Chapter 3 - Biology & Neuroscience

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Chapter 3:
Biology & Neuroscience
Figure 3.1 Your brain controls every single function in your body. The elaborate network of connections
between different parts of the brain and your body make it an incredibly sophisticated and effective central
command center. [1]
3.0 Learning Objectives

L.O. 3.1 Understand that the human nervous system is the primary interpreter of events both inside the body and
in the outside world and that it is shaped by our experiences.
L.O. 3.2 Understand what it means that the language of the brain is electrochemical, and how nervous system
cells (e.g., neurons and glial cells) produce and enable electrochemical communication.
L.O. 3.3 Explain how afferent and efferent signals build neural networks, and how neuroplasticity shapes and
organizes both our conscious and unconscious neural processes.
L.O. 3.4 Understand the structure and functions of the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as the
individual components of the peripheral nervous system: the somatic, sympathetic, and parasympathetic nervous
systems.
L.O. 3.5 Identify the major parts of the brain and explain their functions, including but not limited to the lobes of
the neocortex.
L.O. 3.6 Explain the role that the endocrine system plays in behavior, paying particular attention to the HPA Axis
and its importance related to stress.
L.O. 3.7 Describe each of the major methods of neuroscientific research and what aspects of the nervous system
they are primarily used to investigate.
3.1 Introduction: The Smart Conduit

Before we begin, understand that the most important tool you will need while experiencing the concepts and
information in this chapter is your imagination. Some of the concepts here can be difficult, simply because while we all
have experience being human, few of us have really taken a close look at what goes on inside our brains. We lack
a frame of reference—something we already know that we can compare new concepts to.
For example, let’s say you are reading a chapter on child development. You might have younger siblings, or perhaps you
have babysat. You have experience interacting with babies and children, and this provides that frame of reference. But
no one babysits neurons or lobes of the brain. Thus, you don’t necessarily have visual associations or practical
experience with the inner workings of the brain (Figure 3.1). Throughout this chapter, we will use your experiences and
relate them to the content here.
Let's start with a basketball example. How is Steph Curry of the Golden State Warriors able to shoot from seemingly
anywhere on the basketball court? (Figure 3.2). How do gifted rappers like Kendrick Lamar craft words so vividly to
convey ideas and emotion? How have scientists figured out how to split the atom and create devices that store
energy from the sun?
Figure 3.2 What is it about Steph Curry’s nervous system that allows him
to be so precise in his shooting far away from the basket? Experience is one
thing that shapes and changes the nervous system. He grew up shooting at
his grandfather’s house, at a basket with a misshapen rim. Genetics also
play a role. His father, Dell Curry, was also a three-point shooting
champion as an NBA player. [2]
The answer to all the above is the human nervous system. Your nervous system is the main interpreter of both the
events in your body and those in the outer world. Your brain and spinal cord are the ultimate problem solvers that send
and receive information to and from all areas of your body, and your nervous system is a maze of complex cellular
networks that relay and process information. Its overall purpose is to create behavior. It also helps you to make sense of
the things around you and make decisions about what to do next. This integrated set of networks is composed of
specialized cells called neurons (cells that transmit electrical impulses) and glial cells that provide support functions.
These cells are arranged in all kinds of different configurations to perform dedicated tasks.
You will find the term neural used throughout this chapter. This means “relating to the nerve or nervous system.” Our
neural networks also help us communicate with one another through movement and sound. Think about how people
from diverse cultures and with different personalities don’t speak or move exactly alike. Some people use their hands a
lot. Some languages sound more musical. We can even communicate different ideas and emotions through different
styles of dance. These differences stem from the fact that each person’s nervous system is made unique by their
experiences.
As a child, you may have taken apart toys to see how they worked. In this chapter, our multifaceted, complicated
nervous system will be broken down into its parts. We will also discuss specific examples of human behavior and how
the design of your nervous system creates these actions.
3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

Try to remember what you learned in high school biology. Different kinds of cells are organized into specific kinds of
tissues, which are then further assembled into organs. These organs are then organized in a way to create a system
dedicated to a certain set of functions. We will first talk about the cells, and then how they are organized and connected.
There are two main types of cells in the nervous system. Neurons act as the main communicators. The second type of
cell are called glia; they perform numerous support functions in the nervous system. We will explore the neuron's
structure and function first.
3.2.1 Neurons
The basic building block of the nervous system is the neuron (Figure 3.3). Neurons have a cell body, a nucleus, and
internal machinery similar to other living cells. However, they also have specialized structures that allow them to
communicate in ways that make them unlike any other cell in your body. Neurons communicate with each other
through chemical messages that alter the electrical activity of other neurons (Koelle, 1968). The substructures of the
neuron play an intricate role in this process and deserve their own review.
The simulation below is an interactive image of a neuron. You can navigate through the various structures for an
overview of each substructure.
iFrame
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device to view iframe content.
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3.2.1.1 Dendrites Receive Messages
Dendrites are extensions of the membrane of the cell body and they receive chemical messages from many other
neurons. Remember, the chemical signal (called a neurotransmitter) influences action in the neuron. It can tell the
neuron to "activate" (we call this excitation) or "quiet down" (also known as inhibition).
Dendrites have proteins called receptors that are embedded in their membranes. These receptors bind with
molecules called neurotransmitters , chemicals, released by other cells, that help communication in the nervous
system. When a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor, it has the potential to influence the behavior of the cell. Generally,
after receiving a chemical signal, cells will either "fire" (send their own signal) or they will reduce their firing rate and the
signals sent to other neurons.
As we grow, learn, and experience the world around us, the dendrites spread and form connections with new neurons.
Over time these webs of communication become more complex. The more dendritic branches a neuron has, the
greater the number of other neurons the cell communicates with.
Figure 3.3 Basic Structure of a Neuron. The structure of a neuron is specially designed to communicate and
transmit. The dendrites give neurons the ability to form connections with many other neurons. The axons
provide a mechanism to transmit chemicals across a synapse, thus influencing activity in other neurons.
Neurons that need to communicate over longer distances are myelinated to speed up the electrical impulse.
Note that the myelin sheath is in sections. The small spaces between these sections are the nodes of Ranvier,
which help the charge leap down the axon.
Long Text Description
3.2.1.2 The Soma and Axon Work Together to Send Messages
Dendrites are actually extensions of the membrane of the soma , or cell body. The soma is the location of metabolic
processing in the cell and contains the cell's organelles. Protruding from the cell membrane, you will also find the
axon hillock , which is the beginning of the axon . Neurons have many dendrites that branch out from the soma;
however, there is only one axon. The axon acts much like a wire, transmitting the signal from the soma to the end of the
axon, where you will find the axon terminals and terminal buttons (sometimes called synaptic knobs).
The terminal buttons play an important role in neural communication. The terminal button houses vesicles , little
bubbles containing the neurotransmitters. At the terminal buttons the neuron will release neurotransmitters, sending
the signal to other nearby dendrites. Because this portion of the cell sends signals into the space between neurons—
known as the synapse, it is also called the presynaptic neuron . The vesicles release their contents into the
synaptic cleft , which is the space between two neurons, usually the axon and the dendrite. Remember, the synapse
is the connection between two neurons that allows them to communicate. Once the neurotransmitters are released
from the vesicles, they float in the synaptic cleft until they bind to postsynaptic receptors on the dendrites of adjacent
neurons or are recycled or degraded. This process is illustrated in Figure 3.4 below. Explore the icons to learn more
about each part.
iFrame
Another way to imagine this process is to think of Iron Man (Figure 3.5). Energy is generated in the body of the suit (the
soma) and travels down the arms of his suit (the axon). When the energy reaches his gloved fingers (the axon terminals),
a jolt is released from the tips of his fingers (the terminal buttons).
Figure 3.5 Imagine Iron Man’s arms as axons, and the beams of light as neurotransmitters that cause electrical
impulses in, or disable, their targets. [4]
Remember that your nervous system is a network. Imagine this whole sequence occurring trillions of times through 80–
90 billion neurons that are arranged to connect with each other in different configurations. Each communication
between neurons occurs within about five milliseconds! Think about this happening simultaneously or in rapid
succession trillions of times a day.
Another feature of some axons is a protein and fatty substance called myelin (Simons & Nave, 2015). This substance
acts kind of like the insulation wrapped around the wires you use every day to plug things into the wall (or your phone).
It keeps the electrical impulse flowing down the axon. There are also breaks in the myelin called nodes of Ranvier .
These are not flaws, rather the nodes play an important role in helping the signal to travel down the axon by allowing
ions to enter and change the charge inside the cell. This allows for more efficient signal transmission. The structures in
the neuron are optimized to transform and transfer energy, and send chemical messages at specific times.
3.2.2 How Neurons Transmit Messages: More Detail on the Action Potential
Neurons share information within and between parts of the nervous system, but there must be control of when and
how this happens. The main way this sharing of messages happens is through a burst of electrical energy in the neuron
that signals it to release a neurotransmitter. This can either be triggered or shut down.
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First, let’s address how the nervous system creates and uses this burst of electrical energy, called an action
potential. We all have electrically charged particles in our bodies called ions . Electrical activity in the body exists
because of the movement of these charged particles. You know of some ions already, like sodium (Na+) and chloride
(Cl–), the particles that make up table salt. Sodium has a positive charge, and chloride has a negative charge. Positively
charged Potassium (K+) is another player in this process.
A large number of negatively charged ions inside the cell causes the neuron to have a negative charge, usually around
-70 millivolts (mV). This is called "polarized" because the charge is far away from 0, which is neutral. When the cell is
polarized it is at rest and will not release neurotransmitters. The more positively charged particles inside the cell, the
more positive the charge inside that cell will be. This is called "depolarization" because we are moving away from the
state of being polarized. The more depolarized the neuron is, the more likely it is to activate (action potential) and send
a neurotransmitter to message other neurons or organs. For example, if we bring Na+ into the cell, it gets closer to the
action potential. If we push K+ out of the cell, it gets closer to deactivating because losing the positive ions makes the
neuron more negative (polarized).
But how do ions get in and out of the cell to make it more positive or negative? We know that a neuron, like any living
cell, has a membrane barrier keeping things from getting in or out. Of course, you can’t get through a barrier unless you
have some sort of opening. The membrane of a neuron is kind of like that. It has several kinds of doors, or channels, that
open in different ways. Some are locked and need a special key, like a neurotransmitter, and some are waiting for a
stimulus or the charge (voltage) to change inside the cell (Kwong & Carr, 2015; Zhu & Gouaux, 2017). Opening each of
the channels changes something different inside the cell. In the scenarios where we are changing electrical activity to
activate or deactivate a neuron, the channels are designed to allow ions to leave or enter the cell (Figure 3.7).
The action potential can be produced by the movement of Na+ into the neuron through a specific set of channels at the
right time. Imagine a nightclub scenario with Na+ ions as party people. There is only one door (channel) open because
there are only a few party people (Na+ ions). But if enough come in (threshold, refer to Figure 3.6), you might say “let’s
open all the doors and rooms for more party people (more Na+ ions).” This is what voltage-gated channels do. They are
waiting to see how many positive ions show up, to see if there is enough excitement to open up more. When the party
hits the climax, this is the action potential.
Figure 3.6 This graph of the increase and decrease in voltage inside the neuron corresponds with the movement
of positive ions. Depolarization is brought about by the influx of Na+, and repolarization happens because of the
efflux of K+.

