1.

1 COHESION AND COHERENCE

Cohesion
 Relates to how words and sentences stick together and make sense
 The flow of sentences and paragraphs from one to another tying together
 Achieved through using four methods: reference words, repeated words/ideas, transition signals, and substitution

Coherence

 Happens when sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, and the readers can follow easily
 The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly

Ways to Make Paragraph Cohesive and Coherent

1. Reference Words/Pronouns
 Words that do not make sense on their own
 Refer to something else in the text or can stand in for any given noun

Examples: These, this, that, those, it, they, them, he, she, which

Poor Sentence: Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. Cohesion can help ensure that your writing coheres or stick together.

Better: Cohesion is an important feature of academic writing. It can help ensure that your writing coheres or stick together.

Poor Sentence: Lucy plays piano. Lucy is very talented.

Better: Lucy plays piano. She is very talented.

2. Repeated Words/Ideas
 Synonyms are particularly used.
 These are different words that represent same idea.

Example:

Myths narrate sacred histories and explain sacred origins. These traditional narratives are, in short, a set of beliefs that are very real force in the lives of
the people who tell them.

3. Pronouns
 Referring back to something previously mentioned
 Useful pronouns are this, that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and we

Example:

When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they are often considered failures until some other scientists tries them again. Those that work
out better the second time around are the ones that promise the most rewards.

4. Transitional Words
 Words that cue the readers to relationships between sentences, joining sentences together.

Example:

I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year, too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and the weather is mild, but I can’t help thinking ahead of
the winter and the ice storms that will surely blow through here. In addition, that will be the season of chapped faces, too many layers of clothes to put on, and days
when I’ll have to shovel heaps of snow from my car’s windshield
Ways to Make Paragraph Cohesive and Coherent

1. Repetition is allowed specifically the repetition of key ideas but not the repetition of non-essential ones.
2. It is vital to use variety of synonyms and pronouns.
3. Transitional words are important to make the transitions of the ideas smooth.

Read and study the paragraph below.

Ms. Marie F. Delos Reyes is a cancer survivor. Ms. Delos Reyes was diagnosed last May 2021 of breast cancer. Cancerous cells were found in her right
breast. Ms. Delos Reyes was advised by her doctors to undergo mastectomy and so she did undergo an operation. Ms. Delos Reyes underwent an anti-cancerous
treatment of chemotherapy and radiation for her breast cancer that lasted for almost a year. She survived the treatment. Ms. Delos Reyes continues an anti-cancerous
maintenance pill. Ms. Delos Reyes hopes to enjoy her life and continue her passion of teaching.

The Problem: Noticed that Ms. Delos Reyes, cancer, cancerous, treatment, are used little too much. There is also no smooth flow of ideas as the sentences do not have
transitional words. Hence, this makes the paragraph difficult to grasp.

Solution:

Ms. Marie F. Delos Reyes is a cancer survivor. (Ms. Delos Reyes) She was diagnosed last May 2021 (of breast cancer). Cancerous cells were found in her
right breast. Ms. Delos Reyes was advised by her doctors to undergo mastectomy and so she did undergo an operation. (Ms. Delos Reyes) She underwent an anti-
cancerous treatment of chemotherapy and radiation for her breast cancer that lasted for almost a year. Although She survived the treatment. (Ms. Delos Reyes) she
continues (an anti-cancerous) maintenance pill. Now (Ms. Delos Reyes) she hopes to enjoy her life and continue her passion of teaching.

Better:

Ms. Marie F. Delos Reyes is a cancer survivor. She was diagnosed last May 2021. The doctors found cancerous cells in her right breast and immediately
advised her to undergo mastectomy. After the operation, she underwent chemotherapy and radiation that lasted for almost a year. Although she survived the treatment,
she continues a maintenance pill. Now she hopes to enjoy her life and continue her passion of teaching

2.2 USING INFORMATIVE WRITING TECHNIQUES

An informative text educates readers about a topic or subject. It is meant to inform others using credible sources as evidence – facts, statistics, and other research data.
Informative texts usually answer the five Ws: who, where, when, what, and why. Sometimes, they also describe “how” to do or accomplish something.

When choosing a topic for informative writing, focus on a specific topic. Consider the topic that is not too broad or too narrow. A topic is too broad if you cannot
explain it in one or two pages. For example, you cannot choose special education as the topic because it has a big scope. Rather, you can be more specific and select
causes of hearing-impairment as your topic. On the other hand, a topic is too narrow when it is very simple and can be explained in a sentence or a short paragraph.

