PHYSICAL SCIENCES

GRADE 12

PAPER 1

(CHEMISTRY FOCUS)
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
CHEMICAL CHANGE
22-23 SEPTEMBER 2023
 ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
 LOW HANGING FRUITS : ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
1. Definitions – e.g. hydrocarbons, saturated, unsaturated, isomers,
boiling points, melting points, vapour pressure etc
2. Drawing structural formulae, molecular formulae etc
3. Iupac naming.
4. Explaining the effect of physical properties on boiling point,
vapour pressure.
5. Identifying the type of intermolecular forces
6. Types of organic reactions (saturated to unsaturated, Unsaturated
to saturated, saturated to saturated)
LIMPOPO
LIMPOPO
 ORGANIC MOLECULES – CONCEPTS CHECK
ORGANIC NOMENCLATURE

Learners must be able to explain and discuss Organic molecular structures –

functional groups, saturated and unsaturated structures, isomers (i.e. restrict isomers
to Positional Isomers, Chain Isomers and Functional Isomers) and IUPAC
naming and formulae condensed structural formulae, structural formulae and
molecular formulae (up to 8 carbon atoms, one functional group per molecule) for:

❖ Alkanes (no ring structures)

❖ Alkenes (no ring structures)
❖ Alkynes
❖ Halo-alkanes (primary, secondary and tertiary haloalkanes; no ring structures)
❖ Alcohols (primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols)
❖ Carboxylic acids
❖ Esters
❖ Aldehydes
❖ Ketones
 What learners must know: ( In conjunction with CAPS)
1. Naming of compounds with
functional groups alkanes,
alkenes, alkynes, alkyl
halides, aldehydes, ketones,
alcohols, carboxylic acids and
esters, up to a maximum of 8
Carbon-atoms in parent (longest)
chain.
2. Write down the IUPAC name when
given the structural formula or
condensed structural formula for
compounds from the homologous
series above, restricted to one
functional group per compound,
except for haloalkanes.
3. For haloalkanes,
maximum two functional
groups per molecule.
4. Write down the
structural formula when
given the IUPAC name for
the above homologous
series.
5. Identify alkyl
substituents (methyl- and
ethyl-) in a chain to a
maximum of THREE alkyl
substituents on the parent
chain.
Types of Formulae Summary

General formula:
Describes homologous
series e.g. CnH2n+2

Molecular formula:
Structural formula: Molecular formula
H H H Different e.g.C3H8
formulae:
│ │ │
H–C–C–C–H
Condensed structural formula:
│ │ │
CH3 – CH2 - CH3
H H H

8
 Isomers
Isomers: organic compounds with the same chemical formula, but differing structural formulae are
called isomers.
There are three types of isomers
• chain isomers: same number of atoms of each type, but
different types of chains …

• positional isomers: the side chain, functional group or substituent is in a different position on
the parent chain...

• functional isomers: different

functional groups …

C2H4O2: methyl methanoate and ethanoic acid

 Types of Carbon Atoms

Types of Carbon Atoms …

• primary carbon – any carbon atom attached to only one other carbon atom in
an organic molecule is called a primary carbon
• secondary carbon – when a carbon atom is attached to two other carbon atoms
• tertiary carbon – when a carbon atom is attached to three other carbon atoms

Substituent

• A substituent is an atom or group of atoms bonded to a carbon chain.

• This can be an inorganic atom (e.g. halogen) or an alkyl group that is shorter than the main group.
Often denoted by R, or R’
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• When discussing intermolecular forces, the concepts atoms, molecules and ions
should be revised.
• Emphasise the difference between bonds between atoms in molecules
(intramolecular) and forces between molecules (intermolecular) and that the
strength of intermolecular forces are responsible for the different phases.
Interatomic or intramolecular forces, which are much stronger than intermolecular
forces, are formed/broken during chemical reactions when new compounds are
formed. Intermolecular forces are overcome (not broken) during phase changes.
• When writing explanations related to physical properties of compound, learners
should be taught to follow the following steps:
❑ Comparing two compounds from the same homologous series:
✓ Compare the surface areas of the molecules.
✓ Compare the strength of intermolecular forces.
✓ Compare the energy needed to overcome intermolecular forces.
❑ Comparing two compounds from different homologous series:
✓ State the type of intermolecular force in each compound.
✓ Compare the strength of these intermolecular forces.
✓ Compare the energy needed to overcome intermolecular forces.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Ensure that learners know the different types of intermolecular forces when
comparing boiling points of compounds from different homologous series and
can compare the strength of these forces.
ORGANIC MOLECULES PART 2–CONCEPTS CHECK – PROMATHS PREP
EXAM P2 2022
16
17
 Reactions and properties of organic molecules
1. Sufficient O2.
Reactions of organic molecules: Products:
Combustion
CO2 + H2O + Energy
2. Insufficient O2.
Products:
Substitution CO + H2O + Energy
Hydrolysis
Elimination

Halogenation:
Addition
With halogen
1. Dehydrogenation or cracking: Elimination
of H2.
Catalyst: Pt
1. Hydrogenation with H2.
2. Dehydrohalogenation:
Catalyst: Pt, Pd or Ni
Elimination of HX in alcoholic NaOH or
2. Hydrohalogenation with HX.
KOH.
X = halogen
3. Dehalogenation: Elimination of a
3. Halogenation with halogen.
halogen from a haloalkane
4. Hydration with H2O. 4. Dehydration:
Catalyst: H2SO4 Elimination of H2O from alcohol.

