BASIC STATS FOR TESTING [ refresher ] Ex: DSM, yes or no scale, sex, etc.

Ordinal scales – “ ranking “ ordering

Why we need stats? characteristics
ex: board exam topnotchers, likert scale,
Stats methods serve two important level of agreement
purposes in the quest for scientific Interval scale – has property of moreness
understanding. and equal intervals but not absolute 0
Ex: farenheit or celsius
1. Descriptive stats – provide concise Ratio scale – has a true 0 point, easies to
collection of information manipulate
2. Inferencial stats – illogical deduction • has all three properties
about events that cannot be - Moreness
observed directly. - Equal interval
- Absolute 0
Scales of Measurement
Measurement: application of rules for Scales of Measurement and their Properties
assigning numbers to objects Property
The rules are the specific procedures used Type of Magnitude Equal Absolute 0
to transform qualities of attributes into scale intervals
numbers. Nominal No No No
Ordinal Yes No No
Properties of Scales Interval Yes Yes No
Three important properties make scales of Ratio Yes Yes Yes
measurement different from one another:
Magnitude – property of “ moreness “ Frequency Distributions
has a property of magnitude, can measure • Summarizing the scores for a group
ex: level of anxiety of individual
Equal Interval – difference between two • Displays scores on a variable or a
points at any place on the scale that has the measure to reflect how frequent
same meaning as the difference between each value was obtained
two other points that differ by the same • One defines all the possible scores
number of scale units and determines how many people
same intervals in between laging merong obtained each of those scores
equal interval
ex: ruler
Absolute 0 – no property being measured
Extremely difficult, not impossible, to define
an absolute 0
Ex: in psych test, since not reliable

Types of Scales
Nominal scales – “ categorization ”
classification based on one or more
distinguishing characteristics .13, 2.14, 13.59, 34.13 | 34.13, 13.59, 2.14, .13
 Mode – the most common number in a
data set.
• Bimodal – two number that has a
higher frequency

Standard Deviation – gives detail of how

much above or below a score to the mean
Skewness – how measurement distributed
Approximation of the average deviation
Positively skewed – test is difficult
around the mean
Scores are clustered at the left lower end [
Tell you how spread out numbers are
positive side ]
Negatively skewed – test is easy
Variance – squared of standard deviation
Scores are clustered at the right higher end
Z-score – transforms data into standardized
[ negative side ]
units that are easier to interpret [ can have
negative value ]
Kurtosis – steepness of the distribution [
known as tails ]
• Leptokurtic – pointy positive kurtosis
• Mesokurtic – normal distribution
• Platykurtic – flat negative kurtosis

Percentiles – fall below the particular score

Formula:
T-score ( McCall’s T ) – standardized score
system that can be obtained from a simple
linear transformation of z-scores [ don’t
have negative value, always positive ]
Stanine score – scale is divided into 9 units
Sten score – scale is divided into 10 units
Example: CEE – college entrance exam
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑠
x 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠
Standard Scores
Sa mababa lagi
Percentile Ranks– replace simple ranks to • Z-scores [ mean = 0, SD = 1 ]
adjust the number of scores in a group • T-scores [ mean = 50, SD = 10 ]
• Stanine scores [ mean = 5, SD = 2 ]
Measures of Central Tendency • Sten scores [ mean = 5.5, SD = 2 ]
Mean – average of a data set/arithmetic • IQ scores [ mean = 10, SD = 15 ]
average score in a distribution • CEE [ mean = 500, SD = 100 ]