Just like any type of writing, informative texts follow a structure – the introduction, body, and conclusion.
5. The introduction
Grabbing the attention of readers is part of the beginning - formally known as introduction. It is where the thesis statement is found. The thesis statement is considered
the most essential part of informative writing. According to Kristina Barroso in her article “Informative Writing Techniques”, the thesis statement is known as the road
map of an informative text because the whole essay is built around it. The thesis sentence is a sentence that summarizes the entire essay.
Aside from stating the thesis statement, writers introduce the main idea, provide definition for difficult words/concepts, and give a short description on what will be
discussed.

6. The body
The body or the middle part is where the thesis statement is fully explained. Evidence such as facts, statistics, statements from experts, and other supporting details are
found in this section. This section requires citing sources of information. The evidence presented will be the basis if the information is reliable, accurate, and unbiased.

7. The conclusion
The conclusion reiterates the thesis statement and summarizes the main points of the informative text. No new evidence must be presented at this point because all ideas
must have already been discussed in the body.

Tone, clarity (being clear) and transition words

Aside from the structure, other features and techniques of informative writing need to be considered. First is tone or attitude of the author toward the topic. The attitude
of the author toward the topic should always be formal, objective, and neutral. As mentioned above, informative writing is fact-based - biased information is
unacceptable. The writer’s opinion and beliefs do not have a place in informative writing. Second, always be specific. Provide clear answers to the five Ws and one H of
the topic you are writing about. Employ language that is clear, formal, and unbiased. Also, do not forget to use transitional words (discussed in previous modules) for
organized and smooth flow of ideas. In doing so, readers can get a better understanding of the information they read.
Informative essays vary in length, but all good informative pieces are a product of an application of several writing techniques. Below are some of the best
tips/techniques to help you write an excellent informative text.
1. Open with an attention grabber and conclude with a summary of the main points of the essay.
2. Use appropriate transitional words to ensure the logical flow of ideas.
3. Observe formal tone.
4. Utilize proper language and applicable vocabulary to the topic. Similarly, avoid biased language.
5. Make use of formatting, nonlinear texts such as flowcharts, graphs, graphic organizers, and digital texts with hyperlinks when needed.

Example of Informative Text

How to Email your Teachers

The new normal has limited face-to-face interactions, which is why people shifted to sending emails and chats to transact business. This also has become the set-up
even in the educational setting; teachers, learners, and parents communicate with one another through chat or email.
However, while this medium is more efficient, this could disrupt the communication process especially if the message is not clearly and coherently. The learner may not
be aware that emails and chats are also formal correspondence and ends up sending friendly and informal messages to his teachers. The result? Seen-zoned messages,
without reply. To avoid miscommunication, follow these email tips, rules, and examples outlined by educator Katie Azevedo.
First, enter a subject line (for email). This tells the receiver if the message is important, urgent, work-related and whatnot. Secondly, use a proper greeting or salutation
just like you do in business letters. Next, introduce yourself by stating your name and your class or section. This is necessary since teachers have hundreds of students to
attend to.
After these preliminaries state your concern, preferably by starting with an overview sentence. Keep it short and simple, and remind yourself to use appropriate
language; jokes, sarcasm, and emojis are not necessary.

Lastly, thank your teacher and close out the email or chat. Remember not to demand an immediate reply.
These tips and rules send a message that you only mean business; hence you are likely to get the answers you are seeking. This is not just a school-skill; this will be
applicable even when you will be applying for a job or when you are emailing or sending chats to your boss.
Emails and chats are indeed an effective and efficient forms of communication, especially if done correctly, simply, and respectfully.

Prescribed structure and conventions in informative writing

 It started with a relatable scenario and ended with a repeat of the thesis statement.
 It utilized transitional words such as ‘however, first, second, next, after, lastly.’
 The tone is generally formal, but it becomes conversational in parts where the essay shifts to a second person point of view.
 The language used is simple and appropriate for the target audience – students.
 There aren’t any graphics or visuals, but they are not really necessary considering the length of the essay and the topic. However, in online platforms, this essay
could be presented in a bullet list with and with other nonlinear texts.