18
What learners must know?
• Identify the types of reactions that different Functional Groups undergo.
• Explain what happens during each type of reaction.
• Compare the reactivity of different Functional Groups/ Homologous Series.

Know that:
HALOALKANES undergo:
ALKANES undergo:
➢ Elimination reactions.
➢ Combustion (or oxidations) reactions.
➢ Substitution reactions
➢ Elimination reactions.
➢ Substitution reactions
ALCOHOLS undergo:
ALKENES undergo:
➢ Combustion (or oxidations) reactions.
➢ Combustion (or oxidations) reactions. ➢ Elimination reactions.
➢ Addition reactions ➢ Substitution reactions.
➢ Esterification.
ALKYNES undergo:
➢ Combustion (or oxidation) reactions.
NB: Give an example of each reaction mentioned above
➢ Addition reactions (no longer examinable).
and the specific conditions.
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS – GRADES 10 -12
✓ MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS can be a powerful tool to assess learners’ understanding of
concepts (if used properly).

✓ Use these MULTIPLE- CHOICE QUESTIONS to address ALL key aspects and concepts in
CHEMISTRY, as outlined in the Examination Guidelines.

Do NOT focus on the correct answers ONLY.

✓ Make sure to develop learners’ skills in the answering of multiplechoice questions. In cases where the
answer is not immediately obvious, learners should go through steps of eliminating obviously incorrect
answers.
NB: Please note that there will always be TWO statements or items that are obviously wrong.
Eliminate them first.

✓ Learners must learn theory. There are obvious definitions statement/theories/laws/ principles/ processes
that must be learnt [as stated in the Examination Guideline 2021].

✓ Learners must learn the laws, definitions and principles. These are ‘easy marks’ for learners to get.

N.B. Two marks are awarded for a correct definition/ law/ principle. No marks are available
for an incorrect or partially correct definition. (In 2020 and 2022 NSC, 60% of MC questions
came from 3 topics (Reaction Rates, Chemical Equilibrium and Organic Molecules, as shown in
the next slides). THE other 4 MC Items come from Acids and Bases x2 and Electrochemistry x2 .
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS – From 2020 NSC EXAM
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS – From 2021 NSC
EXAM
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS – From NOV 2022 NSC
EXAM
ORGANIC MOLECULES PART 1 –CONCEPTS CHECK – PROMATHS PREP
EXAM P2 2022
ORGANIC MOLECULES PART 2–CONCEPTS CHECK – PROMATHS PREP
EXAM P2 2022
 ENERGY
CHANGES and
REACTION
MECHANISM
 LOW HANGING FRUITS : ENERGY CHANGES AND REACTION RATE
1. Definitions – Exothermic and Endothermic, activation energy,
activated complex, enthalpy change, catalyst. Rate of reactions
2. Drawing and interpreting the energy graphs
3. Effect of a catalyst on both graphs
4. Collision theory
5. Identification of factors from a reaction
6. Explaining factors affecting rate of reaction, using the collision
theory
7. Calculating rate of reaction from-statements,tables and graphs
8. Stoichiometric calculations
9. Maxwell Boltzmann energy distribution curve
RATE OF REACTION LIMPOPO
2023
 What is rate of reaction?
A(s) + B(aq) → C(aq) + D(g
change in mass of A mA 1 − mA0
Rate of reaction = = OR
change in time t1 − t0

change in concentration of B [B1 ] − [ B0 ]

Rate of reaction = = OR
change in time t1 − t0

change in concentration of C [C1 ] − [C 0 ]

Rate of reaction = = OR
change in time t1 − t0

change in volume of D (at STP) VD1 − VD0

Rate of reaction = change in time
= t1 − t0
How concentration changes: reaction: P → Q :

Graph of concentration of P versus Graph of concentration of Q

time versus time

[Q]
[P]
A

tA tB t t

The curve shows: •Reaction rate is greatest where the gradient is

•implies that the rate of the reaction is not greatest.
constant. •Gradient decreases over time,
•The rate of reaction decreases over time. •Therefore the reaction becomes slower as
•Rate can be determined by calculating the reactants are used up.
gradient at a point.
• Gradient at A is greater than at B.
• Therefore the rate at A is greater than at B.

