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Ryotwari System and

Mahalwari System -
For UPSC

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Ryotwari and Mahalwari Systems were the land revenue System introduced in India by the British.
Under the Ryotwari and Mahalwari Systems, the Indian peasants were forced to pay part of their
produce as land taxes. India was holding a prominent place in the fields of agriculture and cottage
industries. With the coming of British, the entire trade and agrarian sectors lost their prominence
and were destroyed. British levied heavy taxes on Indians to meet their administrative and war ex-
penses.

Land Revenue System Before British India

• Though Ryotwari System and Mahalwari Systems were introduced later, the collection of
land revenue existed from ancient times.
• Revenue made out of lands was an important source of income for the kings.
• Mostly the lands were divided into Jagirs and Jagirdars were allotted these Jagirs.
• These Jagirdars in turn divided the land further and allocated them to Zamindars.
• These Zamindars were responsible for collecting the land revenue from the peasants which
was mostly a part of their produce.
• The land revenue System of Mughals was widely followed in the country. They had three
types of Systems - Ghalla Bakshi, Kankut and Zabti System.

Land Revenue System in British India

The British adopted three types of land revenue Systems. They are:
1. Zamindari System
2. Ryotwari System
3. Mahalwari System

Zamindari System
• This System was introduced in India by Lord Cornwallis through a Permanent Settlement
Act.
• In the Zamindari System, the Zamindar was recognised as the land owner and this owner-
ship was made hereditary.
• Zamindar acted as an intermediate between the King and the peasants.
• The sum to be paid by the Zamindar to the King was fixed in perpetuity.
• Zamindar had to give 10/11 of the revenue collected from the peasants to the King and 1/11
was his share.
• Even in the case of crop failure, the revenue had to be paid to the King by Zamindar. If the
tax was not paid on time, then the Zamindar’s property was confiscated by the King.
• It was practised in the provinces of Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and Varanasi.
• Later the Zamindari System was abolished and the British opted for the Ryotwari System.

Issues with Zamindari System

• Zamindars were free to set the rent. They made use of this provision and levied heavy taxes
on peasants.
• Zamindars even employed subordinates to collect the rent. This in turn increased the num-
ber of intermediaries.
• These intermediaries too began to levy taxes and made their profit. This pushed the peas-
ants to further distress.
• The peasants were reduced to mere tenants and their ownership was deprived.
• The cultivators borrowed money from money lenders to pay their taxes.
• The Zamindari System created a class of landless agriculturists and money lenders.

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Ryotwari System
• The Ryotwari System was devised by Sir Thomas Munro and Captain Alexander Reed.
• However, the Ryotwari System was introduced by Sir Thomas Munro in India.
• Unlike the Zamindari System, there was no intermediary between the king and the peasants.
• A direct settlement link was established between the king and the cultivator.
• The peasants were recognised as sole proprietors of the land and they had complete right to
sell, cultivate or lease the land.
• Under the Ryotwari System the cultivators were known as the ryots.
• The tax rates were fixed high. It was 50% for dry lands and 60% for wetlands.
• Ryotwari settlement was not a permanent system and the rates were revised periodically af-
ter every 20 or 30 years
• This system was practised mostly in Bombay and Madras.

Issues with Ryotwari System

• In the Ryotwari System, the tax rate was very high and only a bare minimum was left in the
hands of the Ryots.
• The cultivators depended on the money lenders to pay their tax.
• The money lenders levied high interest rates and exploited the cultivators. In case of loan
default, the land was confiscated.
• Assessment of the crops was one of the major drawbacks.
• Peasants were forced to pay taxes even during times of crop failure.
• The tax rate was periodically revised and increased as per the demands.

