface

∆T Temperature difference (oC or K)

ρ Density (kg/m3)
 Thermodynamic analysis of the human body 453

Subscripts
a Ambient air, dry air
abs Absorbed
act Person’s activity
cl Clothing
cond Conduction
cons Consumption
conv Convection
core Core
cr Core
da Dry air
dif Water vapour diffusion from the skin
disch Discharged
exh, air Exhaled air
gen Generation
i Surface
in Inhaled air
inh, air Inhaled air
loss Loss
M Catabolism plus energy metabolism
o Outdoor air (environmental), reference (dead state)
out Exhaled air
r Room space
ra Room air
rad Radiation, radiant
res Respiration
shell Shell
shiv Shivering
sk Skin
stored Stored
Sv Saturated vapour
sweat Sweat evaporation
V Vapour
W Water
work Work rate
Abbreviation
CR Climate region
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers