- Occurs in the chloroplast

GENERAL BIOLOGY -
-
Takes in carbon dioxide from the stomata
Energy is transferred to ATP in the light dependent stage

REVIEWER S1-Q2 GENERAL BALANCED REACTION FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

FORMULA

ATP – Adenosine triphosphate

- Is the energy currency of the cell

- “universal unit of energy”

Structure – sugar ribose, nitrogen base adenine, 3-phosphate groups

Pigments - different pigments absorb light of different wavelengths;

- Pigments that absorb visible light

- are the means by which plants capture sun’s energy to be used in
photosynthesis

Light is either – reflected

- Transmitted

- Absorbed

Visible Light - is most important to life on earth with a wavelength of 380–

Coupled reactions – happens when two molecules react inside a cell, their
atoms are rearranged, and forms new molecules as a reaction & releasing and
absorbing energy in the process.
Exergonic reaction – release of free energy; free energy = negative (less than
zero)
Endergonic reaction – energy is absorbed; free energy = positive (greater
than zero)
MAIN KINDS OF WORK IN ATP
Chemical work - synthesis of polymers from monomers (pushing of
endergonic reactions)
Transport work - pumping of substances across membranes
Mechanical work - beating of cilia, contraction of muscles also used to make
RNA
Hydrolysis – process where water breaks down bonds in phosphate groups
ATP - ADP CYCLE
750nm
- the color not absorbed is transmitted or reflected = color we see
Chromatography - is a separation technique used to identify various
components of mixtures based on the differences in their structure and/or
composition
- 2 phases (stationary phase & mobile phase)
o Stationary phase – paper or any thin layer of
an absorbent surface
o Mobile phase – solvent containing the
dissolved substances
Chlorophyll – greenish pigment found in the thylakoid membrane
- Inside the chloroplast of a plant cell
- absorbs red and blue light and reflects green
- primary pigment in plants
- directly participates in converting solar energy to chemical
energy

Chlorin – absorbs yellow and blue light

Carotenoid – red, orange, or yellow pigments

- also contribute energy to chlorophyll a

- serve as protection for chlorophyll by dissipating
- functions in light harvesting and prevention of photooxidative
damage
(i): ATP at rest
PLANTS HAVE 6 UBIQUITOUS CAROTENOIDS
(ii): ATP is hydrolyzed neoxanthin zeaxanthin
(iii): ATP loses a phosphate and gains some water violaxanthin lutein
(iv): ATP => ADP + extra phosphate group and energy for use later antheraxanthin b-carotene

ROLE OF ATP IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS CAROTENOIDS THAT EXIST IN CYANOBACTERIA

canthaxanthin synechoxanthin
Photosynthesis – carbon dioxide & water => oxygen & glucose
myxoxanthin echinenone
Cellular respiration - oxygen & glucose => carbon dioxide & water Lutein – yellow pigment/ most abundant carotenoid

Lycopene – red pigment tomatoes

Photosynthesis – solar energy used in production of carbohydrate molecules Lutein epoxide – many woody species
Lactucaxanthin – found in lettuce - Excitation of photosystems by light energy.
- Production of ATP via an electron transport chain.
Alpha carotene – carrots - Reduction of NADP+ and the photolysis of water.

Peridine – light harvesting agent in dinoflagellates CALVIN CYCLE - ‘dark reactions’

Anthocyanin – most visible in the petals of flowers of many species - it does not require light energy for its processes to take place
- - incorporates CO2 into organic molecules through carbon fixation
- Water-soluble flavonoid pigments that appear red to blue - uses NADPH and ATP to produce carbohydrate from the fixed
carbon
Betalains – red to yellow pigments
- takes place in the stroma of chloroplast
- Never occur in plants with anthocyanins - returns ADP, inorganic phosphate, and NADP+ to the light
- Responsible for the deep red color of beets reactions
- Water soluble THREE PHASES OF CALVIN CYCLE
- Only found in caryophylla carbon fixation A CO2 molecule combines with
- Noticeable during autumn a five-carbon acceptor molecule,
ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
Head – a flat hydrophilic head called porphyrin ring (RuBP). This step makes a six-
carbon compound that splits into
- Has magnesium atom as its center two molecules of a three-carbon
compound, 3-phosphoglyceric
Tail - a lipid-soluble hydrocarbon tail. acid (3-PGA). This reaction is
catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP
“How does photoexcitation happen?” carboxylase/oxygenase, or
Chlorophyll molecules absorb light energy, causing an electron to move to a rubisco.
higher energy orbital. This unstable state releases energy in the form of heat Reduction ATP and NADPH are used to
and photon. However, chlorophyll molecules found in the thylakoid convert the 3-PGA molecules
membrane form a photosystem with proteins and other organic molecules to into molecules of a three-carbon
prevent electron loss. sugar, glyceraldehyde-3-
Photosystem - is an aggregate of pigments and proteins in the thylakoid phosphate (G3P). This stage gets
membrane its name because NADPH
donates electrons to, or reduces,
- responsible for the absorption of photons and the transfer of a three-carbon intermediate to
energy and electrons make G3P.
- Light-harvesting complex = also called the antenna complex Regeneration of RuBP Some G3P molecules go to
- Reaction-center complex = composed of a pair of chlorophyll a make glucose, while others must
and a primary electron acceptor be recycled to regenerate the
RuBP acceptor. Regeneration
= primary electron acceptor – a specialized molecule
requires ATP and involves a
that can accept electrons from the pair of chlorophyll a.
complex network of reactions,
= pair of chlorophyll a - specialized because they are which my college bio professor
capable of transferring an electron to the primary liked to call the "carbohydrate
electron acceptor scramble."
PHOTOSYSTEM II – discovered later