Mahalwari System
• The Mahalwari System was devised by Holt Mackenzie and was introduced under William
Benthick.
• This system was a modified form of the Zamindari System.
• This system was introduced in the parts of North West Frontier Province, Punjab, Gangetic
valley and Central Province.
• In the Mahalwari settlement, the land in the entire village belonged jointly to the village com-
munity.
• The Mahal was either a single village or group of villages and the village headman of that
particular Mahal was responsible for collecting and settling the land revenue.
• The village headman divided the tax among the villagers who made their share in land reve-
nue.
• The individual peasants had the ownership right over their land.

Issues with Mahalwari System

• In Mahalwari System, the revenue demands were high and was maintained between 50% to
75%
• It was difficult for the peasants to pay high tax as the lands were fragmented and thus they
fell in the trap of money lenders.
• The practise of sub leasing became more common during the Mahalwari System.

Comparison of the Land Revenue Systems

Zamindari System Ryotwari System Mahalwari System

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The Zamindari System was The Ryotwari System was The Mahalwari System was de-
introduced by Lord Cornwal- introduced by Thomas vised by Holt Mackenzie in 1822
lis in 1793. Munro in 1820. and introduced in India by Lord
William Benthick in 1833.

The land revenue was col- The land revenue was paid The land revenue was collected
lected by the intermediaries directly by the peasants. by the village headman from all
known as Zamindars from the peasants in that village.
the peasants.

Zamindars were made the Peasants had the owner- Peasants had the ownership over
owners of the land. ship over the land. the land.

The revenue to be collected The revenue to be col- The revenue to be collected was
was fixed permanently. lected was revised periodi- revised periodically.
cally.

This system was prevalent This system was prevalent This system was prevalent in the
in the provinces of Bengal, in Madras, Bombay and in North west frontier province, Pun-
Orissa, Bihar and Varanasi some part of Assam and jab, Gangetic valley and central
Coorg province

Apart from the Ryotwari, Mahalwari and Zamindari Systems, the British also introduced Talukdari
and Malguzari Systems. Thus it is evident that the British levied taxes at a high rate to the natives
in order to run their administration. As a result of British land revenue systems, the land became a
commodity resulting in a class of labourers known as bonded labourers. Bound to their land till the
end, the peasants struggled to make ends meet under these land revenue systems imposed by the
British.

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Ryotwari and Mahalwari Systems UPSC FAQs

Q1. What were the various land revenue systems adopted by the British in India?
A1. The land revenue systems adopted by the British in India are the Zamindari System, the Ryot-
wari System and the Mahalwari System.

Q2. Who introduced the Ryotwari System?

A2. The Ryotwari System was devised by Thomas Munro and Captain Alexander Reed. But it was
Thomas Munro who introduced this System in India.

Q3. What were the main features of the Ryotwari settlement?

A3. The main features of the Ryotwari System is that in this System there was no intermediary be-
tween the King and the cultivators as in the zamindari System. The peasants were recognised as

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the owner of the land. The tax was levied at a rate of 50% for dry lands and 60% for wetlands. The
tax was revised periodically for every twenty to thirty years.

Q4. What are the features of the Mahalwari System?

A4. The main features of the Mahalwari System are as follows : was merely the replica of the za-
mindari System, lands in the village were considered as a single unit and the village headman was
responsible for collecting the taxes and paying the king.

Q5. What are the disadvantages of the Ryotwari System?

A5. The disadvantages of the Ryotwari System are as follows : High tax rate, assessment of crops,
compulsion to pay the tax even in case of crop failure, the money lenders exploited the cultivators
and confiscated their lands, the tax rate was increased periodically as per the demand.

Q6. Who implemented the Zamindari System in India?

A6. The zamindari System was implemented by Lord Cornwallis under the permanent settlement
act. It was introduced in the provinces of Bengal, Varanasi, Bihar and Orissa.

Q7. Who are the Ryots?

A7. In the Ryotwari System the cultivators were known as the Ryots.

Q8. What is Mahal?

A8. In the Mahalwari System, the term Mahal means either a village or group of villages. Taxes
were collected and settled mahal by mahal by the respective village headman.