Variability
Range – high score minus low score
Quartile – division of frequency [ normal
distribution divided into 4 parts ]
Median – the middle of the set of numbers
Interquartile – dividing the quartile from Q3 Norms and a Good test
to Q1 Norms – standards which results will be
Semi-interquartile – Interquartile divided compared; target sample
by 2 Ex: student from NU
• Age-related norms
- normative groups for particular age groups
• Norm-referenced tests
- determine how a test taker compares with
other or each person with a norm
[ comparing from other norm ex: students
from UST ]
Criterion-referenced tests
- specific types of skills
[ standard ex: student from NU and a
Statistical Methods working student as well,, depends on
Comparative [ difference, effect ] variable of norms ]
No. of No. of
times DV groups Norming
measured Stardardization – process of administering a
T-test independent 1 2 test to a representative sample of test
means takers for the purpose of establishing norms
T-test dependent 2 1 Ex: pilot testing
means Sample – representative of the whole
Anova one way 1 >2 population [ portion/selected ]
Anova repeated >2 1 Sampling – process of selecting sample
measure Propbability Sampling
Mann Whitney U 1 2 • Sample Random Sampling – equal
test chance of being selected
Wilcoxon Signed 2 1 • Systematic Sampling – every nth
Rank test item or person after is picked
Kruskal Wallis test 1 >2 • Stratified Sampling – random
Friedman Test >2 1 selection within predefined groups [
Anova two way 2 IV, 2 levels dividing into three types ]
MANOVA many measures of DV • Cluster Sampling – groups of the
target population are selected
Parametric/ Non – Parametric randomly
Dependent T-test -> Wilcoxon Signed Rank Non-probability Sampling
Test • Convenience Sampling – selected
Independent T-test -> Mann Whitney U Test based on their
Repeadted Measured Anova -> Friedman convenient/availability
Test • Qouta Sampling – specifiying who
One way/ Two-way Anova -> Kruskal Wallis shuld be selected according to
Test certain groups/criteria
 • Purposive Sampling – chosen
consciously based on their
knowledge and understanding of the
research question
• Snowball or Referral Sampling –
perople recruited to be part of a
sample are asked to invite those
they know to take part [ ex:
prostitutes, battered wife, etc. ]
Reliability
- free from error
error = inaccuracy in measurements
- consistency of test measurement
[ a test may be reliable in one context and
unreliable in another ]
History & Theory of Reliability
Charles Spearman – proponent of reliability
Abraham De Moivre – introduced the basic
notion of sampling error
Karl Pearson – developed the product
moment correlation
testers use “ rubber yardsticks “ to estimate
measurements.
Basics of Test Score Theory
Classical Test Score Theory – each person
has a true score that would obtained if
there were no errors in measurement.
[ the difference between the true score and
the observed score results from
measurement error ]
[ the difference between the score we
obtained and the score we are really
interested is the error of measurement ]
X–T=E
Standard error of measurement ( Sem ) –
measure how close the observe score to the
“ true “ score
- the lesser the number, the better and the
closer the score, the better
[ true score is always unknown since no
measure can be constructed that provides a
perfect reflection of the true score ]
Domain Sampling Theory ( central concept
of CTT ) – the more the items in the test,
the higher chance of reliability
- direct to the point items ilalagay sa test,
making sure na ime-measure and domain
and factor
- limited number of items can measure the
domain
Item Response Theory ( IRT ) – focuses on
the range of item difficulty [ individual’s
ability level ]
Item difficulty = item easiness
Sources of Error Variance
1. Test Construction: item sampling or
content sampling [ ex: how the test made,
content ]
2. Test Administration: may influence the
test taker’s attention or motivation [ ex:
how test user gives instruction ]
3. Test Scoring and Interpretation:
individual administered test still require
scoring by trained personnel [ important
that the person is magaling sa field so they
can interpet well the certain test ]
Different Estimates of Reliability
Test Re-Test Reliability [ 1 group, 1 test, 2
administration ] ( time and administration
concerned )
- used to evaluate the error associated with
administering a test at two different times
[ ex: measure a stable traits or personality ]
duration: 2 weeks until 6 months
Carryover Effect – effect occurs when the
first testing session influences the scores
from the previous session [ short span of
interval ]
Practice Effect – test-retest correlation
usually overestimate the true reliability [
test-taker’s concern ]
PROCEDURE:
• Sample population = (Test A) [1] +
(Test A) |2]
• Administer the [1st ] psychological
test
• Get the test result
• Wait for the interval/duration [ 2
wks – 6 mos ] note: when the
interval between testing is greater
than six months, the estimate of tes-
retest reliability is often reffered to
as coefficient of stability.
• Re-administer the psychologucal
test
• Get the test result
• Correlate the results
Parallel-Forms & Alternate-Forms
Reliability [ 1 group, 2 test, 1 administration
] same day administered ( item concerned )
- compares two equivalent forms of test
that measure the same attribute
Alternate form are designed to be
equivalent with respect to variables such as
content and level of difficulty.
Coefficient of equivalence – measures the
same attributes
PROCEDURE:
• Administer the first test
• Administer the Alternate form test
• Score both tests
• Correlate
disadvantages
• Hard to develop or construct
• Time consuming
Split Half Reliability [ 1 group, 2 test, 2
administration ]
- test is given and divided into halves that
are scored separately
duration: the next day or after a week
To shorten the items, odd-even system or
top bottom method can be used.
• Top bottom method: 1st half [ 25
items ], 2nd half [ 25 items ]
• Odd even system: 1st half [ odd ], 2nd
[ even ]
adjust the half-test reliability: Spearman
Brown Formula: r =2r/1+r
For example: As a psychometrician in a
clinic, the psychologist instructed you ot
develop a test that measure emotional
stability of suicial patients. You decided to
use split-half to establish its reliability. The
correlation between two halves of the test
is.78 according to the spearman-brown
formula, the estimated reliability would be
.876
Computation: r = 2 (78)/1 +.78
Kuder-Richardson Formula ( KR20 )
KR20 is (Kuder & Richardson, 1937)
developed this formula to measure the
reliability estimate a Split-half.
KR20: used when the items varies the level
of difficulty
KR21: used when the items have same level
of difficulty
Coefficient Alpha
Cronbach's Alpha – commonly used when
you have multiple Likert questions in a
suvery/questionnaire that form a scale and
you wish to determine if the scale is
reliabile.
- Applicable for personality and attitude
scales
How reliable is reliability?
• In research setting - it has been suggested
that a reliability estimates in the range of
.70 and .80 are good enough for most
purposes in basic research
• In clinical setting - high reliability is
extremely important. a reliability of .90 to
.95 might be good enough.
• If the test is unreliable, information
obtained with it is of little or no
value.
What to do with low reliability?
1. Increase the number of items.
2. Factor and item analysis.
3. Correction of attenuation.
VALIDITY
- is a judgement or estimate of how well a
test measure what it purports to measure in
a particulat context.
- indicated what the test aims or purpots to
measure.
It answer the question, " Does the test
measure what it is supposed
to measure? "
Three Categories of Validity:
1. Content Validity
2. Criterion-related Validity
- Predictive Validity
- Concurrent Validity
3. Construct Validity
- Convergent Validity
- Discriminant Validity
Face Validity
- Is not really a validity at all because it does
not offer evidence to support conclusions
drawn from test score.
- establishes the presentation, physical
appearance of the psychological test [ is the
test presentable to the test-takers? ]
Content Validity
- It explores the appropriateness of test
items of a psychological test.
- It means that the test covers the content
what is supposed to cover.
- how adequately a test samples
behavior representative of what the test
was designed to sample.
Test blueprint for the "structure" of the test
evaluation. A plan regarding the types of
information to be covered by the items
Criterion-related Validity
Criterion: a standard on which a judgement
or decision may be based. The standard
against which a test or a test score is
evaluated.
Concurrent Validity - statements of
concurrent validity indicate the extent to
which test scores may be used to estimate
an individual's present standing on a
criterion.
Predictive Validity - how well a certain
measure can predict future behavior.
Construct Validity
A judgement about appropriateness of
inferences drawn from test scores regarding
individual standings on a variable called
construct.
It arrived at by executing a comprehensive
analysis of:
a. How scores on the test relate to
other test scores and measures
b. How scores on the test can be
understood withon some theoretical
framework for understanding the construct
that the test was designed to measure.