Since there are multiple Na+ channels lined up strategically along the axon, this process causes the electrical impulse to
continue in succession along the axon (Figure 3.7). As the gated channels in each successive section “sense” the positive
shift in voltage, they pop open too, repeating the rush of Na+. This is propagation, the process by which electrical
impulses get sent to the end of a neuron (Rama et al., 2018). When this electrical impulse gets to the axon terminal, it
triggers the release of neurotransmitters, which are of course those chemicals we discussed earlier that neurons use to
signal each other.
Figure 3.7 The inset windows in (a), (b), and (c) depict the measured voltage inside the cell in
each situation. Pay careful attention to the distribution of ions on the outside versus the inside of
the membrane in each scenario. [7]
There must be some mechanism to turn neurons off as well. Can you imagine if the neurons that activated a particular
muscle were always firing? In a normally functioning neuron, the opening of the K+ channels allows the neuron to return
to and maintain resting potential. When its channel opens, K+ will rush out instead of in like Na+ (refer to part c in Figure
3.7 and "repolarization" in Figure 3.6). Potassium channels respond to depolarization as well, but after the Na+ channels
do (Lesage, 2003). So in a way, Na+ coming in triggers K+ leaving. This results in quick repolarization of the neuron to
negative resting potential. This also “resets” the neuron so that it can be activated again. To review the stages of action
potential, review the interactive slides linked below:
iFrame
Access Interactive Timeline 3.1 in a new browser tab.
Question 3.8
Review
True or False: Neurons have a net negative charge at rest. This means that when they are active, they must have a positive charge.
Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer.
a True
Your answer
b False
Explanation
When neurons become active, they depolarize. This means that they go from being negatively polarized at rest to being positively
charged when active.
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Question 3.9
Review
If potassium concentrations in the extracellular space are lowered, which of the following problems could this cause within the
neuron (keep in mind what you have learned about gradients and channels)?
a trouble maintaining resting potential

Your answer
b trouble being stimulated
c trouble shutting down after activation
d trouble maintaining the integrity of the membrane
Explanation
Neurons have special channels that pump in potassium while they pump out sodium. These help the neuron return to resting
potential. If there is too little potassium outside the cell, it will have trouble maintaining its resting potential.
Question 3.10
Review
Click on the graph of membrane potential below where you think sodium
channels are open.
Image: Three parts are circled on the line graph of the membrane potential.
The first circle is marked on the resting state line before the rising
depolarization line. The second circle is on the rising line near the peak.
The third circle is on the falling line near the peak.
 Correct!
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Explanation
Sodium channels open prior to the peak of the action potential, facilitating the process of depolarization.
Question 3.11
Review
Neurons depolarize when they become electrically active. This is due to which of the following?
a efflux of sodium
b influx of sodium
Your answer
c influx of potassium
d efflux of chloride
Explanation
"Influx" means "to flow into" while "efflux" means "to flow out." Recall also that depolarization means a neuron's charge goes from
negative to positive. This change is caused primarily by the movement of sodium, a positive ion, into the cell. Thus, an influx of
sodium is the correct answer.

Question 3.12
Review
Put the following steps in the right order.
Drag and drop options into correct order and submit. For keyboard navigation... SHOW MORE
small influx of Na
triggering of voltage-sensitive Na channels
large influx of Na
efflux of K
Your answer
Explanation
First there is a small influx of sodium ions, which eventually triggers a cascade of voltage-sensitive sodium ion channels (and causes a
large influx of sodium ions). The neuron repolarizes through the efflux of potassium ions.
Question 3.13
Review
A significant factor in creating the action potential is that the neuron has which of the following?
a a nucleus
b channels that hold water
c channels that allow ions to come in or leave the neuron

Your answer
d blockades that prevent ions from traveling in and out of the cell
Explanation
The action potential is caused by ions flowing into and out of the cell through ion channels.
Question 3.14
Review
Match the part to its function.
Drag and drop options on the right-hand side and submit. For keyboard navigation... SHOW MORE
axon Na channels propagation of the action potential
potassium channels maintenance of the resting potential

cell membrane keeping ions from crossing into/out of the cell
speeding up conduction of the electrical

myelin
impulse
Your answer
Explanation
Axon sodium ion channels are involved in propagating the action potential, while leaky channels help maintain its resting potential.
Both channel types exist within the lipid bilayer and make it semi-permeable. Myelin are separate cells altogether but still help with
neural transmission by speeding it up.
Question 3.15
Review
Which of the following do cells in your nervous system use to process information? Select all that apply.
Multiple answers: Multiple answers are accepted for this question
Select one or more answers and submit. For keyboard navigation... SHOW MORE
a electrical activity
Your answer
b changes in shape of the cell
c color
d chemicals
Your answer
Explanation
Neurons do not send and receive information using color or changes in shape.
Question 3.16
Review
If I told you that the membrane of the neuron in the question below normally doesn't allow ions to enter or leave, and you knew
that the movement of charged particles is how electrical impulses happen, how could you solve this problem?
a I would break open the membrane.
b I would make a door (or a channel) that can open and close.
Your answer
c I would just change the membrane to let everything through.
d I would make electricity happen without charged particles.
Explanation
Remember that charged particles need to move across the membrane without destroying it. The best solution would be some kind of
gate that could open and close.
Question 3.17
Review
Click on the structure that represents where neuronal activity is typically

initiated in the neuron.
Image: Four parts are circled in the structure of a neuron. 1. The spherical
part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and connects to the dendrites;
2. Appendages that resemble a tree-like structure, forming projections; 3. A
long, slender projection of a nerve cell or neuron; and 4. The terminal
branches of an axon.
1 of 2 correct

Hint
What is the flow of information in a neuron, from start to finish? Click on the "starting" place.
Question 3.18
Review
Click on the part of the graph below that corresponds to the opening of
voltage-gated potassium channels.
Image: Three parts are circled on the line graph of the membrane potential.
The first circle is marked on the resting state line before the rising
depolarization line. The second circle is on the rising line near the peak.
The third circle is on the falling line near the peak.
 Correct!
Explanation
Potassium channels help return the cell to its resting state and therefore occur primarily after the action potential has peaked.
This section has explored the functions of the neuron in an isolated situation, so we could understand some of the
machinery in a simple way. But your brain isn't made up of a bunch of isolated neurons. It is made of integrated
networks. Your neurons become active because of sensory stimulation and messages from other neurons that are
arranged in networks. The interaction between chemical neurotransmitters released from axons and the receptors on
dendrites is another way of controlling when neurons are active and inactive.
3.2.3 How Neurotransmitters and Receptors Work

Remember that the chemicals released from axon terminals that then bind with receptors on another neuron are called
neurotransmitters. Although there are over 100 different types of neurotransmitters in the body, we will only focus on a
handful that play vital roles in mood (e.g., depression and anxiety), pleasure, movement, memory, and other functions.
Some neurotransmitters are excitatory , meaning that they increase the probability of the neuron becoming
electrically active. Other neurotransmitters are inhibitory , meaning that they decrease the probability that the neuron
is activated (Schousboe, 1987). A neuron may receive inputs from both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters.
We were considering ion channels as doors earlier. When we have a door that we don’t want to leave open all the time,
we put a lock on it. Channels have gates that are like locks (Figure 3.8). Imagine you have a master key that opens many
doors on a particular floor in a building. Each door opens a room that has different equipment in it and is set up to do
something different. That is a good analogy to help us understand how neurotransmitters work with their protein
receptors embedded in neuronal membranes.
Figure 3.8 Like a key and lock, the neurotransmitter (key) is made to fit into a specially shaped binding site (lock)
on the receptor (door).
The example in Figure 3.9 shows two connected neurons. The axon of the first (presynaptic , or sending) neuron
releases neurotransmitters from its vesicles. When these neurotransmitters enter the synaptic space, they are attracted
to receptors on the dendrites of the second (postsynaptic , or receiving) neuron, where they alter cellular activity. If
enough neurotransmitters activate their receptors, we can get an action potential. But this is only true for certain
neurotransmitters.
Click the icons in Figure 3.9 below to learn more about the parts involved in the chemical communication between
neurons.
iFrame
Axons in the nervous system secrete many different kinds of neurotransmitters. Each is specific for a particular class of
receptor proteins. The interaction of each neurotransmitter with a receptor produces a different kind of response in the
neuron. Some interactions are inhibitory (causing hyperpolarization, –) and others are excitatory (causing +). For
example, GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, binds with its receptor to open a chloride (Cl–) channel. This makes the
cell negative, which as we know means the cell is more likely to be inactivated (inhibited). Acetylcholine (Ach) is
normally an excitatory neurotransmitter. When Ach binds to its appropriate receptor, a sodium (Na+) channel is opened,
making the cell more positive (more excited).
Several factors influence what kinds of behaviors, feelings, or thoughts result from neurotransmitter release, including
the receptors they bind with, where they are being released in the brain, the timing of the release, and the activity of
other neurons in the same network.
Question 3.19
Review
An excitatory neurotransmitter binding to a receptor would make the charge inside the neuron more
a negative
b superpolarized
c neutral
d positive
Your answer
Explanation
Excitatory signals cause action potentials. When an action potential occurs, the charge inside a neuron becomes more positive. We
can therefore conclude that excitatory signals make the charge inside the neuron more positive.
Question 3.20
Review
What part of the neuron below would I block if I wanted to keep it from
releasing neurotransmitters? [5]
Image: Four parts are circled in the structure of a neuron: the nucleus,
dendrites, node of Ranvier, and axon terminal.
 Correct!

Explanation
Recall that neurotransmitters are housed in the axon terminals (terminal buttons). Axon terminals are located at the end of the axon
in a cluster of branch-like structures.
Question 3.21
Review
Sort the following steps in the process of triggering an action potential.
Drag and drop options into correct order and submit. For keyboard navigation... SHOW MORE
binding of a neurotransmitter to a receptor
influx of positive ions into the cell body
opening of voltage-gated sodium channels on the cell body
opening of potassium channels
Your answer
Explanation
The steps of triggering an action potential include first receiving neurotransmitter signals, followed by an influx of positive ions, which
leads to depolarization from the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels. Finally, repolarization occurs due to the opening of
potassium channels.
3.2.3.1 Your Brain on Drugs
This interaction between neurotransmitters and receptors can also be artificially manipulated or affected in many ways
through chemicals. Different neurotransmitters have different effects depending on the location of the receptor; drugs
that alter our experiences work by acting like a neurotransmitter or by stopping a neurotransmitter from finding the
receptor site.
Agonists mimic the action of an endogenous (naturally produced by the body) neurotransmitter. Antagonists
prevent the action of the endogenous neurotransmitter (Krystal, 1999). Agonists or antagonists can be competitive
(direct), meaning they will compete with the same binding site on the receptor as the neurotransmitter. Some are non-
competitive (indirect) because they bind at a different site. We might call these chemicals passive-aggressive because
they won’t directly confront the neurotransmitter but will instead interfere with receptor function from some hidden
location.
Some drugs are what we call partial agonists/antagonists (Ekinci & Ekinci, 2015). This means that they bind to and
activate the receptor with less “power” than the endogenous neurotransmitter. For example, a neurotransmitter like
glutamate will bind to its receptor and cause a cell to depolarize (Wisden & Seeburg, 1993). A partial agonist would
bind to the same receptor but for a shorter amount of time, resulting in less activation. In Table 3.1, several
neurotransmitters are mentioned along with their functions and the associated clinical and recreational drugs that
interact with the same receptors.
Excitatory/
Neurotransmitter Function Associated Drugs
Inhibitory
PCP (causes
Glutamate Excitatory Learning and movement hallucinations), Ketamine
(anesthetic)
Learning, anxiety Valium (used to treat
GABA Inhibitory regulation through anxiety), Flumazenil (used
inhibition of neurons to reverse anesthesia)
Botox (Botulinum toxin,
Acetylcholine Excitatory Learning, muscle action inhibits release of
acetylcholine)
Cocaine (prevents
Dopamine Excitatory/Inhibitory Learning, reward/pleasure reuptake of dopamine,
produces euphoria)
Prozac (prevents reuptake
Elevation/ depression of
Serotonin Excitatory/Inhibitory of serotonin, used to treat
mood
depression)
Elevation / depression of Doxepin (used for treating
Norepinephrine Excitatory/Inhibitory
mood anxiety and depression)
Regulation of pain
Enkaphalins/Endorphins Excitatory/Inhibitory Opiates (Morphine, Heroin)
responses
Table 3.1 Example Neurotransmitters and Associated Drugs. This table outlines a few of the many neurotransmitters released in the
brain, as well as some clinical and recreational drugs that interact with the same receptors.
Let's consider a few of the neurotransmitters presented in Table 3.1 in more detail. Dopamine has been implicated in
several behaviors and circuits in the brain (Björklund & Dunnett, 2007). Often, it is associated with pleasurable feelings
associated with reward. Drugs like cocaine create pleasurable sensations because they prolong the effectiveness of
dopamine in the synapse. Similarly, you may have heard of people using “Botox” to smooth wrinkles. Did you know that
they are actually inducing partial paralysis for cosmetic reasons? Botox is short for botulinum toxin, which is a poison
that stops the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, thereby preventing muscle contractions. Therefore, the
facial muscles cannot contract to pull the skin into wrinkles. The patient’s skin is smooth, but this sure does make it
hard to smile.
Question 3.22
Review
You are an evil villain who just happens to be masquerading as a psychiatrist. You want to increase depression in your patients.
Which of the following would be most effective in your evil plan?
a a dopamine receptor agonist
b a norepinephrine receptor agonist
c a partial acetylcholine receptor antagonist
d a serotonin receptor antagonist

