.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is a physico-chemical process by which
higher plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria use light energy to
synthesize organic compounds.
Significance of Photosynthesis
• 10 source of all food on earth.
• Releases O2 into the atmosphere.

Historical Perspective
1770: Joseph Priestley showed the essential role of air in the growth
of green plants.
1779: Jan Ingenhousz concluded the release of O2 by plants was
possible only in sunlight by the green parts.
1854: Julius von Sachs provided evidence for production of glucose.
Also showed that the chlorophyll is located in chloroplasts.
1885: T.W Engelmann described the effect of different wavelength of
light on photosynthesis (using Cladophora) and plotted the first
action spectrum of photosynthesis. Light reaction
SET-UP OF LIGHT REACTION-
4 protein complexes are involved in the light reactions which are
embedded in the thylakoid (each sac of grana) membranes. They are-
(i) Photosystem I and II
(ii) Electron Transport System (ETS)
(iii) ATP synthase
Photosystems (I & II) is composed of Light Harvesting
Complex (LHC- responsible for trapping light) and an electron
acceptor. The LHC are made up of 200-300 of pigment
molecules bound to proteins.

 4 pigments seen in LHC are -

Pigments Role
1905: Blackman formulated “Law of Limiting Factors”.  Chlorophyll a  A single molecule act as reaction
1924: Cornelius van Niel inferred that the O2 evolved by the green plant (blue green) centre.
comes from H2O, not from CO2.  Chlorophyll b Accessory pigments- forming a light
He gave a simplified chemical equation of photosynthesis- (yellow green) harvesting system (or antennae).
 Xanthophylls  Absorb different wavelength of light and
1954: Melvin Calvin traced the path of C-fixation in photosynthesis (yellow) transfer the energy to chlorophyll a.
1965: Hatch and Slack reported the C4 pathway of CO2 fixation.  Carotenoids  Protect chlorophyll a from photo-
(yellow-orange) oxidation
CHLOROPLAST- Site of Photosynthesis:-
Photosynthesis takes place in the green parts of the plants.  In PS I the reaction centre chlorophyll a has an absorption peak
The most active photosynthetic tissue in plants is the mesophyll of at 700 nm, hence is called P700.
leaf. Walls of mesophyll cell have 10-100 membrane-bound In PS II it has absorption maxima at 680 nm (P680).
chloroplasts, which is filled with a fluid called the stroma. The Differences between PS I & PS II
stroma contains stacks of membranous disks called grana. PS I PS II
Mechanism of Photosynthesis:- 1. Reaction centre of PS I absorb at
or below 700nm wave length of 1. At or below 680nm.
The process of photosynthesis can be divided into 2-
light.
Light reactions or the ‘Photochemical reactions’ include light 2. This system is not directly
absorption, water splitting, O2 release, and the formation of ATP and involved with photo oxidation of
NADPH (energy-storage molecules). Take place in grana. water (to replace e- those removed 2. Involved
Dark reactions or the ‘Carbon reactions’ uses ATP and NADPH to from PS I to reduce NADP) &
reduce CO2 which lead to the synthesis of sugars. Take place in evolution of molecular O2.
stroma. 3. PS I is involved both in cyclic & 3. PS II involved only in
non-cyclic e- transport. non-cyclic e- transport.

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 MECHANISM OF LIGHT REACTION Difference between Non-cyclic & cyclic phosphorylation
-
(Step-1) When PS II absorbs 680 nm wavelength of red light, e from the Non-cyclic photo-
- Cyclic photo-phosphorylation
reaction centre are excited and picked by an e acceptor. phosphorylation
- 1. Occurs in the stroma lamellae.
The e that were lossed from the reaction centre is replaced by (Lack PS II as well as NADP
-
e available due to splitting of water in the lumen. 1. Occurs in the thylakoid reductase enzyme).
The H+ and O2 are formed. O2 diffuses out. membrane.  Also occurs when only light of
wavelengths beyond 680 nm are
-
(Step-2) The electron acceptor passes e to a chain of electrons transport available for excitation.
system and transferred to the reaction centre of PS I. 2. PS II & PS I work in series
-
and connected through an 2. Only PS I is functional.
The accepter of e which is located towards the outer side of ETS as Z scheme.
-
the membrane transfers its e to an H+ carrier. Hence, this 3. It is a non-cyclic process
3. The excited e- does not pass on to
-
molecule, while transporting an e , coupled to H+ transfer into because the e- lost by PS II
NADP+ but is cycled back to the
does not come back to it but
the lumen from the stroma. PS I complex through the ETS.
pass on to NADP+.
- 4. The first step is photo-
(Step-3) Simultaneously, e in the reaction centre of PS I are also excited
when they receive red light (700 nm) and are transferred to oxidation of water resulting 4. This system is not concerned
- splitting of water into H+, e- with it.
another e accepter molecule. and release of O2.
- 5. Here ATP & NADP+ are
(Step-4) These e are moved to a molecule of NADP+ and in presence 5. It is only ATP is synthesised.
synthesised.
of NADP reductase, NADP+ is reduced by utilizing an H+ from
stroma to NADPH +H+. Dark reaction
(Step-5) These steps decrease H+ in the stroma, while in the lumen there  This process of producing sugar needs the products of the light
is accumulation of H+. This develops an H+ gradient across the reaction, i.e., ATP and NADPH, besides CO2 and H2O.
thylakoid membrane. The process of CO2 fixation is of 2 types-
H+ diffuse back through ATP synthase from the lumen into the a) C3 pathway- In this, the first product of CO2 fixation is a 3-C acid
stroma, produces ATP from ADP and Pi. (PGA).
b) C4 pathway- In this, the first product is a 4-C acid (OAA).
(Chemiosmotic hypothesis of ATP synthesis- by Peter
Mitchell in 1961). a) The Calvin Cycle (C3 pathway)
This pathway occurs in all photosynthetic plants (in C4 also).
 It has 3 stages:- Carboxylation, reduction and regeneration.
i) Carboxylation of RuBP
CO2 (1C) is accepted by RuBP (5C) to form 2 molecules of
3-PGA (3C) by the enzyme RuBisCO.