CONVERGENT VALIDITY - when a measure

correlates well with other tests believed to
measure the same construct.
[ ex. correlate assessment scores for a math
ability test with scores obtained from other
math ability test. ]
DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY - a construct
measure diverges from other measures
that should be measuring different things.
[ ex. correlate assessment scores for a math
ability test with scores obtained from a
verbal ability test. ]

Practicality of a Test
• A test must be usable
• Selection of the test should also be based
on:
- Effort
- Affordability
- Time frame
• Test requires simple directions
• Easy administration and scoring
INTELLIGENCE
BINET-SIMON SCALE – IQ TEST
MENTAL AGE - The average age of
individuals who achieve a
particular level of performance of a test
SPEARMAN’S TWO FACTOR THEORY
measured by every task on an intelligence
test
high saturated factor g factor can safely
predict a similar level performance of g
saturated task while s factor prediction is
less accurate
TERMAN’S STANFORD BINET INDIVIDUAL
INTELLIGENCE TEST
The classic formula for the IQ is: IQ =
mental age divided by chronological age x
100.
THORNDIKE’S STIMULUS RESPONSE
THEORY
three broad classes of
intellectual functioning:
Intelligence test – is measured by standard
intelligence test.
Mechanical Intelligence – is the ability to
visualize relationships among objects and
understand how the physical world works.
Social Intelligence – is the ability to
function successfully in interpersonal
situations
he considered as two most basic
intelligence: trial and error and stimulus
response association.
He said that stimulus response connections
that are repeated are strengthened while
those that are not used are weakened.
L.L. THURSTONES MULTIPLE FACTORS
THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
Factor Analysis
statistical procedure that identifies clusters
of related items (called factors) on a test
used to identify different dimensions of
performance that underlie one’s total score
• His Multiple Factors Theory of Intelligence
indentified 7 primary mental abilities:
verbal comprehension, word fluency,
number facility, spatial visualization,
associative memory, perceptual speed and
reasoning
RAYMOND CATTELL’S THEORY ON FLUID
AND CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE
FLUID INTELLIGENCE - adaptive
and new learning capabilities
(Gf) are non-verbal - relatively culture free
and independent of specific instruction
CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE - learned
through experience.
(Gc) – acquired skills and knowledge that
are dependent on exposure
STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF
INTELLIGENCE
CONTEXTUAL INTELLIGENCE – emphasized
intelligence on its sociocultural context
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING – emphasized
insight and ability to formulate new ideas
and combine seemingly unrelated facts or
information
COMPONENTIAL INTELLIGENCE –
emphasizes the effectiveness of
informational processing.
Component – cognitive mechanism that
carry out adaptive behavior to novel
situations
Two kinds of components:
Performance– used in actual execution of
the tasks, includes encoding, comparing etc.
Administering the instructions of
metacomponents
Metacomponents– higher order executive
processes used in planning, monitoring and
evaluating one’s working memory program.
Theory of Multiple Intelligences Origins of Intelligence
Gardner’s intelligence theory that proposes Stanford-Binet
that there are eight distinct spheres of The widely used American revision of
personality. Binet’s original intelligence test
1. Linguistic Intelligence revised by Terman at Stanford University
WORD SMART The Dynamics of Intelligence
The ability to use language to Mental Retardation
excite, please, convince, stimulate or a condition of limited mental ability [
convey information intelligence score below 70 ]
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Down Syndrome
LOGIC SMART retardation and associated physical
• People who display an aptitude for disorders caused by an extra chromosome
numbers, reasoning and problem solving. in one’s genetic makeup
3. Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence
BODY SMART
• The ability to use fine and gross motor
skills in sports, the performing arts and
crafts production
4. Spatial Intelligence
PICTURE SMART
• The ability to perceive and mentally
manipulate a form or object, perceive and Genetic Influences
create tension, balance and composition in
visual or spatial display
5. Musical Intelligence
MUSIC SMART
• The ability to enjoy, perform or
compose a musical piece
6. Interpersonal Intelligence
PEOPLE SMART
• Is the ability to understand and get along
with others
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence
SELF SMART The most genetically similar people
• The ability to gain access to and have the most similar scores
understand one’s inner feelings, Heritability
dreams and ideas. the proportion of variation among
8. Naturalist Intelligence individuals that we can attribute to genes
NATURE SMART
• Ability to identify and classify patterns in
nature