NB: The gradient of either curve at a particular time would give us a measurement of the rate of
the reaction..
NUMBER OF MOLES OF REACTANT MASS OF REACTANT

MASS(g)
2

1,5

∆𝑛 ∆𝑛
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = − . 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = −
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
Unit : mol.s-1. Unit : g.min.-1.
Factors Affecting Reaction Rate & Collision Theory
According to the collision theory, a reaction will take place between two reactant
particles when these particles have (i) sufficient energy and (ii) the correct
orientation for effective collisions to occur.
You must be able to use the collision theory to argue why and how the
following factors influence the rate of a reaction.
• the nature of the reactants (their state, form, size, electron structure, the
type of bonding) …
• state: solid, liquid or gas – gases, already at a much higher energy level
than solids, will react faster than solids
• form: ions in solution react far more readily than the same ions bonded in
solid form
• size: paraffin (C13H28) burns more slowly than methane (CH4) because
paraffin is larger and has less kinetic energy
• electron structure: Li, Na are much more reactive than Cu, Pb, Ag or Au.
• the surface area of solid reactants
• the greater the surface area – the greater its state of division, the more
effective collisions can take place, resulting in a a greater rate of
chemical reaction.
 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate Cont…
• the concentration of liquid or gaseous reactants
• the more reactants there are within a fixed volume, (greater
concentration), the more effective collision can occur per unit volume , and
thus rate of reaction increases.(this does not apply to solids or pure liquids
– their concentration cannot increase)
• the pressure (of gaseous reactants)
• a higher pressure implies a greater number of gas particles within the
same volume, and thus rate of reaction increases.
• the temperature at which the reaction occurs
• an increase in temperature will increase the average rate of reaction since
it increases the energy of the reactant particles, increasing the chance of
collision, and since it makes it more likely that the colliding particles will
have sufficient energy
• the use of a catalyst
• as noted previously, a (positive) catalyst is a substance that increases the
rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent
change.
• note: when speaking of catalysts, we generally mean positive catalysts; a
negative catalyst (or inhibitor) does the opposite to a positive catalyst – it
retards / inhibits the chemical reaction.
Boltzmann Distribution Curves

The distribution curves can be used to show how many molecules

have the required activation energy in a system.

All particles in a system have energy, but some have more energy than others. Particles with the
activation energy required for a reaction can successfully collide and react
Using a Suitable Catalyst

By using a catalyst, the energy of particles in the system remains the same, but the activation energy
required for a successful collision is lowered. As a result, more particles are able to successfully collide
per unit time.
 The effect of a catalyst on rate of reaction

This increases the rate of

Provides an alternative pathway with a lower This increases the fraction of reaction(represented by
Activation energy particles with sufficient gradient of the graph of
energy(energy greater or amount vs time)
equal to activation energy)
Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate:

By increasing the temperature of a system, the energy of the particles

increases. So, more particles have the required activation energy. The
frequency of effective collisions increases.
Increasing Concentration

By increasing the concentration of molecules within a system, the actual energy of the molecules doesn’t change.
The proportion of molecules with the required activation energy is the same, there are just more of them!
Because of this, more particles in the system have the required activation energy and react.
CONSOLIDATION: MECHANISM & RATES OF
REACTIONS
MECHANISM & RATES OF REACTIONS –CONCEPTS CHECK – PROMATHS PREP EXAM P2
2022
CHEMICAL
EQUILIBRIUM
 LOW HANGING FRUITS : CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
1. Definitions – Chemical equilibrium, Closed system,
Reversible reaction.
2. Stating Le Charteliers principle
3. Wring Kc Expression and Interpretation
4. Perform calculations based on Kc values.
5. Identification of factors affecting Equilibrium position
& explanations thereof using Le Chateliers Principle

5. Equilibrium Graphs Interpretation.

 C

NB: Kc is reaction specific, and at a constant temperature, it is fixed.

 Equilibrium can be Disturbed
❖ A chemical equilibrium may be disturbed by one of three factors:
a change in
(i) concentration (this applies to solutions and gases),
(ii) in pressure (for gases only), and
(iii), by a change in temperature.
❖ When a chemical equilibrium is disturbed, either the forward or the
reverse reaction will be favoured – always, always with a view to
establishing a new equilibrium.

Catalysts and chemical equilibrium

▪ A catalyst has no influence on the equilibrium position.
▪ The concentration of products will be the same with or without a
catalyst.
▪ Equilibrium may well be reached faster if a catalyst is present, but
the rates of BOTH the reverse and the forward reactions are increased.
SUMMARY: Shifting the Equilibrium Position
Effect of Temperature Change on Equilibrium
CONT…
 Effect of Pressure Change on Equilibrium CONT…

If the pressure of the system is decreased, the opposite is true. The reaction that produces the greatest number of
moles of gas will be favoured.
Effect of Concentration Change on Equilibrium
CONT…
Why are the values of equilibrium constants NOT affected by Concentration/Pressure?