Your answer
Explanation
Serotonin has been implicated in mood, and less of this neurotransmitter could cause depression. Therefore, you would want a
serotonin receptor antagonist to block the action of serotonin in the brain.
Question 3.23
Review
Click the part of this receptor where neurotransmitters might bind.
Image: Four parts of the receptor are circled. Two neurotransmitter

receptors are spaced apart and embedded in the plasma membrane of a
cell. Four circles are marked in different locations on the neurotransmitter
receptors. The locations are 1. One at the tip of the left receptor; 2. Two at
the mid-lateral sides of the left receptor; and 3. One at the lateral mid-side
of the right receptor.
 Correct!

Explanation
Remember the "lock and key" model. Receptors are the "lock" while neurotransmitters are the "key." The notch on the left side of this
ion channel is the receptor site in this case. (The notches on the right side of the ion channel might also be receptor sites, but they
aren't circled as a potential option.)
Question 3.24
Review
Which type of drug binds to and activates the receptor with less “power” than the endogenous neurotransmitter?
a pro-antagonist
b agonist
c partial agonist/antagonist
Your answer
d protagonist
Explanation
Partial agonists and antagonists bind to and activate the receptor site, but they do so in a way that is less effective than the
neurotransmitter itself.
3.2.4 Glial Cells

Throughout the nervous system, glial cells support neurons and actually outnumber them ten to one. In some ways,
glial cells can be considered the caretakers of the neuron. Glial cells perform vital roles in the nervous system, such as
providing structural support for neurons, bringing nutrients, removing waste and dead neurons, and speeding up
electrical impulses.
We mentioned myelin in our discussion of the neuron as the part of the axon that helps speed up electrical impulses.
Myelin is made of protein and fat, and it is wrapped around the axons of some neurons in the brain and spinal cord by
glial cells called oligodendrocytes . By creating the myelin sheath, these cells speed up communication in the central
nervous system. Schwann cells do the same thing for nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord.
Cells called astrocytes and microglia help form the immune system of the brain (Brambilla, 2019). They both fight
infections and clean up debris that could lead to dangerous inflammation in the brain. In fact, dysfunctional astrocytes
have been implicated in neurodegenerative diseases —disorders in which neurons die over time and cause
progressive (increasing) loss of a particular ability (Capani, 2016). Until recently, we thought the underlying problems
existed in neurons only.
Question 3.25
Review
Which glial cells fight infections and clean up debris that could lead to dangerous inflammation in the brain? Select all that apply.
a Schwann cells
b astrocytes
Your answer
c microglia
Your answer
d oligodendrocytes
Explanation
Astrocytes and microglia clean up debris and fight infections; Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes are what make up the myelin
sheath (but in different parts of the nervous system).
Question 3.26
Review
Which of the following is the purpose of glial cells? Select all that apply.
a support
Your answer
b sensing stimuli in the environment
c releasing neurotransmitters into the synapse
d speeding up electrical impulses

Your answer
Explanation
Glial cells primarily provide support for the rest of the nervous system, whether that support is physical, through cleanup, or through
speeding neural transmission.
Question 3.27
Review
Match the type of cell with its description.
wrap around the axons of some neurons in the

oligodendrocytes
brain and spinal cord
wrap myelin around the nerves outside the

Schwann cells
brain and spinal cord
Your answer
Explanation
Schwann cells wrap myelin around nerves outside the brain, while oligodendrocytes do the same for some neurons in the brain and
spinal cord.
3.3 Brain Anatomy: How to Build a Sophisticated Network

Now that we know a bit about the building blocks of the nervous system, their properties, and their functions, we can
build a nervous system. We have now learned that neurons can translate chemical messages into electrical impulses.
They then use those electrical impulses as signals to trigger the release of their own neurotransmitter chemicals. But
how do we get that sequence of events from point A (the brain) to point B (some organ or muscle)? How do those
messages get transmitted to different areas in the nervous system itself? The answer is neural networks and nerves.
Neural networks are complex connections between the dendrites and axons of many neurons. The 80–90 billion
neurons in the brain make trillions of connections. Even a small area like the hippocampus (discussed later) has
millions of neurons. A nerve is just a large bundle of axons from many neurons bundled into a tube that extends a large
distance. These axons extend from cell bodies that are housed in the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of
the brain and spinal cord.
Some of these axons, called efferents , are carrying electrical impulses away from the CNS to trigger neurotransmitter
or hormone release in an organ or muscle. Others, called afferents , are carrying impulses back to the CNS from the
organs and muscles.
If we are going to have a complex system that responds to a changing environment, it had better be able to change
itself. Our nervous system accomplishes this through a process called neuroplasticity, which is the ability of neurons
and their networks to change (Section 3.4: Central versus Peripheral Nervous Systems; Bower, 1990). At birth, we have
an excess of neurons. As we grow, we lose more neurons than we gain; however, this is not necessarily a bad thing. We
need to get rid of neurons that are inefficient, damaged, or unnecessary. Our nervous system can also grow new
branches on dendrites and change amounts of receptors and neurotransmitters. All of these processes are part of the
neuroplasticity that changes how networks are organized.
The following video shows that therapists and physicians can even take advantage of neuroplasticity to accelerate
healing for their patients!
Video
However, many of the processes that occur in our brains and bodies are automatic and below the level of
consciousness. There are other neural networks dedicated to those tasks. For example, it would be difficult if you had to
consciously remember to breathe while you were studying, or to digest your dinner, or to pump blood into and out of
your heart:
Headline: Student dies studying: Forgets to breathe
Here is another way to think about this issue: If you had a large, busy, productive company, you would not want the CEO
checking the heating and cooling systems. Now, the CEO’s attitude can certainly affect the heating and cooling systems.
If he or she sends out a directive that everyone has to start working twice as hard, then we may need more cool air in
the building because people will be sweating.
These examples, when transferred to the brain, refer to two different parts: your neocortex (conscious thought/decision-
making) and medulla (basic life functions). The conscious processing of sensory input occurs in the neocortex , which
is the outer layer of your brain. The neocortex is like the CEO in the corporation mentioned above. Circuits in your
medulla (a structure in the brainstem) help control basic life-support functions like breathing, heart rate, and reflexes
(Angeles Fernández-Gil et al., 2010). These circuits are like workers and onsite managers in the corporation mentioned
above. Your heart will beat and your lungs will expand and contract without you needing to consciously send this
message. This is why some individuals in a comatose state can still breathe and pump blood through the heart, despite
the fact that they can’t respond to others or move. Even though the person is not conscious or active, the other
networks responsible for maintaining life functions continue to operate.
Question 3.28
Review
Match the structures to their functions.
conscious thought‚ decision-making‚ outer-

neocortex
most layer of the brain.
heartbeat‚ respiration‚ and other basic life
medulla
support functions.
Your answer
Explanation
The medulla is involved in basic life support, while the neocortex is responsible for higher-order processing.
However, we do have some conscious control over these functions (Jones et al., 2015). The thoughts and fears we are
fully aware of can shift, or modulate, the function of the heart and lungs. We can think about things that calm us down
or make us angry, and this will either slow down or speed up our heartbeat. You could be, say, a neuroscientist who is
writing a book chapter and under pressure to meet a deadline. This knowledge could cause your brain to make your
breathing more rapid and shallow, which speeds up blood flow to the muscles when we are under high alert. Stressful
situations activate the same mechanisms that help us fight or flee when we are in danger. This modulation of neural
networks in the lower-brain centers like the medulla and spinal cord is made possible by axons that extend from the
cortex to connect with neurons in the medulla.
Question 3.29
Review
Match the following structures with their function.
guiding electrical impulses/messages toward

afferents
the brain
guiding electrical impulses/messages away from

efferents
the brain
Your answer
Explanation
Afferent messages occur when we are affected by the world (signals are sent to the brain). Efferent messages occur when we have an
effect on the world (the brain sends signals to the rest of the body).
Question 3.30
Review
Why is an injury to the brainstem so dangerous?
a It could lead to psychotic thought patterns.
b It could affect endocrine function and cause diabetic complications.
c It could affect clusters of neurons that regulate the heart rate and breathing.
Your answer
d It could impact memory.