USING PERSUASIVE AND ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING TECHNIQUES

Persuasive writing is a type of writing that aims at convincing people to think, feel, or to act in the writer’s way. Persuasive texts may be in the form of essays in books,
articles in newspapers and magazines, posters and, of course, advertisements. All these forms of persuasion try to get the readers to agree or to take an action.
A persuasive writing usually contains a) the writer’s opinion, which he/she wants the readers to accept; b) evidence or information to support the writer’s opinion; c) the
action that the writer wants the readers to do.
Persuasive writing is so common that it seems easy to do, but the writing process is not as simple as just sharing an opinion. The writer needs to combine thorough
research with good word choice in order to make his opinions believable and get the readers to agree with him. That is the ultimate goal, and this is why persuasive
writing is powerful.

Here are some of the effective and commonly used persuasive techniques used by writers to achieve their purpose:
1. Rhetorical Question. This is a question that is not intended to be answered. Instead, it is meant to state the obvious, or to challenge the readers and to make them
think. For example: Wouldn’t you do everything to make your family happy?
2. Repetition. Repeating key words or phrases will likely make readers remember them.
3. Bandwagon. This is the technique that would convince a reader to believe in an idea because the majority or everybody else believes it’s true. For example: Nine out
of 10 students got higher grades because of the modular learning setup.
4. Appeal to Emotion. The use of emotive language can help sway the readers to side with the writer or to do what he says. For example: Be thankful that you have
more than what you need. Other children do not even have a roof above their head, but they study harder than anyone.
5. Appeal to Authority. The writer needs to establish himself as an authority in the topic he is writing about by using facts, figures, and other proofs that would support
his opinions or claims.

From these techniques mentioned, it is evident that the writer would usually use a passionate, personal or emotional tone when addressing the readers. Take note also
that writers usually use two or more of these techniques when composing a persuasive text to add impact to their statements, but they should first know their audience
or target readers in order to identify the best techniques that would work. For instance, when writing to persuade a group of professionals, emotive language may not
work as effective as it would to a group of teenagers.

Structure of Persuasive Writing

One paragraph introduction

that presents the topic and the
writer’s stand or opinion
about it.

At least one body paragraph

that presents further
explanation, as well as
evidence or proof that would
support the writer’s opinion

USING ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING TECHNIQUES

One concluding paragraph that summarizes or
Argumentative writing is a type of writing wherein the writer aims
repeats theatopinion,
presenting an issue
or calls (be it scientific,
the reader to political, social, etc.) and then taking side or making a stand,
which he will have to support by giving proof or evidence. This action
task requires
based onthat theopinion
that writer read about the topic and research about evidence (e.g., statistics, statement
of experts, legal documents).
As mentioned in earlier, it is quite similar with persuasive writing in some aspects, but argumentative texts adopt a fair, formal and reasonable tone; hence, emotive
appeal do not play a significant role here. In terms of structure, argumentative essays should have a straightforward structure, so they are easy for readers to follow.

Structure of Argumentative writing

4. Conclusion – This is a one-paragraph part that restates your thesis and summarizes all of the arguments. Here,
no other arguments should be introduced anymore.

3. Counterargument – This paragraph is still part of the body, but it is reserved for acknowledging opposing claims
and then refuting them to further support your side or stance.
 2. Body paragraphs – This part comprises at least three paragraphs that contains reasons and evidence (such as
examples, research, statistics, statements from an authority, etc.) that back up your claim.

1. Introductory paragraph – This part should provide an outline of the topic, the background information needed
to understand your argument, the evidence you will present, and your thesis statement. (A thesis statement is a
clear, concise, one-sentence summary of your main point and claim.)
To make sure that the content of each paragraph has substance, here are some argumentative writing techniques or tips outlined from Sarikas (2019) and other
sources:
4. Make your thesis crystal clear. Readers should be able to pinpoint immediate what your thesis statement is; otherwise, it would make your essay weak. Make it
stand out by putting it in the first paragraph of your essay.

5. Use evidence to support your side. For every point that you make, make sure you have facts to back it up. This not only makes your essay stronger, but it also
helps you build your authority or credibility as a writer.

6. Show why the other side is weak. The best argumentative essays are not that focuses only on their side but those that present opposing arguments and then
countering them. This tells the reader that the writer has really considered all sides and found out which is better.

7. Use logical connectors. Knowing the right words or phrases to use plays an important part in making sure that all the contents of the essay are organized.
Therefore, make sure to use where appropriate some logical connectors such as however, on the other hand, consequently, therefore, and so on.

3.3 CITATION

What is a citation and citation style?