If you decrease the concentration of C:

KEY POINT:
The position of equilibrium moves - not because Le Chatelier says it must - but because
of the need to keep a constant value for the equilibrium constant.
NB: Equilibrium constants are constant at constant temperature.
 Equilibrium Graphs and Le Chatelier's
principle
Graphs can be used to represent data about equilibrium reactions.

The following are some points to keep in mind when presented with a graph.

1. Identify the type of graph by looking at the label on the y-axis. You will find either:

I. a rate-time graph

II. a mole-time or concentration-time graph

2. For rate-time graphs, when the rate for the forward reaction and the rate for the
reverse reaction are equal, the system is in equilibrium.
 Using Le Chatelier’s Principle

You will be asked to draw, or interpret, two types of graphs of

reaction equilibria:
(i) a concentration vs time,
(ii) a rate of reaction vs time graph.
Concentration-Time Graphs in an Equilibrium Situation

In a concentration/ no. of moles versus time graph in an

equilibrium system, each substance in the container is
represented by its own line on the graph and the amount of
that substance present at any time can be seen and read off
the graph.

When the system is in equilibrium the lines representing the

amount of substances present are parallel, indicating that the
concentrations of the substances present remains
constant.
 Representing Changes in Concentration Graphs
We use the reaction N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g), ΔH > 0 as basis …
• The addition of a reactant, e.g. an increase in the amount of NO2, will be reflected as a vertical rise in its
concentration graph.
• The graphs of the other reaction constituents will also reflect a change, but a more gradual change.

• Removal of NO2 would lead to a vertical drop.

• A change in pressure will affect all gaseous substances

immediately, and equally, either increasing or decreasing
the concentrations

• Adjusting the temperature of system

does not lead to any sudden (vertical)
changes – they are much more gradual
 A Change in Pressure
• A change in pressure affects all of the gaseous reactants and products in a
reaction.

• Depending on the ratio of reactant moles to product moles, either the forward
or reverse reaction would be favoured.

• That particular reaction will show a rate increase, the other a rate decrease.

• The change in reaction rate is more gradual than for a change in

concentration.

Can you interpret this graph and its various changes?

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

 Representing Changes on a Reaction Rate Graph
Using the same reaction as basis .. and remember …
• there will only be two lines (forward and reverse reaction)
• equilibrium is shown by a single line (both reactions at the same rate)
• The addition of a catalyst …. both reactions take place
faster, but there is no change in concentrations.
• A change in temp. influences the temperature of
both reactions, but unequally ...

• An increase in concentration will favour the reaction mitigating the increase.

• That reaction will show a sharp increase, while the other will show a sharp decrease.
• After a time, the two rates will again be the same.
𝑵𝟐 𝒈 + 𝟑𝑯𝟐 𝒈 ⇋ 𝟐𝑵𝑯𝟑 𝒈 ∆𝑯 < 𝟎
 DYNAMIC CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM – REMEDIAL ACTIONS
• Instead of only teaching learners to state Le Chatelier’s principle, there should be
more emphasis on explanations requiring Le Chatelier’s principle.

• Learners struggle to express themselves when explaining in terms of

Le Chatelier’s principle.

• When explaining in terms of Le Chatelier’s principle, learners should be taught to

use the following steps:

✓ Identify the disturbance.

✓ State that the system will act to oppose this disturbance.
✓ State which reaction (forward or reverse) will be favoured when opposing the
disturbance.
✓ State the effect on, for example, the number of moles/amount/concentration of
products/reactants.
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM – –CONCEPTS CHECK – PROMATHS PREP
EXAM P2 2022
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM – –CONCEPTS CHECK – PROMATHS PREP
EXAM P2 2022
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM – –CONCEPTS CHECK – PROMATHS PREP
EXAM P2 2022
ACID AND BASES
 LOW HANGING FRUITS : ACID AND BASES
1. Definitions – Acid and Bases according to Arrhenius Definition,
Lowry-Bronsted Definition. Strong and weak acid and bases,
Concentrated and Dilute acid and Bases, Hydrolysis, Standard
solution, Titration etc.
2. Calculations
2.1 pH calculation and
2.2 Neutralisation reaction calculation.
3. Hydrolysis equation and predicting pH
LIMPOPO 2023
 EMPHASIS: ACIDS AND BASES
• Ensure that stoichiometric calculations are properly REVISED as covered in
Grade 11.
• Remind learners on how to deal with stoichiometric calculations involving limiting
reagents , and connection with acids and bases

• Rounding off should only be done at the final answer of a calculation. Learners
should be reminded not to round off in each step as it leads to an incorrect answer.