Explanation
Damage to the brainstem can affect neurons that regulate the heart and breathing, which can lead to death.
Question 3.31
Review
Fill in the Blanks
Type your answers in all of the blanks and submit
We can learn to do new things, even as adults. This is because of the concept of neuroplasticity , which
You are correct
suggests the brain can change and adapt over time.
Explanation
Neuroplasticity (or simply "plasticity") is the ability of the brain to adapt its structure to respond and survive in its environment. This
is what allows us to learn new things.
3.4 Central versus Peripheral Nervous Systems

If we are comparing the nervous system to a company, consider that a typical major company has a command center
and several satellite locations. When it works well, the command center should be getting information from the satellite
locations and using that information to modify the commands. That is exactly why you have a central and a peripheral
division to your nervous system (Figure 3.10). Effective communication happens in all directions, not just in one
direction. The central nervous system (CNS) is all the cells and supporting structures inside the skull and vertebral
column. In short, the CNS is the brain and the spinal cord. The nerves outside of the skull and vertebral column, as well
as the specialized sensory endings (retinal cells, touch receptors, hair cells in the ear, etc.), comprise the peripheral
nervous system.
Figure 3.10 The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The nerves that exit the brain and
spinal cord to help control and share information with the body become the peripheral nervous system.
The spinal cord conducts simple reflex-level processing and communication with peripheral nerves in the body. Think
about what happens when you step on a piece of glass—you withdraw your foot quickly. To do that, you would also
have to keep your balance by extending your other leg. All of this has to happen simultaneously. This means that the
neurons in the spinal cord and the nerves that exit the spinal cord to connect to the muscles must be coordinated. The
neurons in the spinal cord are arranged in circuits that do just that.
The central nervous system contains both gray matter (neurons and glia) and white matter, which consists of bundles of
myelinated axons. In fact, myelin is what makes it appear white. The gray matter does local processing of information,
and the white matter helps different areas of the brain share information by connecting neurons via axons and
dendrites (Kaller et al., 2017).
3.4.1 The Peripheral Nervous System: Bridge between Brain, Body, and World
Remember, once nerves (bundles of axons) leave the spinal cord or brain, they are in the peripheral nervous system.
The information in the brain is of no use if it is not shared with the body. No action would occur without this connection.
If the brain didn’t perceive what is happening in the environment, it would be rendered rather useless. Split into
somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (automatic) divisions, the peripheral nervous system is a large part of what
makes our brain a conduit and processor between the world and the self (Figure 3.11).
Your vertebrae are individual joints that make up your vertebral column. This arrangement allows for two things: (a) the
ability to flex (think bending over), extend (reaching high), and twist the spine; and (b) space for peripheral nerves to exit
the spinal cord so that they can connect and communicate with the body.
Figure 3.11 Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System. The peripheral nervous system is split into two
divisions. The somatic nervous system directly controls voluntary movement, while the autonomic division
regulates functions we do not control consciously. The autonomic division is further split into the sympathetic
(common known as “fight or flight”) and the parasympathetic (“rest and restore”). [11]
3.4.1.1 The Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary Movement
The somatic nervous system contains the neurons and nerves that control the muscles for voluntary movement and
bring sensory information from the body to the brain. This system includes nerves that connect to muscles and joints in
the neck, arms, legs, and torso.
If you throw a ball, your brain is sending commands that activate somatic neurons in the spinal cord (Figure 3.12). This
creates action potentials in nerves that exit the spinal cord. In the case of a voluntary movement like this, command
impulses have been sent from the brain to neurons in the spinal cord. This stimulates neurons, whose axons are
bundled into nerves that connect with muscles.
Figure 3.12 From this person's feet all the way to their hand that releases the ball,
the motor cortex sends signals through the somatic nervous system that activate
muscles in a particular sequence that we call throwing. [12]
You are also getting signals back from muscles and joints all through your body and from your skin. These signals travel
back along nerves from the body to provide information to reflex circuits in the spinal cord and to synapse with neurons
that send signals back to the brain.
If the spinal cord is injured, any body parts being controlled by nerves from spinal cord segments below that point can
no longer be controlled voluntarily (Huang et al., 2016). The brain will also be unable to perceive sensory information
from those parts of the body. Think of the spinal cord like an information highway—an injury is like a roadblock on that
highway.
3.4.1.2 The Autonomic Nervous System: Automatic Movement
The other subdivision of the peripheral nervous system is called the autonomic nervous system. That word sounds a
little like “automatic,” doesn’t it? There is a good reason for that. Below the level of consciousness, the autonomic
nervous system regulates all the automatic functions that keep you alive, functional, and healthy.
The autonomic system is even further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic connections to organs and
endocrine system structures (refer to Figure 3.13). If you want a “quick and dirty” way of characterizing these divisions,
think of them as mainly “go” and “relax.” A specific event can activate both systems, but most events activate one or the
other.
Figure 3.13 The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous divisions comprise the autonomic nervous system
and exert control over functions that do not require conscious control, including digestion, heart rate,
respiration, and sexual functions. These nerves are also modulated by the endocrine system. [13]
The neurons and nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system originate in the lower brain and sacral spinal cord.
When activated, parasympathetic nerves transmit commands to your organs that help you recover, digest, and become
sexually aroused. The sympathetic nerves mostly achieve the opposite. When we stimulate sympathetic nerves, we get
increases in heart rate and breathing. There is also an inhibition of digestive activity.
If you have ever been in a situation where you were nervous or frightened, your sympathetic nervous system (mainly
consisting of neurons and supporting cells in the spinal cord) was activated. Think about a person in a life or death
situation. Their heart would beat in overdrive to pump blood to their muscles. Their visual field would be narrowed for
focus. They would produce more sweat as their body temperature rises. Blood flow would be routed toward all the
systems that would help them fight or escape and away from systems involved in digestion or growth and repair. This
means that while your sympathetic nervous system is activated, your parasympathetic system is deactivated.
Yoga or a good meal will activate circuits in the parasympathetic nervous system (Tyagi & Cohen, 2014). Your heart rate
and respiration will slow down, and more blood (think: energy) will be routed to your digestive system. The
parasympathetic nervous system helps us to rest, recover, and repair (Figure 3.14).
Figure 3.14 When we do something relaxing, we begin to activate the parasympathetic (rest, digest, and repair)
nervous system. Keep in mind though, if this pose is very difficult or you are nervous about your balance, you
will likely activate your sympathetic nervous system! [14]
Sex actually stimulates both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The excitement of attraction will activate
the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in increased heart rate and respiration. We can even feel jittery from
increased neural activation of our muscles. But the parasympathetic system increases blood flow to the genitals,
resulting in erection for both the male and female.
If you think about this separation of tasks, another primary goal becomes obvious: We need to both use and conserve
energy. If our systems are running at full steam all the time, we would burn out quickly. In that context, let’s consider the
problem of constant (chronic) stress. Evolutionarily, we are wired to pay attention to danger—threats to our life, security,
loved ones, and food. Now that we have jobs where our performance is tied to money, which provides security and
food, the workplace represents a daily threat to these things (Jarczok et al., 2013). This means that the neurons in your
autonomic system can shift into a state of more frequent/constant activation.
3.5 Sections of the Brain: The Central Command Center

While we can simplify concepts, there is no part of your nervous system that is truly simple. The most complex parts of
your nervous system are in the brain, with its 85 billion neurons (give or take a few). You have learned a lot about the
cells in the brain and the major divisions at this point. Now we will take a more detailed look at the command center,
where neurons are organized into complex circuits that are dedicated to different functions and integrated with other
circuits. When we discuss parts of the brain, keep in mind that in each lobe, or area, we are talking about neurons and
supporting structures that are organized and connected in a unique way to perform a set of tasks (Figure 3.15).
Explore the icons in Figure 3.15 below to learn more about the different sections of the brain.
iFrame
Before beginning this journey though the brain, it is important to discuss a little history of neuroscience. Traditionally,
the field has been focused on understanding which parts of the brain are "in charge" of specific behaviors. If you were to
review some of the classic literature in the field, you would find several experimental studies where researchers
explicitly damage a portion of the brain (of nonhuman animals) to try and determine how the animals' behavior
changed. You will also find several interesting clinical case studies with humans. In these situations, damage to the
brain typically results from illness or injury. Following damage to a particular region of the brain, the participant is no
longer able to complete specific behaviors.
Modern neuroscientists are learning that the organization of the brain is, not surprisingly, far more complicated than a
one-to-one relationship between particular structures and their functions. While it is true that damage to specific
regions of the brain will cause specific impairments, we are beginning to realize that different processes rely upon each
other to operate. For instance, in Chapter 8: Memory, you will read about the case study of H.M., a man with damage to a
region of the brain known as the hippocampus. This damage resulted in his inability to form new memories about his
life (Corkin, 2002). Subsequent studies on the hippocampus suggest that it does play a role in the experience of certain
types of memories, but the broad experience of remembering is influenced by several other areas and processes in
addition to the hippocampus. Moreover, the hippocampus seems to also be fundamental to other processes
(Covington, et al., 2018).
3.5.1 Life Functions and Basic Reflexes

The medulla and pons are critical for sustaining basic life functions (Figure 3.16). These rudimentary structures are
found in all animals (even frogs and pigeons). Part of their job is to regulate basic life functions in the background. But
they also have another job: connecting the peripheral and central nervous systems to regulate what we do and pay
attention to.
Figure 3.16 The medulla and pons help to regulate a lot of the basic functions we don't have to think about,
including our heartbeat, level of awareness, and turning our head suddenly to look at something.
3.5.1.1 The Medulla
The medulla, or medulla oblongata, is the lowest anatomical portion of the brain and the transition point between the
brain and the spinal cord. Without the medulla, you could not breathe, your heart would not beat, and you would be
incapable of swallowing (which is vital in obtaining nourishment). Significant damage to the medulla is fatal. This is why
upper spinal cord injuries can be fatal: because they involve neurons in the medulla/cervical spinal cord area that
perform these life functions.
You have likely heard stories of college students being hazed by fraternities and dying from alcohol overdoses. Part of
what happens in that scenario is that large amounts of ethanol (the active ingredient in alcohol) depress activity in the
medulla so much that it can no longer sustain the heart rate and respiration required to keep you alive (Wilson &
Saukkonen, 2004). This is a great reason to avoid impressing others with how much you can drink over a short period of
time.
3.5.1.2 Pons
Information from the spinal cord enters the medulla and is then transferred to the pons and to higher-order brain
functions. This occurs so that this information can be useful at each level of processing. The pons helps to regulate
arousal (level of excitement/energy), coordinate the senses with the cerebellum, and serve as a bridge for tracts from
the upper brain to the lower brain/spinal cord. It also houses several clusters of neurons that control facial expressions
and eye movements. Further, the vestibulocochlear nerve enters the brain here. This is the nerve, originating in your
inner ear, that helps your brain sense your body’s orientation and regulates left–right coordination.
3.5.1.3 Reticular Activating System
The reticular activating system (RAS) is a network of neurons spanning the center of the medulla and pons. It bridges
the functions of the body and brain via connections to the spinal cord and thalamus. There are two intertwined
functions that the RAS helps to regulate: (a) our level of arousal (excitement/energy) and (b) the focus of our attention
on tasks, people, or objects. For example, imagine that you are at a party. There is so much going on around you, but
you want to talk to your friends. The RAS may allow you to focus on them despite the incredible number of other things
to see and hear (Kinomura et al., 1996).
In normal situations, the RAS filters out irrelevant stimuli on a constant and daily basis (Figure 3.17). In fact, dysfunction
in this system has been implicated as a possible contributor to ADHD (Cyr et al., 2015). The RAS is one area of the brain
that neuroscientists have recently focused on.
Figure 3.17 The reticular activating system connects to the spinal cord and cortical circuits to regulate
arousal/level of attention. It receives sensory input and packages this information into coded messages that
help networks in the cortex refine decisions.
3.5.2 The Coordinators