Photorespiration
 In C3 plants, at higher conc. of O2, RuBisCO fix O2 and hence
CO2 fixation is decreased.
 Here the RuBP, instead of being converted to 2 molecules of
PGA, form 1 molecule of phosphoglycerate (PGA-3C) and
phosphoglycolate (PG-2C).
This pathway is called photorespiration. (It is named so as it
utilise O2 and release CO2).
 In this pathway, 25-50 % CO2 that is fixed is released with the
utilisation of ATP. There is neither synthesis of sugars, nor of
ATP. Therefore, photorespiration is a wasteful process.

ii) Reduction
 The fixation of 6 molecules of CO2 and 6 turns of the cycle are
required for the removal of 1 molecule of glucose (6C) from the
 Photo-phosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi
pathway.
in the presence of light.
 Here 2 ATP for phosphorylation and 2 NADPH for reduction
It occurs in 2 ways- Non cyclic & Cylic.
per CO2 molecule fixed.
iii) Regeneration of RuBP
 After fixing the CO2, 6 RuBP is regenerated using 6 ATP by
phosphorylation.

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 Differences between C3 plants & C4 plants
b) The Hatch & Slack pathway (C4 pathway) C3 plants C4 plants
 It is present in plants adapted to dry tropical regions. 1. Include most crop plants.
1. Include maize, sorghum etc.
C4 plants are special because:- (Around 1000 sps.)
They have a special type of leaf anatomy 2. Leaves do not exhibit ‘Kranz’
2. Shows
 The large cells around the vascular bundles of the C4 plants are anatomy.
called bundle sheath cells. Such anatomy is called ‘Kranz’ 3. In mesophyll and bundle
3. Photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll sheath cells.
anatomy. („Kranz’ = wreath).
cells. Chloroplast are 2 types-
 They have a large number of chloroplasts, thick walls i.e., Chloroplast is only 1 type. The mesophyll chloroplast
impervious to gaseous exchange and no intercellular spaces. Only C3 pathway is performed by perform C4 cycle and bundle
mesophyll chloroplast. sheath chloroplast perform C3
cycle.
4. Primary CO2 acceptor is RuBP (5C). 4. PEP (3C)
5. CO2 fixing enzyme is RuBisCO. 5. PEP carboxylase
6. The first stable product of CO2
6. 4C-OAA.
fixation is 3C-PGA
7. Photorespiratory loss is high. 7. Absent or Negligible
8. Optimum temp. for
0 8. About 35-450C.
photosynthesis is 20-25 C.
They tolerate higher temperatures
They show a response to high light intensities FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
They lack photorespiration and hence have greater productivity of  Internal (plant) factors:-
biomass.  The number, size, age and orientation of leaves, mesophyll
cells and chloroplasts,
It has 4 stages:- Carboxylation, Transportation, decarboxylation
 Internal CO2 concentration
and again a transportation.
 The amount of chlorophyll.
i) Carboxylation of PEP
CO2 is accepted by 3-C molecule phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP)  External factors:-
present in the mesophyll cells by the enzyme PEP carboxylase  Availability of sunlight
(PEPcase) to form C4 acid OAA.  CO2 concentration
 Temperature
ii) Transportation  Water
It then forms other 4-C compounds like malic acid or aspartic acid
(narrow compound which can be easily transported through
plasmodesmata) in the mesophyll cells, which are transported to the - Blackman‟s Law of Limiting Factors: If a chemical process is
bundle sheath cells. affected by more than one factor, then its rate will be determined
iii) Decarboxylation by the factor which is nearest to its minimal value: it is the factor
In the bundle sheath cells these C4 acids are broken down to release which directly affects the process if its quantity is changed.
CO2 and a 3-C molecule.
The CO2 released in the bundle sheath cells enters the C3 pathway.
iv) Transportation
The 3-C molecule is transported back to the mesophyll where it is
converted to PEP again.
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