• Learners must be reminded on how to interpret Ka values to obtain relative

strength of acids which in turn will show their conductivity.

• In this case, the Ka value of HSO4- is lower than that of H2SO4 indicating that
H2SO4 ionises incompletely in water to form a low concentration of H3O+ ions. It is
thus a weaker acid than H2SO4.

• Learners should be reminded to label formulae when doing multistep calculations,

e.g. when calculating the number of moles of NaOH, the formula should be as
follows: n(HCℓ) = cV.
 EMPHASIS: ACIDS AND BASES
• Learners should be reminded how to determine the conjugate base or conjugate
acid from a given species:

Conjugate acid: ADD H+ to the given compound or ion

Example: Conjugate acid of H2PO- : H2 PO- + H+ → H3 PO4

Conjugate base: REMOVE H+ from the given compound or ion

Example: Conjugate base of H2PO4- : H2 PO4- - H+ → HPO42-

RELATIVE STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES

To summarize:

Acids
◼Stronger acid » higher % ionisation » higher [H3O+] » larger Ka

Conversely,
◼Smaller Ka » lower [H3O+] » lower % ionisation » weaker acid

Bases
◼Stronger base » higher % dissociation » higher [OH—] » larger Kb

Conversely,
◼Smaller Kb » lower [OH—] » lower % dissociation » weaker base
 The potency of Hydrogen (pH) scale

Every water solution is neutral, acidic, or basic.

■ A neutral solution occurs when the hydronium ion

concentration is equal to the hydroxide ion concentration.
•[H3O+] = [OH—]
■ An acidic solution occurs when the hydronium ion
concentration is greater than the hydroxide ion concentration.
•[H3O+] > [OH—]
■ A basic solution occurs when the hydronium ion
concentration is less than the hydroxide ion concentration.
•[H3O+] < [OH—]
 The pH calculation formulae

Actual pH and concentration are

calculated by
pH = –log [H3O+] (all in base 10)
Similarly,
pOH = –log [OH—] (all in base 10)

Together,
pH + pOH = 14

◼Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1 x 1014 by 298 K.

 TOPIC OVERVIEW: ACIDS AND BASES CONT….

12. Explain the pH scale as a scale of numbers from 0 to 14 used to

express the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

13. Calculate pH values of strong acids and strong bases using

pH = - log [H3O+].

14. Define Kw as the equilibrium constant for the ionisation of water or the
ionic product of water or the ionisation constant of water, i.e.

Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1 x 1014 by 298 K.

74
 TOPIC OVERVIEW: ACIDS AND BASES CONT….
8. Determine the approximate pH (equal to, smaller than or larger than 7)
of salts in salt hydrolysis.

9. Define hydrolysis as the reaction of a salt with water.

▪ Hydrolysis of the salt of a weak acid and a strong base results in an

alkaline solution, i.e. the pH > 7.
Examples of such salts are sodium ethanoate, sodium oxalate and sodium
carbonate.

▪ Hydrolysis of the salt of a strong acid and a weak base results in an acidic
solution, i.e. the pH < 7.
An example of such a salt is ammonium chloride.

▪ The salt of a strong acid and a strong bases does not undergo hydrolysis
and the solution of the salt will be neutral, i.e. pH= 7.

75
 TOPIC OVERVIEW: ACIDS AND BASES CONT….

For a titration, e.g. the titration of oxalic acid with sodium hydroxide:

▪ List the apparatus needed or identify the apparatus from a diagram.

▪ Describe the procedure to prepare a standard oxalic acid solution.

▪ Describe the procedure to conduct the titration.

▪ Describe safety precautions.

▪ Describe measures that need to be in place to ensure reliable results.

▪ Interpret given results to determine the unknown concentration.

76
 TOPIC OVERVIEW: ACIDS AND BASES CONT….
10. Motivate the choice of a specific indicator in a titration.

Choose from methyl orange, phenolphthalein and bromothymol blue.

▪ Define the equivalence point of a titration as the point at

which the acid /base has completely reacted with the
base/acid.
▪ Define the end point of a titration as the point where the
indicator changes colour.

11. Perform stoichiometric calculations based on titrations of a strong acid

with a strong base, a strong acid with a weak base and a weak acid
with a strong base.

Calculations may include percentage purity.

77
 Different Indicators
Name of indicator Colour acid Colour base pH range

Methyl Orange Red Orange 3,1 – 4,4

Methyl red Red Yellow 4,2 – 6,2
litmus Red Blue 5,0 – 8,0
Bromothymol Blue Yellow Blue 6,0 – 7,6
Phenol red Yellow Red 6,6 – 8,0
Thymol blue Yellow Blue 8,0 – 9,6
Phenolphthalein Clear Red 8,3 – 10,0
Alizarin Yellow Yellow Pale 10,0 – 12,0
78
purple
 Which Indicator to use?