The networks of neurons and glia (often called nuclei or ganglia ) in the limbic system, basal ganglia, and
cerebellum are designed to be modifiers of action and thought (Figure 3.18). They collect information encoded by
impulses from other areas of the central nervous system and help cortical circuits modify high-level commands. These
are the areas of the brain that help us adjust on the fly after areas like the prefrontal cortex make decisions. Structures
like the limbic system also help us feel emotions and remember.
Figure 3.18 The midbrain (diencephalon) and cerebellum coordinate several different functions to make sense
of sensory information, regulate emotional responses, form memories, and coordinate movement/cognition.
3.5.2.1 The Limbic System
The limbic system includes circuits in the cortex (telencephalon) and the midbrain (mesencephalon). It helps to
regulate our endocrine systems as well as our emotions and emotional memory. It contains the prefrontal cortex, the
olfactory (smell) cortex, the amygdala, the hippocampus, the cingulate gyrus, and the hypothalamus (Figure 3.19). We
could say that the function of this system is to integrate more primitive functions with higher-order thought.
Figure 3.19 The structures of the limbic system are specialized but varied neutral networks that coordinate to
bridge higher-order thought and primitive emotional responses.
The amygdala (telencephalon) increases electrical activity in its neurons when we are under threat. It is also involved
in aggression responses to threats, disgust to contaminants, appetitive responses to delicious food, and even romantic
love (Fadok et al., 2018). It is responsible for the increased secretion of norepinephrine (adrenalin) in the body during
our fight-or-flight response (Rajbhandari et al., 2015). It is also active in forming memories associated with events that
are tied to strong emotions.
The amygdala receives input from all of your senses. It uses this information to make calculations about the emotional
value and intensity of a stimulus. This is what makes it so integral to the experience of fear. The outputs (axons) of the
amygdala connect with many areas, including the hippocampus and the thalamus, for the formation of emotional
memories and to coordinate behavior.
An amygdalectomy, a procedure involving the experimental destruction of the amygdala in animals, makes animals
docile (Kling, 1972). They will even snuggle up to things they would normally find scary. Humans that have damage to
the amygdala lose awareness of their own emotions and thus often respond inappropriately in situations that normally
trigger emotional responses. Emotions regulate our behavior as much as logic does. Think about how androids interact
with people in science fiction movies, and how lack of emotion causes problems with their behavior around humans.
On the flip side, overactivity in the amygdala has been observed in patients who suffer from anxiety or phobias (Garcia,
2017).
The hippocampus (telencephalon), a circular structure medial to the temporal lobes, is set up as a loop of neurons
that are activated when we are forming memories. The hippocampal synapses strengthen, making more receptors and
neurotransmitters, when exposed to high-frequency stimulation over time.
This unique structure is essential to the formation of new memories, and even the imagination of new possibilities.
Though the hippocampus is not our entire memory system, repeatedly activating its neurons is necessary for the
cataloging of new experiences. It helps us remember what we want to return to or avoid. The relationship of the
hippocampus and amygdala to the memory of new and emotionally important events and objects is crucial to our
survival. The following video explains the significance of the hippocampus in memory formation.
Video
The cingulate gyrus (telencephalon), which is underneath the neocortex, is an interesting set of neurons. We see
increased activity in this area both when people experience physical pain and when they are excluded socially (Vogt,
2005). This neural network helps focus our attention and thoughts on things that are unpleasant to us. Just calling pain
and exclusion “unpleasant” sort of trivializes them, but the reason these experiences are perceived as unpleasant is that
we associate them with potential damage and death.
The hypothalamus (diencephalon) helps control several functions in the autonomic and endocrine systems. When this
structure is damaged, we observe deficits in regulating hunger responses, sexual behavior, body temperature, and
aggression (King, 2006). The hypothalamus can help bring about both life and death in this way. We will discuss the
hypothalamus in greater detail in Section 3.6: The Endocrine System.

3.5.2.2 Coordinating Movement
The basal ganglia (telencephalon and diencephalon) are interconnected groups of neurons that serve to modulate
movement commands in the brain before they reach the spinal cord (Figure 3.20). You will see increased blood flow and
electrical activity in this area when someone is initiating or terminating a movement (think about starting to walk, then
stopping). Also, the basal ganglia are heavily involved in helping us learn to make complex movements more automatic.
Consider what is necessary for an elite gymnast like Simone Biles to complete a vault or flip. We don't typically think
about the role the brain plays in completing a task like this, but when we move, the basal ganglia are largely
responsible.
Figure 3.20 The basal ganglia are anatomically and functionally connected nuclei (clustered groups of neurons)
that help make movements more automatic. They also participate in goal-directed movement.
Anyone familiar with sports can appreciate the masterful level of control elite athletes, musicians, and artists have over
their bodies. The tennis player Roger Federer is able to hit a tennis ball to a precise location on a court during a
match. Olympian Simone Biles can complete vaults that no other female gymnast has been able to master. Esperanza
Spalding is able to play the upright bass while simultaneously singing along to the music. The video below shows the
work of John Bramblitt, a visually impaired painter who uses his sense of touch and imagination instead of vision to
create beautiful, intricate works of art.
Video
This all requires moment-to-moment control of the body and coordination of input from the internal and external
environment, coupled with the formation of and access to both conscious and unconscious memory of all of the above.
The basal ganglia and cerebellum, discussed in more detail in the following video, help us do that.
Video
The basal ganglia are several groups of neuronal circuits near the base of the brain that help to coordinate movement
and assist in making movements more automatic. The basal ganglia consist of the dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus
and putamen) as well as the ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens), the globus pallidus , the substantia nigra , and
the subthalamic nucleus.
The striatum is where inputs to the basal ganglia come in. Receiving many inputs from all over the cortex helps the
basal ganglia coordinate multiple streams of information. This is how the basal ganglia nuclei work together to help us
learn movements through practice. The ventral striatum neurons synapse with axons from the limbic system. We all
know that emotion is often a motivation to learn, so it makes sense that a set of networks that function to help us learn
would get a boost from emotion circuits, too.
The globus pallidus and substantia nigra send inhibitory outputs to the thalamus to help integrate sensory and motor
information with motor planning. Internally, the basal ganglia have two circuits that process input and coordinate
output. One is the direct pathway, which has an excitatory effect on the thalamus and drives motor behavior. This
pathway facilitates the activation of motor plans that are appropriate for the present situation. The indirect pathway,
when activated, has a net inhibitory effect on its targets. This helps the basal ganglia shut down motor patterns/plans
that are not right for the task at hand.
These basal ganglia have been the subject of much discussion because of their involvement in the development and
progression of Parkinson’s disease, a progressive (gets worse over time) disease resulting in impaired movement.
Parkinson’s patients exhibit a symptom called “cogwheel rigidity.” This means that the patient will have a hard time
initiating and terminating movements.
One part of the basal ganglia in particular is implicated in Parkinson’s—the substantia nigra (Figure 3.20). This is a
neuronal circuit that is dopaminergic, meaning that the axons of these neurons secrete dopamine. In Parkinson’s, these
cells die off, and people lose part of the circuit that initiates and terminates movements. The systematic study of
Parkinson’s patients, their symptoms, and brain anatomy after death is how (along with carefully controlled
experiments in animals and humans) we solved part of the puzzle of this disease.
The cerebellum (metencephalon) got its name because it looks like another little brain (it has the wrinkles and lobes
like the cerebrum). This part of your brain is basically a rhythm and timing machine. The neuronal circuits in the layers
of the cerebellum are strategically connected with other parts of the brain to modify what they do, especially for
movement but also in cognitive tasks. How does the cerebellum do all of this? The circuits in the cerebellum are set up
to simultaneously receive and organize input from multiple central nervous system networks.
Functionally, the cerebellum is separated into three major divisions (Figure 3.21): spinocerebellar, vestibulocerebellar,
and cerebrocerebellar. The spinocerebellar division helps to match sensory input with motor plans in order to fine-tune
movement patterns. The vestibulocerebellar division processes information from the inner ear to help adjust your
posture and balance. The cerebrocerebellar (lateral hemispheres and dentate nuclei) division manages connections
with the pons and thalamus to adjust the timing and planning of movements.
Figure 3.21 The cerebellum coordinates movements by integrating motor commands and information from the
vestibular system (inner ear and midbrain colliculi).
Think about the decisions a baseball player makes while waiting for a pitch. The cerebellum, with practice, helps the
player decide to swing the bat at the right time along the right path and maintain balance while swinging. Master
musicians have been shown to have greater cerebellar volume relative to novices, which means they have more
extensive connections in this area (Hutchinson, 2003).
Sometimes, the circuits in the cerebellum are injured or don’t develop correctly. In these cases, the patient will present
to a neurologist with symptoms such as loss of balance or an uncoordinated gait (walking). Unlike severe damage to the
motor cortex or spinal cord, problems in the cerebellum do not result in paralysis. Instead, the person’s timing,
planning, and balance are altered. Professor Peggy Mason discusses symptoms of cerebellar damage in more detail in
the video below.
Video
More recently, researchers have found that the cerebellum coordinates thought and problem-solving as well as control
of emotional responses (Schmahmann & Caplan, 2006). It does this by connecting with association areas of the
neocortex and the hypothalamus.
3.5.2.3 Thalamus: The Relay Station
Think about how we associate one sense with another. The sight of someone you love can make you think of how they
smell and vice versa. Our brains are set up to create packaged experiences. The way the thalamus is arranged and
connected helps us do that (Sherman, 2017). Each cluster of neurons in the thalamus corresponds to a particular set of
functions and locations in some part of the brain. While the reticular activating system determines level of arousal and
amount of attention, the thalamus is what the cortex uses to choose which thing we pay attention to.
Figure 3.22 shows the thalamus (diencephalon). It operates like Grand Central Station, the hub through which all train
routes pass. All senses, with the exception of smell (which is routed directly to the temporal lobes), must pass through
the thalamus before they are relayed to the neocortex for interpretation, organization, and action plans (Sherman &
Guillery, 2006). This means that axons from spinal and cranial nerves that carry impulses from the eyes, ears, skin,
muscles, and joints first synapse in the thalamus. In turn, these neurons have axons that project to areas of the cortex
that make decisions governing our next set of thoughts and responses. The thalamus is arranged as a series of nuclei
(remember, these are clusters of neurons, not like the nucleus of a cell). Each nucleus receives a specific kind of sensory
information or sends that information to another part of the brain.
Explore the icons in Figure 3.22 below to learn more about different parts of the thalamus.
iFrame
3.5.3 Neocortex (New Brain): Higher-Level Processing

We share a lot of characteristics with other primates. But there are two ways in which we differ greatly: the number of
connections in the neocortex and the area dedicated to the frontal lobes, which govern personality, context, and
decision-making (Alvarez & Emory, 2006). This region of the brain has the distinctive “wrinkled” or “tree bark”
appearance that we are used to seeing on the outside of the brain. In fact, this structure (set of structures, really) is what
most people picture when they think of the brain. Part of what makes humans capable of abstract thought may be the
thickness of our neocortex (Menary et al., 2013). There are four basic sections of the neocortex, called lobes (pictured in
Figure 3.15).
It is important to know that although each lobe usually serves a particular set of functions, they all work together
because the neurons in each lobe grow axons that connect to the others either directly or indirectly through lower brain
structures.
Your neocortex looks the way it does because of three distinct features: the gyri (ridges), sulci (valleys) and fissures
(spaces between lobes). This kind of structure allows us to fit more brain into a small space like a human skull. The
neocortex has six layers.
Each lobe of the neocortex receives sensory information in primary areas. Adjacent to these primary processing
networks are areas called the association cortex that further process the information and help to integrate it with
other sensory information. Think about how you can remember the way a grandparent’s or parent’s cooking smells
when you see their house. It is the association areas of the cortex that accomplish this level of integration.
3.5.3.1 Frontal Lobes: Executive Decisions
The frontal lobes (Figure 3.23) are primarily tasked with decision-making and movement. This means that the neurons
in these areas are active during times when we must make decisions about how to act or what to do. These circuits
even seem to help encode our very personalities. It is the consequence of the interaction between the neural networks
in the frontal lobes and the rest of the CNS that comprises executive function. Decision-making in the brain is a team
effort. What we can say is that an intact frontal lobe seems to be necessary for maintaining our ability to regulate our
behavior and thought. The output of the frontal lobes tends to be inhibitory.
Figure 3.23 The frontal lobes regulate the decisions we make every day by integrating information from all over
the brain.
Take the famous case of Phineas Gage. Phineas was a railroad worker who, during an accident, was impaled with a
metal rod diagonally through the front of his skull (Figures 3.24 and 3.25). He survived the accident. There have been
conflicting accounts of what happened to Phineas Gage following his injury, such that it is difficult to get a clear picture.
The most common telling of the story is that Gage's personality changed drastically following the accident. However,
there seemed to have been few accounts written at the time about any changes in behavior.
Some researchers have attempted to reconstruct the injury using 3D scan technology (Ratiu et al., 2004) and have found
that areas in the frontal cortex were likely affected by the accident. Since then, scientific research has provided
significant and convincing evidence that the prefrontal cortex is involved in decision-making and facets of what we call
personality (Boes et al., 2011; Tranel et al., 2002).
In fact, the embellishment of the Phineas Gage story over the years may have been affected by individuals trying to "fit"
his story to the data we now have. Could you design an experiment to test the hypothesis that the prefrontal cortex is
important in personality? What would that experiment look like? What kinds of tools would you use? Think about this
now, and again after you read the section on research methods in neuroscience.
Figure 3.24 A rod approximately 1¼” in diameter went
through the front-most region of Phineas Gage's brain,
known as the prefrontal cortex. This particular region of
the brain has been implicated in moral behavior, risk
taking and risk assessment, and inhibition of behavior.
Patients who have had similar injuries to Gage also
show behaviors like mood swings, aggression, and
impaired decision-making. [23]
Figure 3.25 Phineas Gage’s skull is on display at Harvard Medical