- Occurs first in the light reaction of photosynthesis
- The chlorophyll a in the reaction-center absorbs light with a
wavelength of 680nm and thus called P680.
PHOTOSYSTEM I – was discovered first
- reaction-center has a chlorophyll a called P700 because it is
effective in absorbing light with a wavelength of 700nm.
The chloroplast needs *** to make one molecule of G3P
After the G3P is released…
- Two G3Ps can combine together to form either glucose or fructose
which are both are six-carbon sugar
- Glucose and fructose can be combined to form sucrose
- Glucose can be connected in chains to form starch
- G3Ps can also be used in lipid and protein synthesis

- 3 molecules of CO2
- 9 molecules of ATP
LIGHT REACTION - 6 molecules of NADPH

- use sunlight to initiate electron transfer Mitochondria – where ATP is being produced
- reduce NADP+ to NADPH
- membrane-enclosed organelles distributed through the cytoplasm
- split water to give off oxygen as a by-product
of the most eukaryotic cells
- form ATP through phosphorylation
- main function is the conversion of the potential energy of
- take place in the thylakoids of the chloroplast
food molecules into ATP
LIGHT REACTION EVENTS

- light energy/photon is absorbed by a pigment molecule in

photosystem ii
- the photon is passed on to other pigment molecules until it reaches
the reaction center
- once it reaches the reaction center the photon is absorbed by the
P680 pair of chlorophyll a

to put it simply: (tinamid na mag input)

MAJOR PARTS OF THE MITOCHONDRION STAGES OF AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Glycolysis - primary step of aerobic respiration is glycolysis and takes place

within the cytosol of the cell.

- the glucose molecules are splitting and separated into two ATP and
two NADH molecules, which are later used in the process of
aerobic respiration.

Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A - pyruvate is oxidized in the mitochondria

and 2-carbon acetyl group is produced

- The newly produced 2-carbon acetyl group binds with coenzyme

A, producing acetyl coenzyme A

Citric Acid Cycle (also known as the ‘Krebs cycle’) - he oxaloacetate

combines with the acetyl-coenzyme A and produces citric acid
Outer membrane- encloses the entire structure
- The citric acid cycle undergoes a series of reactions and produces 2
Inner membrane- encloses a fluid-filled matrix, thrown into folds with shelf
molecules of carbon dioxide, 1 molecule of ATP, and reduced
like cristae projecting into the matrix
forms of NADH and FADH
Intermembrane Compartment – compartment between the outer and inner
Electron Transport Chain - the large amounts of ATP molecules are
membrane
produced by transferring the electrons from NADH and FADH
Matrix – contains a complex mixture of soluble enzymes that catalyze the
- A single molecule of glucose creates a total of 34 ATP molecules.
respiration of pyruvic acid and other small organic molecules
FERMENTATION - one metabolic pathway that requires no oxygen
CELLULAR RESPIRATION - metabolic processes that occur in the cells
converting energy from nutrients into ATP - electrons from NADH reduce pyruvate
- doesn’t make additional ATP but regenerate NAD+ to extend
- glucose is converted to pyruvic acid which can enter either through
glycolysis
aerobic respiration or anaerobic respiration
- one of the primary ways a cell releases energy to fuel cellular TWO TYPES OF FERMENTATION
activities
- considered exothermic reaction that release heat Alcoholic Fermentation Lactic Acid Fermentation
- use oxygen to break down the sugar glucose and store its energy in -carry out by yeast, a single-celled -NADH produces during glycolysis
ATP fungi transfers hydrogen atoms to reduce
pyruvate creating NAD+ and lactic
CHEMICAL REACTION FOR CELLULAR RESPIRATION acid as products
-H+ and electrons from NADH are -this kind of fermentation happens
used to convert pyruvate into in human muscle cells
ethanol and carbon dioxide
-this releases NAD+ which accepts -during strenuous exercise, your
energy electrons during glycolysis muscle work vigorously that your
breathing cannot supply all the
oxygen that the cells needed
AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
requires molecular oxygen to does not require oxygen in splitting
produce ATP nutrients
Advantages of fermentation
produces 36 to 38 ATP per glucose Produces 2 ATP per glucose
molecule molecule - Certain bacteria produce chemicals of industrial importance
Produces lactic acid Does not produce lactic acid - Foods that are fermented last longer
Produces ATP from food (i.e. carbs, Produces ATP without the use of
lipid, and protein) oxygen
Happens in the cytoplasm and Happens only in the cytoplasm
mitochondrion
Glucose breaks down into carbon Glucose breaks down into ethyl
dioxide and water. alcohol, carbon dioxide and energy.
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Glucose → Alcohol + Carbon
dioxide + Water + Energy dioxide + Energy