Strong acid/strong base Bromothymol blue

Strong acid/weak base Methyl orange
Weak acid/strong base Phenolphthalein

79
 Titration Calculations – Summary of Formulae
A number of formulae are important for titration calculations …
measured in ….
c (mol·dm-3)
n (mole)
V (dm3)
m (g)
M (g·mol-1)

Applying these equations to a neutralisation reaction, we get:

where a stands for acid, b for base, and na:nb is the mole ratio in
which the acid and base react in a balanced neutralisation reaction.

Before applying this formula, it is vitally important to write out a BALANCED

EQUATION for the neutralisation reaction taken place.
 Hydrolysis of salts
The following table (intended for teachers) provides a summary of
the species involved with hydrolysis of salts.

This information can be simplified further:

■ A strong acid and a strong base produce a neutral solution.
■ A strong base plus a weak acid produce a slightly basic salt.
■ A strong acid plus a weak base produce a slightly acidic salt.
 Summary: Table 1

TYPE OF SALT Undergoes pH in water solution

hydrolysis or
not
Salt from STRONG ACID AND STRONG BASE =7
No hydrolysis Neutral solution
in water
eg NaCl, KBr, KNO3 and Na2SO4
Salt from STRONG ACID + WEAK BASE IN Undergoes <7
hydrolysis Acidic solution
WATER
(anion hydrolysis)
eg NH4Cl and NH4NO3
Salt from WEAK ACID + STRONG BASE IN Undergoes >7
hydrolysis Alkaline solution
WATER
( cation hydrolysis)
82
eg Na2CO3, CH3COONa, NaHCO3 and Na2C2O4
 Summary: Table 2

Salt in water Acid Base Solution

Strong acid Strong base pH = 7
NaCl salt of
HCl NaOH Neutral
Weak acid Weak base pH = 7
CH3COONH4
CH3COOH NH4 Neutral
Strong acid Weak base pH < 7
NH4Cl Salt of
HCl NH3 Acidic
Weak acid Strong base pH > 7
Na2CO3 salt of
H2CO3 NaOH Alkaline
Weak acid Strong base pH > 7
CH3COONa
CH3COOH NaOH Alkaline
Quick Facts:
➢ When a salt reacts with water to produce hydronium ion the (H3O+), the salts
solution is acidic with a pH < 7. These salts are acidic salts,e.g. NH4CI.
➢ When a salt reacts with water to produce hydroxide ions (OH-), the salts solution
83
is basic with a pH>7. These salts are basic salts,e.g. Na2CO3; CH3COONa.
 ELECTRO
CHEMISTRY
(galvanic and
application of
electrolytic cell)
 LOW HANGING FRUITS : ELECTROCHEMISTRY

1. Definitions – Oxidation, Reduction, Redox, Oxidising agents, Reducing agents,

Anode, Cathode, Electrolyte,Electrolytic cell, Electrolysis etc
2. Using Standard reduction potential table(4B)-identify reducing/oxidising agent.
3. Predicting spontaneity of reactions
4. galvanic cell:
-Standard conditions under which galvanic cell operates
-Energy conversion
-Functions of salt bridge.
-Direction of flow of electrons.
-Polarity of electrodes
-Identifying Anode and cathode
-Reduction half reaction
-Oxidation half reaction
-Balanced(net overall) reaction
-Cell notation- solids,gases, aqeous solutions
4. Calculation of emf.
5. Use of Inert solids.
4
 LOW HANGING FRUITS : ELECTROCHEMISTRY
1. ELECTROLYTIC CELLS
-Energy conversion.
1.1The electrolysis of concentrated solution of sodium chloride.

1.2 Decomposition of copper (II) chloride.

1. Application of electrolytic cell
2.1 Electroplating i.e Electroplating of iron spoon with silver/ nickel.
2.2 Refining of metals e.g copper
LIMPOPO SEPT 2023
 KEYS FOR ANALYZING ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS

• What type of cell is represented here? Galvanic or Electrolytic cell

• What energy conversion takes place in this cell?
• Label each anode and cathode electrode.
• Indicate polarity of anode and cathode in each cell.
• Write down the half reaction that will take place at the anode.
• Write down the half reaction that will take place at the cathode.
• Write the overall the overall (net) reaction for each cell.
• Indicate the standard conditions under which each cell operates.
• Indicate the ion migration through the solution in each cell.
• Determine the initial cell voltage of the electrochemical cell.
• Indicate direction of electron flow in each cell.
• Indicate all electrodes that gain mass.
• Indicate all electrodes that lose mass.
• What happens to [ionic] at the anode compartment?
• What happens to the [ionic] at the cathode compartment?
• What is the equilibrium electrochemical cell potential?
• Write down the cell notation for this cell (For galvanic cells)
Zn half-cell: the zinc
electrode is placed in a
Cell notation A Galvanic Cell
beaker containing a solution
of zinc nitrate – breaking up
Zn(s)|Zn2+||Cu2+|Cu(s)
into zinc ions (Zn2+) and Cu half-cell: the Cu
voltmeter – always a clue to a
nitrate ions (NO3-) electrode is placed in a
galvanic cell
beaker containing a
solution of copper ions
(Cu2+).