School.[24]
The most posterior structure (toward the back of the head) in the frontal lobes is the motor cortex, which houses the
primary neurons that initiate voluntary movement. The primary motor cortex gives rise to two major pathways: the
motor axons of the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts. These bundles of axons control movement of the muscles in
the body (spinal) and head/face (cobulbar), respectively.
Early researchers found something interesting when mapping the signals from neurons in the cortex that elicited
movement in specific muscles. They found that the more complex the movement is or the more delicate the movement
is, the more neurons are involved in signaling movement to the muscles involved. This led early neuroscientists to
construct a representation of this phenomenon called a homunculus, which is a graphical representation of the number
of neurons dedicated to a specific body part/function (Figure 3.26). There is also a sensory homunculus created to
represent sensory input in the parietal lobe (Figure 3.31). Currently, data from more sophisticated imaging tools has
begun to challenge this idea of a homunculus, or at least show that it is a bit “messier” than we thought (Branco,
2003). In the following video, the instructor takes an actual human brain and dissects it, showing the pathways that
control movement.
Video
Figure 3.26 The number of neurons dedicated to receiving input from a particular area of the body
corresponds to that area’s tactile sensitivity. The areas that have the largest representation tend to be
directly related to our ability to survive, eat, and procreate. [26]
If we go a little further toward the forehead, we get to the prefrontal cortex (PFC). This area is fascinating. Scientists have
discovered that the prefrontal cortex receives input from all parts of the cerebral cortex. The prefrontal cortex helps us
decide when, why, and how we do things. In this one important area, we house about 14–17% of the neurons in the
brain. Note that the prefrontal cortex has both inhibitory (hyperpolarizing) and excitatory (depolarizing) connections.
This is what makes this area able to integrate information and act as a coordinator, because it is set up as a series of
on/off switches that make what we call “if, then” decisions. These are decisions that are not just “go” and “stop,” like in
the case of simple spinal circuits. These multilevel connections in the PFC allow it to make decisions based on several
different sources of information, whereby it will say “if this happens, then we can do that” (Kolb et al., 2012). Neural
dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex seems to correlate with the presence of “negative symptoms” in schizophrenic
patients, which include social withdrawal.
There are also parts of the prefrontal cortex that are even further specialized to make decisions based on specific
criteria or input. Two examples include the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
(DLPFC). The vmPFC (closer to the bottom inside part of the cortex) helps to modulate behavior based on fear and has
been implicated in moral decision-making (Hiser & Koenigs, 2018; Schneider & Koenigs, 2017). The DLPFC (closer to the
top and side of the head) helps us maintain information in our working memory and change how we do things
depending on what task we are trying to complete. For example, the DLPFC might change the sequence and groups of
muscles your motor cortex activates while you hammer a nail based on whether you are sitting on the edge of a roof or
comfortably in your apartment.
The prefrontal cortex is one of the last regions to undergo the process of myelination, where oligodendrocytes wrap
myelin around axons to speed up the transmission of impulses. The implications are huge. This is a contributing factor
to the higher degree of impulsiveness and lack of consideration of context in adolescents. Of course, like any human
behavior or thought pattern, there is a large degree of variability in that tendency. Some adolescents are less impulsive
and seem to make better executive decisions than others. But even that is a complicated equation. See Chapter 4:
Development for more on this issue.
3.5.3.2 Parietal Lobes: Space, Time, and Numbers
As we move toward the back of the head, we come to the parietal lobes. Circuitry within the parietal lobes seems to be
heavily involved in functions like processing numbers and performing calculations. There are even differences between
the left and right sides. If the right side of the parietal lobe is injured severely, we end up with problems like not
navigating the space around us well (spatial relations) or misinterpreting sensation from our left side.
The sensory cortex in the anterior portion (closer to the frontal lobe) of the parietal lobe receives input from the
contralateral (opposite) side of the body. This is because the nerves that carry sensation from the body, and motor
commands from the brain to the body, cross at the level of the brainstem (Figure 3.27). This allows the information
carried from sensory receptors in the skin, muscles, and joints to integrate with other areas of the brain via circuits in the
brainstem and the thalamus. This decussation, or crossing, also helps us coordinate both sides of the body, as we do in
most movements. Humans do a lot of cross-lateral movements, where we have to coordinate both sides to reach across
the midline of the body (van Hof et al., 2002). Think about throwing a ball, eating, or dancing—all of these movements
require crossing the midline of the body.
Figure 3.27 Sensory Pathways. There are three synapses prior to the sensory cortex in the parietal lobe,
creating a relay system for electrical impulses.
The parietal lobe’s connections also help it process information about where the body is in space and form mental
representations of numbers.
3.5.3.3 Temporal Lobes: Listen to the Memories
Your temporal lobe (Figure 3.28) is the part of your brain right above your ear. Neurons in this area of the cortex assist us
with tasks like forming memories and processing sound input from the auditory nerves. Temporal lobe lesions ,
focused areas where cells have died, result most often in memory loss, and especially the loss of the ability to form new
memories (called anterograde amnesia; Lech & Suchan, 2013). The temporal lobes and hippocampus have even starred
in movies like Memento. In this movie, the protagonist suffers from anterograde amnesia from a head injury. While trying
to solve a mystery, he tattoos events on his body to remember them, each time gaining a piece of the puzzle. This is the
only way he could solve his mystery because damage to his hippocampus or its connections to the temporal lobes
prevented him from forming new memories.
Figure 3.28 The temporal lobes interpret auditory information, help to form and store new memories, and
process language.
The temporal lobe is also important for hearing. How important? Let’s consider what happens when someone sustains
damage to the primary auditory cortex , the caudal part of the temporal lobe. If the damage is extensive, the person
can lose all ability to perceive sound, without any damage or alteration to the ear itself or the cochlear nerve. This
means, of course, that you can “hear” because circuits in your temporal lobes code the information they receive
through specific frequencies of action potentials originating in axons of the cochlear nerve, but you are unable to use
this information effectively.
The temporal lobe has a third role related to audition: The left temporal lobe also houses Wernicke’s area , an
important area for the processing of language. People who have had strokes or injuries involving the neural networks in
this area have trouble with auditory processing and comprehension of speech.
Finally, the temporal lobes house the cortical site of smell (olfactory) and taste synapses. In fact, olfactory information is
the only sensory information that does not pass through the thalamic relay synapses but instead goes straight to the
temporal lobes. For other mammals like dogs and rats, smell is of the utmost importance, even for survival. Olfactory
input is also important for bonding between mother and offspring (Sanchez-Adrade, 2009).
Humans do not use the olfactory system as much as some animals—we are mainly visual creatures—but it is still
important. Did you know that perfume manufacturers incorporate chemistry and neuroscience of the olfactory system
to design scents that attract others (Newson, n.d.)?
Memory and olfaction are also related functionally in humans:
. . . the smell from a grill could spark up nostalgia

—Summertime, Jazzy Jeff and Fresh Prince, 1997
We seem to “tag” our memories partially with smells, such that a smell can be used as a cue to help us remember
something (Cann & Ross, 1989).
3.5.3.4 Occipital Lobes: Visions of the Present
Humans are highly visual creatures. We dedicate about a third of our brains (including but not limited to the occipital
lobes) to processing and interpreting visual information.
The occipital lobes are primarily concerned with processing light stimuli. We could just say “visual information,” but it is
useful to stay focused on what we are actually dealing with. Some say that you don’t really “see” as much as your brain
circuits process the detection of different wavelengths and intensities of light.
Note how the nerves in the visual system cross, like the ascending sensory pathways we showed you earlier that
synapse in the brainstem, thalamus, and parietal lobes (Figure 3.27). The optic nerves (Figure 3.29) originate in the
retina of the eye and decussate partially at the optic chiasma. The goal here is to make sure that the nerve fibers
(bundles of axons) that start in the retina end in a designated part of the occipital cortex in order to organize
information. When light comes from the left visual field to contact the medial portion of your left eye and the lateral part
of your right eye's retina, after a short time neurons will depolarize and activate in the right thalamus (the lateral
geniculate nucleus, LGN) and the right occipital cortex (Figure 3.34). You know that you just saw something on your left
side, because neurons on the right side of your brain initiate electrical impulses.
Figure 3.29 The optic nerves that represent the left and right sides of your visual field (what you can see) cross
over to the opposite side of the brain. This helps you integrate what you see into a whole picture. [27]

There are neurons so specialized in your occipital cortex that some of them only fire when they see an object or feature
in a particular angle or position. Damage to the neurons of the occipital lobe through stroke, seizure, or trauma can rob
us completely of sight, or the ability to see something specific like faces. However, we can “remap” the brain to prioritize
another sense—some people who are blind talk about “seeing” the world in sound.
3.5.3.5 Brain Laterality
The issue of laterality, or the idea that one hemisphere of the brain performs different functions than the other, is a
concept that contains both truth and myth.
Some of you have heard that if you are artistic or creative, you are “right-brained,” and if you are analytic, you are “left-
brained.” The issue of laterality is often a misunderstood one; the reality is more complicated. In visual processing, for
example, the right brain sees things globally, while the left brain typically responds to detail and specificity. Language
tends to be processed and produced on the left side of the brain, but some activity on the right side is necessary to
maintain a complete sense of what we are hearing and saying (Fink et al., 1997).
Some try to predict careers or interests from an assumption that a person is “left-brained” or “right-brained.” In reality,
whether someone is an artist or scientist, they could be left-brained or right-brained. Some people create great art
through analysis and detail, and some scientists conduct great science because they have vivid imaginations. Further,
no one is completely lateralized. The reality is that we all use both sides of our brains quite a bit.
So is anyone really "right-brained" or "left-brained"? Aspects of human function may require one side of the brain more
than the other for certain tasks. For example, comprehension of language and output (speech) are both localized more
on the left side of the brain. But language is not completely localized to the left. Patients with right hemisphere damage
will still show language deficits (Gajardo-Vidal et al., 2018).
3.5.3.6 The Corpus Callosum
The corpus callosum (Figure 3.30), or “tough body,” is a thick bundle of fibers whose purpose is to connect the two
hemispheres and allow them to share information. Remember that sensory information, with the exception of olfaction
(smell), crosses from one side to the other. The corpus callosum helps to make sense of these crossing messages.
Figure 3.30 The corpus callosum is a thick bundle of axons that help networks in one hemisphere of the brain
communicate with the other hemisphere. This is an important structure for the higher-order processing of
sensory information. [28]
A treatment used on some patients with severe epilepsy is to transect (cut) the corpus callosum. This helps calm
seizures, but as you can imagine, it produces some other problems in these “split-brain” patients. Split-brain patients
have trouble seeing an object in their left visual field and naming it (Sperry et al., 1979). But the patient should be able
to name this object because language output is regulated by Broca’s area on the left, right? Remember that visual
information from the left visual field is processed in the right visual cortex. So now, this information is basically “stuck”
in the right hemisphere. If the patient is allowed to view the object using the right visual field or both, they can name the
object easily.
You can click on the interactive 3-D brain below and turn it around. This model shows part of the neocortex and quite a
few structures inside the brain. Write down at least five structures that you recognize as you rotate it!
iFrame
3.6 The Endocrine System