Environmental Influences
The Schooling Effect
Group Differences
Group differences and environmental
impact
Stereotype Threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be
evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
Other Issues of Intelligence tests
- Measured intelligence may vary as a result
of factors related to the measurement
process.
- many factors that can affect measured
intelligence
- Another possible factor in measured
intelligence is what is called the FLYNN
EFFECT.
James R. Flynn found that measured
intelligence seems to rise on average, year
by year, starting with the year that the test
is normed.
Personality
Alfred Binet had conceived of the study of
intelligence as being synonymous with the
study of personality.
David Wechsler believed that all tests of
intelligence measure traits of personality,
such as drive, energy level, impulsiveness,
persistence, and goal awareness.
- some personality factors associated with
gains in measured intelligence over time. [
aggressiveness with peers, initiative, high
need for achievement, competitive striving,
curiosity, self-confidence, and emotional
stability ]
- some of the factors present in children
whose measured intellectual ability has not
increased over time. [ passivity,
dependence, and maladjustment ]
Gender
• Males may have the edge when it comes
to the g factor in Intelligence (Jackson &
Rushton, 2006; Lynn & Irwing,2004).
• Males also tend to outperform females on
tasks requiring visual spatialization.
suggestive evidence indicating that more
experience in spatialization might be all
that is required to bridge this gender gap
(Chan, 2007).
• Girls may generally outperform on
language skill–related tasks, although these
differences may be minimized when the
assessment is conducted by computer
(Horne, 2007).
Culture
• There is a relationship between culture
and psychological assessment (intelligence
tests).
• A culture provides specific models for
thinking, acting, and feeling. (Chinoy, 1967).
• values may differ radically between
cultural and subcultural groups, people
from different cultural groups can
have radically different views about what
constitutes intelligence (Super, 1983;
Wober, 1974).
• The desire to create a culture-free C. California Psychological Inventory
intelligence test has resurfaced with various D. 16 Personality Factors
degrees of dedication throughout history. E. Dimensions of Self Concept – Form
• Nonverbal items were thought to H: College
represent the best available F. Tennessee Self Concept Scale
means for determining the cognitive ability G. Self Esteem Index
of minority group H. Differential Aptitude Test
children and adults.
• They have not been found to have the Other special Test
same high level of predictive validity as G. Bender Gestalt Visual Motor Test
more verbally loaded tests. E. Panukat ng Ugaling at Pagkatao ng
• This may be due to the fact that Pilipino
nonverbal items do not sample the
same psychological processes as do the
more verbally loaded, conventional tests of
intelligence.
• nonverbal tests tend not to be very good
at predicting success in various academic
and business settings.
• Culture loading may be defined as the
extent to which a test incorporates the
vocabulary, concepts, traditions,
knowledge, and feelings associated with a
particular culture.

I. INDIVIDUAL TEST OF INTELLIGENCE

A. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC)
B. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS)
C. Ravens Stanford Progressive
Matrices Test
D.
II. GROUP TEST
Group Ability Tests: Testing in Education,
Civil Service and the Military
A. Verbal Test: MD5 Mental Ability Test
B. Non Verbal: Culture Fair Intelligence
Test

Structured Personality Test

A. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory 2
B. Basic Personality Inventory