Anode: oxidation
– a loss of
Cathode: reduction –
electrons. The
a gain of electrons.
electrons released
The metal ions (Cu2+)
stay on anode,
accept electrons and
while metal cations
are deposited on the
(Zn2+) move into
+ electrode.
solution

Salt bridge: a tube filled with a very soluble

salt – it completes the circuit and maintains External circuit: wires connecting the two half-cells – in this
electrical neutrality in both half-cell with their case, including a voltmeter. Note the direction of electron flow
electrolyte solutions – from the negative electrode to the positive electrode.
 Standard Reduction Potentials
There are two tables of standard electrode potentials on the information sheet viz. Table 4A
and Table 4B:

Tabel 4A Tabel 4B
half reactions E0(V) half reactions E0(V)

strong F2(g) + 2e- 2F- +2,87 weak weak Li+ + e-  Li -3,05 strong
OA RA OA RA

2H+ + 2e- H2(g) 0,00 2H+ + 2e-H2(g) 0,00

weak Li+ + e- Li -3,05 strong strong F2(g) + 2e- 2F- +2,87 weak
OA RA OA RA
 When using the table (4B):

How do we use these tables?

• A half reaction is only written with a single arrow

• A reduction half reaction is read from left to right F2(g) + 2e- → 2F -.
• The oxidation reaction is read from right to left Li → Li+ + e-.
• Substances on the left hand side are oxidising agents
• Substances on the right hand side are reducing agents.
• Negative E0 values mean that the substances donate electrons easily
• The positive E0 values mean that the substances accept electrons easily.
• When combining half reactions, the half reaction located higher up the
table is written in reverse (from right to left) since it undergoes oxidation
(there is a loss of electrons by a substance) and the one lower down from
left to right (i.e. It gains electrons – undergoes reduction)
 Full Redox potential Table 4B

Any substance on
the right will
spontaneously react
with something
above it on the right
of the table – and
vice versa.
 Full Redox potential Table 4B

Any substance on
the right will
spontaneously react
with something
above it on the right
of the table – and
vice versa.
 Cell notation
The cell notation is used to represent electrochemical cells:

By Covention...
• The anode (where oxidation takes place) is always written on the left, while
the cathode (where reduction takes place) is always written on the right of the
salt bridge.

• the anode & cathode are separated by a || (which represents the salt bridge)
while the different phases in a half-cell are separated by a single |.
• The cell notation follows the reaction sequence …
reducing agent | oxidised species || oxidising agent | reduced species

(a way of checking your work – if the cell notation is correct, the electrodes will
appear on the outside, e.g. For the Cu/Zn cell:

Zn(s)|Zn2+||Cu2+|Cu(s))
96
 Cell notation Cont…

Correct Examples:

1. Mg|Mg2+||H+ |H2 |Pt (Correct)

2. Pt|H2/H+ ||Cu2+ /Cu (Correct)

3. Mg|Mg2+ || F2|F-|Pt (Correct: order RA, oxidized species, OA, reduced species)

4. Pt|Cℓ- |Cℓ2|| F2 |F- |Pt (Correct: order RA, oxidized species, OA, reduced species)

Incorrect Examples:
5. Mg|Mg2+||F- |F2/Pt (Wrong - order)
6. Pt|Cℓ2|Cℓ- ||F- |F2|Pt (Wrong - order)
Important Electrolytic Processes
 Review of Concepts: Electrolytic
Cells
Understanding the Processes and Redox Reactions Taking Place in
Electrolytic Cells

• Describe the movement of ions in the solution.

• State the direction of electron flow in the external circuit.
• Write equations for the half reactions taking place at the anode and
cathode.
• Write down the overall cell reaction by combining two half reactions.
• Describe, using half reactions and the equation for the overall cell
reaction as well as the layout of the particular cell using a schematic
diagram, the following electrolytic processes
- The decomposition of copper(II) chloride
- Electroplating, e.g. the electroplating of an iron spoon with
silver/nickel
- Refining of copper
- The electrolysis of a concentrated solution of sodium chloride

99
 Summary:
Electrolysis of Concentrated NaCl Solution

The half reactions and cell reactions for the electrolysis of a saturated
sodium chloride solution are as follows:

• Anode (oxidation): 2Cℓ-(aq) → Cℓ2(g) + 2e-

• Cathode (reduction): H2O(ℓ) + 2e- → H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)