A citation is a way of giving credit to individuals for their creative and intellectual works that you utilized to support your research. It can also be used to locate
particular sources and combat plagiarism. Typically, a citation can include the author's name, date, location of the publishing company, journal title, or DOI (Digital
Object Identifier).

A citation style dictates the information necessary for a citation and how the information is ordered, as well as punctuation and other formatting.

How to do I choose a citation style?

There are many different ways of citing resources from your research. The citation style sometimes depends on the academic discipline involved. For example:

8. APA (American Psychological Association) is used by Education, Psychology, and Sciences

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6 th ed.)

American Management Association. (2010). The AMA handbook of business writing: The ultimate guide to style, grammar, usage, punctuation, construction,
and formatting. New York, NY: Author.
(Book with an organization as author / Book with a subtitle / Book where the author is also the publisher)

Beck, M. (2015, December 4). Why (most) businesses stay small [Blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.womenonbusiness.com/businesses-stay-small/
(Blog post)

Chironga, M., Dahl, J., & Sonnekus, M. (2012). Small enterprises offer large potential for global banks. McKinsey Quarterly, (3), 26-27. Retrieved from
http://www.mckinseyquarterly.com/home.aspx
(Article with three authors / Article with only an issue number, no volume number / Article without DOI—URL of journal home page used)

Code of ethics. (2011). In V. L. Burton (Ed.), Encyclopedia of small business (4 th ed., Vol. 1,pp. 235- 237). Detroit, MI: Gale.
(Entry in an edited reference book / Entry with no author / Book with an edition other
than the first / Book with multiple volumes)

Covey, S. M. R. (n.d.). How the best leaders build trust. Retrieved from http://www.leadershipnow.com/CoveyOnTrust.html
(Informally published web document / No publication date)

Drew, J. (2015). How to win the game of talent. Journal of Accountancy, 220 (4), 28-35. Retrieved from http://www.journalofaccountancy.com/
(Article in a journal with separate paging / Article without DOI—URL of journal home
page used)

Einhorn, B. (2015, December 7). From outsourcing to consulting. Bloomberg Businessweek, (4454), 43- 44.
(Article in a weekly magazine / Article with only an issue number—no volume number)

Fitzgerald, J. (Producer), & Scionka, S. (Director). (2007). The call of the entrepreneur [DVD]. Available from http://www.acton.org/media/
(Video in DVD format)

Focus on risk assessment standards. (2015). Journal of Accountancy, 220 (6), 16. Retrieved from http://www.journalofaccountancy.com/
(Article with no author / Article in a journal with separate paging / Article without DOI—
URL of journal home page used)

George, B., & Sims, P. (2007). True north: Discover your authentic leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
(Book with two authors / Title with a subtitle)

Hurley, R. (2011, October 24). Leadership: Human resources – Trust me: Companies spend a lot of time focusing on ethical behavior; But that’s not where the
crisis is. Wall Street Journal, p. R4.
(Newspaper article / Title with multiple subtitles)

KQED QUEST science video podcast [Video podcast]. (2009, October 13). Retrieved from http://www.kqed.org/quest/
(Video podcast / No author listed)

REMINDERS:
When citing a secondary source, include in the reference list only the source in which
the secondary work was discussed.

For example:
Yang, Y. T., & Nichols, L. M. (2011). Obesity and health system reform: Private vs. public responsibility. Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics, 39 , 380-386.
In-text:
Roberto, Schwartz, and Brownell (2009) observed that when menu labels are prominently displayed, customers will, with some regularity, select food and with fewer
calories (as cited in Yang & Nichols, 2011).

Emails, telephone conversations, correspondence, memos, interviews, etc. do not have entries in a reference list because they do not provide recoverable data. However,
they do need to be cited in text listing the person’s name and the specific date.
Examples:
Technology is only as good as the people who use it (M. Davis, personal communication,
March 13, 2010).
Mark Davis (personal communication, March 13, 2010) noted that technology is only as
good as the people who use it.

When citing from the Bible, a reference list entry is not required--only an in-text citation is needed that includes the version of the Bible used
Example:
Deuteronomy 25:15 (New International Version)

APA 7th Citation Examples

Material Type In-text Citation Bibliography

A book (Sapolsky, 2017) Sapolsky, R. M. (2017). Behave: The biology of humans at

our best and worst. Penguin Books.