The endocrine system consists of a series of glands throughout the body that release hormones. It may seem strange to
discuss the endocrine system in a psychology textbook, but these hormones have profound influences on our behavior.
The endocrine system serves as a secondary control system that assists and gives valuable feedback to the nervous
system about what is happening in the body. Hormones secreted by endocrine glands can also act as
neurotransmitters.
Three major endocrine control centers rest within the central nervous system: (a) the hypothalamus , which secretes
hormones and controls the pituitary gland via direct nerve stimulation/chemicals; (b) the pineal gland, which secretes
melatonin to regulate sleep cycles; and c) the pituitary gland, which secretes a host of hormones that affect sexual
behavior, reproduction, circulatory function, hunger, and responses to aggression (Figure 3.31).
Figure 3.31 The hypothalamus regulates the pituitary, which serves as a conductor for the endocrine system
and coordinates functions as wide-ranging as temperature regulation and reproductive function.
The hypothalamus secretes a hormone that has been of major interest lately—oxytocin. This hormone has been named
the “love hormone,” but it really functions more as a bonding hormone. The release of oxytocin is a component of love,
but is not love itself. Oxytocin is released during orgasms, when we look at pictures of loved ones, and when we are near
our partners (Jones et al., 2017).
3.6.1 The HPA Axis and Stress

Earlier, we mentioned the problem of chronic stress and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. In fact,
chronic stress involves a whole triangle connecting the brain and endocrine system, called the hypothalamic-pituitary-
adrenal axis (HPA axis; Figure 3.32). The hypothalamus, part of the limbic system named for its position under the
thalamus (discussed in Section 3.5.2: The Coordinators), helps to regulate endocrine function. This part of the brain is a
bit different. It secretes hormones that control the pituitary gland, which in turn controls the adrenal glands.
Figure 3.32 The HPA axis is activated in times of stress. The hypothalamus is activated, signaling the pituitary to
release hormones that trigger the adrenal glands to release cortisol, the stress hormone.
In those experiencing chronic stress, neurons in the hypothalamus can become active more often. This drives the
pituitary to tell the adrenal glands to produce more cortisol (stress hormone). If stress is temporary, this hormone is a
good thing. It drives energy and blood flow to muscles and increases alertness. In the chronic stress state, this hormone
is released in amounts greater than we need to avoid danger. We end up feeling fatigued, storing more fat, and actually
becoming less alert over time. This also means that we are affecting the reticular activating system (Section 3.5.1: Life
Functions and Basic Reflexes).
The HPA has been the subject of some fascinating research over the past couple of decades, including the study of
psychoneuroimmunology—how the nervous system modulates immune function. In times of stress, activity in the
hypothalamus increases, driving the production of cortisol in the adrenal gland. This, in turn, can compromise the
function of the immune system. In fact, researchers have shown that if patients can cope with stress and have positive
family support, their wounds even heal faster. Further, people are more likely to get sick if they are stressed (Lasselin et
al., 2016).
Question 3.55
Review
What gland does the hypothalamus exert direct control over?
a adrenal
b thyroid
c pituitary
Your answer
d pineal
Explanation
Remembering the "HPA Axis" helps with this question. The sequence of control is hypothalamus; pituitary; adrenal.
3.7 Research Methods in Neuroscience: Exploring the System

Over time, through building on one another’s work, neuroscientists working in subspecialties like cell biology,
physiology, engineering, and biochemistry have developed several methods we can use to study the nervous system.
Each method, as you will see, boasts its own sets of capabilities and applications. They each have limitations as well.
Some are used to diagnose disease and measure the extent of injuries. Other methods, such as recordings from brain
slices, are used mostly for research in laboratories. A technique like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be used for
either purpose (Hyder & Rothman, 2017).
What these machines and chemicals do is take advantage of select physical properties and of events in nervous system
tissues and translate these into an image or some other kind of processed data. For humans and animals, we have to
think about how invasive a method is as well as how well it measures what we are actually trying to see.
Clinical applications of measurement methods seek to identify problems for the purpose of focusing treatment. While
the use of methods and technology for research applications may help us discover new treatments down the road, in
research they are used to answer the question of whether particular circuits and structures in the brain are “involved,”
“necessary,” or “sufficient.” But neither goal is completely separate from the other. The struggle to find better clinical
treatments has provided us with new questions to ask in the laboratory, and the laboratory continues to provide all
kinds of new treatments in the clinic.
3.7.1 What Do We Want to Know?

The first question to ask when thinking about research is, What do we want to know? What are we trying to figure out? In
this section, we will reference some of the concepts we spoke about above to discuss what we call the epistemology
(how we know what we know) of neuroscience. We will do this by looking at the following:
How scientists have discovered what we have learned so far about the nervous system
How our measurement tools and findings have enhanced human life or experience
What we still don’t really “know”
We can currently study the nervous system in the following ways:
Structural imaging: There are several techniques we can use to look at structures in the nervous system in great
detail.
Recording: We can record the activity of neurons both directly and indirectly in a variety of ways.
Dissection: We can take tissue out of the system and tease it apart to see how things are connected/interrelated.
Functional imaging: We can now visualize and measure changes in nervous system activity simultaneously.
We can actually study the nervous system on several levels, all the way from the awake, living human to individual
neurons kept “alive” in artificial conditions.
What we know and how we found out is a long story, so here we will just cover some major highlights. It will be like you
missed the game and are watching SportsCenter.
3.7.1.1 How Did We Develop Current Methods?
Did you know that the ancient Egyptians published the oldest surviving texts about the brain around 1600 BCE (Figure
3.33)? Talk about “old school.”
Figure 3.33 Archaeologists have found evidence of Egyptian anatomical studies from thousands of years ago.
[29]
Most of the modern history of experimental study of the brain, however, can be traced back to the 1700s. We often take
for granted what we know. The unbelievable level (compared to what we knew before) of knowledge and
understanding we have of the inner workings of the brain started off with simple, crude experiments.
When we describe a neuron or circuits of neurons in the brain, it is interesting to consider the fact that we could not
always see these things. They certainly couldn’t be seen with the naked eye. We might even laugh at some of what early
philosophers thought about the nervous system, but they could not think what we think, because they could not
measure what we can. You will see that the progress was initially slow, but our capabilities have exploded since the
middle of the twentieth century.
Scientists progressed slowly from the first microscopes that allowed an extremely skilled surgeon like Otto Friedrich Karl
Deiters to separate neurons by hand in the late 1800s. This was painstaking, slow work that gave him limited options to
study networks of neurons. It wasn’t until Camillo Golgi came along and invented a specialized staining method to
visualize neurons that we could move forward (Figure 3.34). Even then, only some neurons could be seen with his
potassium dichromate and silver nitrate stain. Also, this could only happen in tissue preserved and cut after the death of
the organism. Ramon y Cajal improved on the method but still could only study disembodied brain tissue (Agnati et al.,
2007).
Figure 3.34 This is an example of a Golgi stain. Look at how clearly we could image neurons even then! [30]
What can’t we find out from studying the parts of a nervous system outside of the intact, living system? It wasn’t until
the 1990s that we could stain neurons in living tissue, thanks to the laboratory of Martin Chalfie. While scientists were
improving methods to be able to see nervous system structures, they were also thinking about trying to study them in
action. This started out fairly simply: One day, a guy started tinkering around with the legs of frogs. Back in the 1700s,
Luigi Galvani had a hunch that some form of energy was needed to make muscles move. He found that he could make a
frog leg move with electrical stimulation. Please, for the rest of the day, imagine a frog leg jumping over and over again.
The sum of his conclusion was that there was some kind of “animal electricity.” Even though scientists were pretty sure
that electricity flowed through neurons to create brain activity, it wasn’t until the early 1900s that researchers began
developing reliable methods to record electrical impulses from the brain.
In many ways, neuroscience and technological capability have benefited from a symbiotic relationship. Each discovery
made through emerging technology in turn allows us to further improve the technology. For example, the discovery
that membranes of neurons allow electrons to pass was an important discovery. It got scientists all around the world
interested in the properties of this part of the neuron.
Because of this interest, Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann were inspired to develop the “patch-clamp” technique to
record electrical activity from individual neurons. This is where a small glass electrode is placed on the membrane of a
neuron. Using suction (originally by mouth), part of the membrane is pulled up into the electrode. This gives us the
ability to stimulate and record from a small “patch” of membrane to study how receptors and channels influence the
electrical activity in the neuron. The implications of this are far-reaching. Once scientists had this capability, they were
able to use this technique (along with others) to study the action of psychiatric drugs at the molecular level and use this
information to improve treatment.
Have you ever had an EEG? If you know someone who suffers from epilepsy, they may have had one. The
first electroencephalogram (EEG), a method that allows us to record directly from clusters of electrical activity in the
brain, was administered by Hans Berger in 1924. Since then, the method has been refined so that it is more efficient.
EEG setups can now record much smaller, more specific signals than they used to. This is called resolution. The
resolution was improved by using materials with a greater ability to conduct electricity more efficiently. Resolution is
also improved through better strategies to reduce what is called signal-to-noise ratio. This is done by creating computer
programs and equipment that filter noise, which is any energy or magnetic field that interferes with the detection of the
brain’s electrical signals.
Question 3.59
Review
Fill in the Blanks
Type your answers in all of the blanks and submit
We increase signal-to-noise ratio by using computer software to reduce noise .
You are correct
Explanation
We want to reduce noise—meaningless interference—and boost signal—meaningful information.
3.7.2 What Can We Measure? What Can’t We Measure?