• Net-cell reaction: 2Cℓ-(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ) → 2OH-(aq) + Cℓ2(g) +

H2(g)

• Cell reaction with spectator ions:

2NaCℓ(aq) + 2H2O(ℓ) → 2NaOH(aq) + Cℓ2(g) + H2(g)
 2. Decomposition of CuCl2 Solution
• The principles of electrochemistry (as above) are
used in a variety of industrial processes. One
is the decomposition of copper chloride (CuCl2).
• CuCl2 ionises in water to form Cu2+ and Cl- ions.
When a current is passed through the solution,
Cu2+ is reduced, forming a metal layer around the
cathode
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu (reduction reaction)
• At the same time, Cl- ions migrate to the positive anode, losing the
extra electron to be oxidised forming chlorine gas.
2Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e– (oxidation reaction)
• The net reaction: CuCl2(aq) → Cu(s) + Cl2(g)
E°(cell) = E°(cath.) – E°(anode)
= +0,34 – (+1,36) = – 1,02 V
• The reaction is non-spontaneous, as the need for a battery implies.
3. Electroplating
 What is Electroplating ???
• Electroplating consists of depositing a thin layer of
one metal on top of another, either to protect the
inner layer or for the sake of appearance.
• The object which is being electroplated can be
made of any metal, but most often it is made of
brass, nickel or steel.
 Electroplating Procedure
• The object to be electroplated is made at the cathode,
i.e. it is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery.
• The anode is usually a pure sample of the metal which is
being used for plating. The anode is therefore active and
ionises.
• The electrolyte must contain ions of the metal which is
being used for plating.
• Examples of electroplating are chromium plating, silver
plating and nickel plating.
Example 1 – Silver Plating
Electroplating A Spoon with Silver
 Electroplating A Spoon with Silver

Anode (+): a pure silver plate

Cathode (-): iron spoon (object to be electroplated).
Electrolyte: a mixture of silver nitrate (AgNO3) and potassium
cyanide (KCN).
• The cyanide ensures a constant silver concentration, and
increases the electrical conductivity of the electrolyte.
• The Ag+ ions can move freely in the electrolyte.

silver plating
 Electroplating A Spoon with Silver
Reaction at the Anode:
Ag (s) is oxidized at the anode to form Ag+ .
Ag (s) → Ag+ (aq) + e,–Ox. half
reaction
• The mass of the Ag electrode decreases and there is a
constant supply of Ag+ ions in the solution.
Reaction at The Cathode:
Ag+ in solution are reduced at the cathode to form Ag (s)

Ag+ (aq) + e– → Ag (s),

Red. half reaction

• The cathode (iron spoon) coated with a layer of silver.

• The mass of the cathode increases.
 Summary:
Electroplating A Spoon with Silver
• At the anode: Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + e-
• Oxidation will occur whereby Ag metal atoms that
made up the metal electrode will be oxidised to
Ag+.
• At the Cathode: Ag+(aq) + e- → Ag(s)
• Reduction will occur whereby Ag+ ions are
attracted to the cathode (the spoon) are reduced
to Ag metal which now coats the spoon with a thin
layer of pure silver.
• Net ionic reaction:
Ag(s) + Ag+(aq) → Ag+(aq) + Ag(s)
 Example 2 – Nickel Plating
Electroplating a Nail with Nickel

Ni (s) → Ni2+ (aq) +

2e–
Ox. half reaction
Ni2+ (aq) + 2e– → Ni
(s)
Red. half
reaction
 Summary:
Electroplating a nail with Nickel

• At the anode: Ni(s) → Ni2+(aq) + 2e-

• Oxidation will occur whereby Ni metal atoms that
made up the metal electrode will be oxidised to Ni2+.
• At the Cathode: Ni2+(aq) + 2e- → Ni(s)
• Reduction will occur whereby Ni2+ ions are attracted
to the cathode (the nail) are reduced to Ni metal
which now coats the nail with a thin layer of Nickel.
• Net ionic reaction:
Ni(s) + Ni2+(aq) → Ni2+(aq) + Ni(s)
 Summary:
Electro-refining of Copper
Reaction at the Anode:
Cu (s) atoms are oxidized at the anode to form Cu2+ .
Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– , Ox. half
• The mass of the copper anode decreases and there is a constant supply of Cu2+ ions in the
solution.
• The Cu2+ ions are attracted to the cathode and move through the solution.
Reaction at The Cathode:
• Cu2+ in solution are reduced at the anode to form Cu (s) NB!
The concentration of the electrolyte during the reaction remains
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– → Cu (s), Red. half reaction the same.
For each Cu (s) atom that oxidizes into Cu2+ at the anode, another
Cu2+ ion in solution is reduced to Cu (s) atom at the cathode.
RATE OF OXIDATION = RATE OF REDUCTION
• The mass of the cathode increases.
Thank you