Chapter in an edited book (Dillard, 2020) Dillard, J. P. (2020). Currents in the study of persuasion. In
M. B. Oliver, A. A. Raney, & J. Bryant (Eds.), Media
(If the chapter is from an authored book, use the
effects: Advances in theory and research (4th ed., pp. 115–
book citation)
129). Routledge.

An article in a print journal (Weinstein, 2009) Weinstein, J. (2009). “The market in Plato’s
Republic.” Classical Philology, 104(4), 439-458.

An article in an electronic journal
(Grady et al., 2019) Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez, C., & Yelinek, J.
(2019). Emotions in storybooks: A comparison of
storybooks that represent ethnic and racial groups in the
United States. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 8(3),
207–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000185

A website (Bologna, 2019) Bologna, C. (2019, October 31). Why some people with
anxiety love watching horror movies.
HuffPost. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/anxiety-love-
watching-horror-movies_l_5d277587e4b02a5a5d57b

9. MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used by the Humanities

Examples of MLA Style

In-text Citation

Material Type In-text Citation

Author's name in text Magny develops this argument (67-69).

Author's name in reference This argument has been developed elsewhere (Magny 67-69).

Two authors' names in reference The most notorious foreign lobby in Washington is the "Sugar Mafia" (Howe and Trott 134).

Quotation found in indirect or "secondhand" source The philosopher Alain states that "admiration is not pleasure but a kind of attention. . ." (qtd. in Magny 66).

10. Chicago/Turabian style is generally used by Business, History, and the Fine Arts

Chicago is a documentation style that has been published by the Chicago University Press since 1906. This citation style incorporates rules of grammar and
punctuation common in American English. Typically, Chicago style presents two basic documentation systems: (1) notes and bibliography and (2) author-date.
Choosing between the two often depends on subject matter and the nature of sources cited, as each system is favored by different groups of scholars.

The notes and bibliography style is preferred by many in the humanities, including those in literature, history, and the arts. This style presents bibliographic
information in notes and, often, a bibliography.

Material Type Notes/Bibliography Style

A book in print Note Style: 1. Michael Pollan, The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals (New York: Penguin, 2006),
99–100.
 Duplicate Note: 2. Pollan, Omnivore's Dilemma, 3.

Bibliography: Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals. New York: Penguin, 2006.

An article in a print journal Note Style: 1. Joshua I. Weinstein, "The Market in Plato’s Republic," Classical Philology 104 (2009): 440.

Duplicate Note: 2. Weinstein, "Plato’s Republic," 452–53.

Bibliography: Weinstein, Joshua I. "The Market in Plato’s Republic." Classical Philology 104 (2009): 439–58.

An article in an electronic journal Note Style: 1. Gueorgi Kossinets and Duncan J. Watts, “Origins of Homophily in an Evolving Social
Network,” American Journal of Sociology 115 (2009): 411, accessed February 28, 2010, doi:10.1086/599247.

Duplicate Note: Kossinets and Watts, “Origins of Homophily,” 439.

Bibliography: Kossinets, Gueorgi, and Duncan J. Watts. “Origins of Homophily in an Evolving Social
Network.” American Journal of Sociology 115 (2009): 405–50. Accessed February 28, 2010. doi:10.1086/599247.

A website Note Style: 1.“Google Privacy Policy,” last modified March 11, 2009,
http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.

Duplicate Note: “Google Privacy Policy.”

Bibliography: Google. “Google Privacy Policy.” Last modified March 11, 2009.
http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF A CITATION/BIBLIOGRAPHY?

A bibliography is an abbreviated statement of essential information--such as author, title of the book, and publishing information--about a source that you have
consulted while researching a paper. This information is usually found on the title page and verso (back, of the title page) of the source. All of the sources that you
consult are listed at the end of the paper so that the reader can refer to them for further research on your particular topic. Therefore, all sources that you read for
background, even those that you did not directly cite in your paper, should be included.

HOW SHOULD BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION BE PRESENTED?

The bibliography is the last page(s) of your research paper. Punctuation must be precise. The author’s name, the title, and the publishing information are all set apart by
periods. As in English grammar, the next word following a period is capitalized. Bibliographic entries are listed alphabetically. Generally, the first word of the entry is
the author’s last name. Occasionally, there is no author; then, the first word in the entry is the first word of the title. If the first word in the title is an article, e.g. “The”,
“A”, or “An”, alphabetize by the second word (i.e. The Medieval Society would be alphabetized as though it reads Medieval Society). In order for the alphabetical
arrangement to be clearly seen, indent five spaces for each line after the first.