Part of what scientists have to consider in the laboratory or in the clinic are (a) the limitations of the machinery and
techniques and (b) the limitations placed upon research for ethical and ecological reasons.
Let’s use the ability to learn a task like grabbing a treat from a bin. The first thing a researcher might want to do is inject
a bunch of animals that are performing a task with a tracer that is taken up by active neurons. Then, they may image the
tracer with an advanced technique like autoradiography, which projects an image onto a film of the brain. We can see
different structures evident on the film because the tracer chemical decays, and different tissue takes up different
amounts of the tracer.
EEG could be used to record changes in electrical potential during the task as well (Figure 3.35). We place electrodes at
areas on the scalp known to correspond to particular brain areas. This is a great tool to use for recording almost directly
from the neocortex (the signal still has to get through bone, muscle, and skin), but it doesn’t show us activity changes in
deeper brain structures like the basal ganglia.
Figure 3.35 A typical EEG setup is used to measure cognitive function. The subject will be asked to complete a
set of tasks, while summed electrical activity of groups of neurons is measured through the scalp. An EEG can
usually only measure activity in the neocortex. [31]
To access deeper brain structures, we could image a primate brain during the task with fMRI (Figure 3.36), which
measures the oxygen level changes as related to blood flow. This is not a direct measurement of electrical activity, but it
is the next best thing. Just like in your muscles during exercise, blood flow around neurons increases when they are
used. Any biological tissue that becomes more active will need blood flow to provide oxygen and nutrients for energy.
Figure 3.36 A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Machine (fMRI). This machine is used
to measure changes in blood flow in the brain following increases/decreases in neural activity.
[32]
None of these methods tells us which neurons are active at which times or which neurotransmitters are being released
by neurons during the task. We would need to use indwelling electrodes, inserted into the brain itself during surgery, to
measure individual clusters of neurons. A PET scan could help us figure out which neurotransmitters were being
released. To do this, we would inject a radioactively tagged molecule that competes with our target neurotransmitter,
such as dopamine, for its receptor binding site. That way, as more dopamine is released, it will displace the competitive
ligand (Kanthan et al., 2017).
Even after all of this, we still don’t know whether these networks of neurons and supporting glia are necessary or
sufficient for grabbing the treat. We couldn’t just measure to answer those questions. We would have to use
experimental manipulation to isolate structures and functions at predetermined times.
To answer whether one set of neurons in the networks that lit up on our trace are necessary for treat grabbing, we would
first need to somehow stop the neurons from activating by injecting an antagonist. Then we would observe whether the
animal continues to be able to perform that function without these networks. How do we shut down a circuit? We could
do this in one of several ways, some of which are reversible and some of which are not (Figure 3.37):
Inject an inhibitory drug that keeps the neurons from firing action potentials (reversible)
Inject a drug that overexcites neurons and kills them (irreversible)
Cut them out of the nervous system physically via an ablation (irreversible)
Figure 3.37 Stereotaxic surgery is used to inject drugs that inhibit or produce lesions in a focused area of the
brain. [33]
If we stop these neurons from working and the animal can no longer grab the treat, we know that these neurons were
necessary for the task. However, we still don’t know if they were sufficient or enough. It could be that the neurons in this
circuit are part of a larger network that is also necessary for performing the task.
Say we were studying the task of reaching in a subject that had a disease like multiple sclerosis (MS). Since MS degrades
myelin, a technique like diffusion tensor imaging could be employed to measure differences in white matter content
(Puig et al., 2017). That way, we could measure the performance on the reaching task against the number of myelinated
axons to determine how much the loss of white matter affects task performance.
How do we figure out whether activating our chosen circuit within this larger network is sufficient to stimulate the
animal to grab the treat? We can do several things here as well, and see if they either stop the animal from grabbing the
treat or make the animal grab the treat:
Artificially stimulate the target network with an electrode or excitatory drug that promotes action potentials and
see if this makes the animal grab the treat
Inject an inhibitory drug into the other circuits that were highlighted by the tracer and see if the animal still grabs
the treat
Cut the other circuits out and see if this stops the animal from grabbing the treat
Can you take the suggestions above and find where we would not be able to use some of these methods in humans? In
humans, it is more difficult to determine which structures and functions are necessary or sufficient for a task because
we cannot do things that are as invasive as some of the techniques we use in non-human animal research. Invasive
means we are going into the body with an instrument of some sort. Of course, this is risky, because when you open the
body or stick something in it, you run the risk of damaging or hurting the animal.
In humans, we can use noninvasive imaging methods, study cadavers (dead bodies), and inject some drugs. We can
also study patients who suffer from nervous system disorders or injuries while alive or after death. Now that we can
image the brain in the live, intact, patient while we observe their behaviors, we can confirm in humans some of the
things we have observed in animal research.
Scientists and technicians are always trying to improve on methods. In fact, the ideal method would have great
resolution, be noninvasive, and be able to be used in an awake, moving human. No method is perfect. Which method
we use to diagnose patients or obtain data from volunteers really depends on what we are trying to measure, the
characteristics of the person being measured, how much time we have, and even budgetary considerations. Table 3.2
lists the common brain imaging techniques used today.
Method What Does It Do? Advantages Disadvantages Examples of Use

Uses x-rays that pass
CT Scan through the body Detect changes in
Fast, cheap, and
(Computerized and can generate Radiation exposure structure due to
noninvasive
Tomography) images of “slices” of disease
the body
Uses magnetic fields
to image alignments Really expensive,
Noninvasive, great Detect changes in
MRI (Magnetic of hydrogen ions cannot have
precision, no structure due to
Resonance Imaging) (different tissues biomedical devices
radiation disease
have different or metal in patients
amounts of water)
Cardiovascular
Uses magnetic fields disease or
to image alignments Noninvasive, no compromised Can measure
of hydrogen ions radiation, no function can make activation during a
fMRI (functional MRI)
(different tissues injections or measurements task or following
have different ingestions unreliable; delay stimulation
amounts of water) between stimulus
and output
Tracks and images
water movement The interpretation
Noninvasive, no
along neural can be difficult in Study white matter
DTI (Diffusion Tensor radiation, no
pathways and can tracts that have degeneration in
Imaging) injections or
measure density of different kinds of disease
ingestions needed
neural tracts fibers
(bundles of axons)
PET/SPECT (Single Uses an ingested Visualize the activity
You can see
Photon Emission radioactive of specific
molecular changes in Radiation exposure
Computed compound to track neurotransmitters,
real time
Tomography) molecular changes can measure binding
Table 3.2 A Summary of Imaging Methods Shows Their Advantages and Disadvantages
Question 3.60
Review
If a scientist inhibits a group of neurons and an animal can no longer vocalize, we know that this group of neurons was necessary
for vocalization.
a True
Your answer
b False
Explanation
"Inhibiting" means "preventing from acting" in this case. If a set of neurons is preventing from acting, and this leads to the prevention
of speech, that tells us that the set of neurons is necessary for speech.
Question 3.61
Review
Match the problem with the appropriate method.
We need to measure dopamine activity in the Ventral

PET scan
Tegmental Area (VTA).
We need to measure activity in the basal ganglia during

a task in which the subject learns to hit a moving target fMRI
on a screen with a stick.
We want to scan a patient’s brain for possible tumors. MRI
We need to record ion flow through NMDA receptor

patch-clamp
channels.
DTI
Your answer
Explanation
Consider what each technique does: PET scans measure the activity of particular neural transmitters (like dopamine), MRIs help us
visualize the brain in a certain state (and can help look for tumors), fMRIs help us detect the function of brain areas over time (such as
in response to a moving stick), and the patch-clamp technique helps us measure electrical activity in single neurons (recall that
electrical activity is ion flow).
3.8 Summary
L.O. 3.1 It is important to have a frame of reference when learning about a new, difficult topic like the nervous system;
this chapter seeks to provide a frame of reference through illustrating how the nervous system accomplishes various
tasks (like taking a shot on a basketball court) and give examples throughout. The primary function of the nervous
system is to create behavior, and these behaviors are shaped in response to the environment.
L.O. 3.2 Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system; they send, receive, and relay messages to and
from various parts of the body using electrical and chemical processes, which is why we say the language of the brain is
“electrochemical.” Neurons are made up of many parts, with the most important for neural transmission being the
dendrites, the soma, the axon, and the terminal buttons. Dendrites receive excitatory and inhibitory messages from
other cells, and in concert with the soma determine how frequently a cell “fires” an action potential. Action potentials
travel along the length of a neuron, allowing for electrical messages to be sent quickly; myelin speeds this transmission
along. When an action potential reaches the terminal buttons, neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft and
act on the postsynaptic cell. Despite neurons’ critical role in communication, glial support cells like astrocytes,
microglia, and oligodendrocytes are every bit as important to the function of the nervous system. Neurons control the
flow of electrical activity and produce action potentials by regulating the presence of ions on either side of the cell
membrane; this is accomplished through the use of ion channels. Neurotransmitters are the chemical component of
the electrochemical “language of the brain”; they play important roles in regulating mood, pleasure, movement,
memory, and more. There are many different kinds of neurotransmitters; they can be excitatory or inhibitory, and
psychoactive drugs act primarily to modulate the effectiveness of neurotransmitters.
L.O. 3.3 The human nervous system contains billions of neurons working together to interpret the environment and
create behavior through a network of afferent and efferent signals. The human nervous system is a product of both
genetics as well as the environment; genetics provide the blueprint, while the environment helps shape it through a
process called neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity shapes the nervous system’s conscious and unconscious components,
and both are very important in creating adaptive behavior.
L.O. 3.4 The nervous system can be divided into central and peripheral components, and the peripheral nervous
system can be further subdivided into somatic and autonomic components. The autonomic nervous system is divided
once more into sympathetic and parasympathetic components. Neural signals can be afferent or efferent, depending
on whether they move toward or away from the central nervous system. The somatic nervous system controls voluntary
muscle movement, whereas the autonomic nervous system handles automatic bodily functions that keep us alive and
allow us to prepare for and recover from arousing situations like emergencies and exciting activities.
L.O. 3.5 The medulla controls basic life-support processes, while the pons regulates arousal and transfers information
to other portions of the brain from the spinal cord. The limbic system is a part of the brain heavily involved in collecting,
organizing, and modifying information for the rest of the brain; it is made up of many individual networks of neurons
located medially in the brain. The functions of the amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, and hypothalamus are
particularly important for regulating emotion, memory, perception of pain, as well as motivation. The basal ganglia and
cerebellum are important for learning, regulating, and producing skilled movement. The thalamus can be thought of as
a “relay station,” directing sensory information to and from other parts of the brain. The neocortex is the home of
higher-level processing and is made up of four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital), and these lobes contain
various gyri and sulci. Decision-making, impulse control, and movement are controlled by the frontal lobes; Broca’s
area is also contained in the left frontal lobe. Our parietal lobes contralaterally process the sense of touch, process
numbers, as well as help situate us in time and space. Our senses of hearing and smell are processed by the temporal
lobes, which have a close association with the hippocampus and memory formation; Wernicke’s area is located in the
left temporal lobe. Visual information is contralaterally processed by the occipital lobes (right visual input is processed
by the left occipital lobe and vice versa), creating our sense of sight. The two hemispheres of our brains are connected
by the corpus callosum—the largest bundle of white matter axons in the brain. Because of this strong connection, it is
incorrect to assert that people are “left-brained” or “right-brained.”
L.O. 3.6 The endocrine system is a messaging system like the nervous system, but it uses the bloodstream rather than
neurons to enact its effects; the HPA Axis is one important part of the endocrine system that reacts to stress. It is
controlled by the nervous system.
L.O. 3.7 The major methods of studying the nervous system include structural imaging (CT, MRI), functional imaging
(PET/SPECT, fMRI, DTI), recording neuronal activity (EEG, single cell recording), and dissection. By studying the nervous
system, we can determine whether an individual brain structure is necessary or sufficient to produce specific behaviors.
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Credits
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[2] Image courtesy of Keith Allison under CC BY-SA 2.0.
[3] Image courtesy of OpenStax under CC BY 4.0.
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[6] Video courtesy of CrashCourse/YouTube.
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[8] Slide 1: Image courtesy of Dr. Jana under CC BY 4.0; Slide 2: Image courtesy of CNX OpenStax under CC BY 4.0; Slide 3:
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[10] Video courtesy of Helen Hayes Hospital/YouTube.
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[12] Image by Keith Johnston CC0.
[13] Image courtesy of VectorMine/Shutterstock.com.
[14] Image by Egor Shitikov CC0.
[15] Fontal Lobe: Image courtesy of Life Science Databases under CC BY-SA 2.1 JP; Precentral Gyrus: video courtesy of
Kenhub—Learn Human Anatomy/YouTube; Parietal Lobe: Image courtesy of Database Center for Life Science under CC
BY-SA 2.1 JP.; Occipital Lobe: Image courtesy of Life Science Databases under CC BY-SA 2.1 JP; Cerebellum: video
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[22] Right and Left Thalamus: Image courtesy of Life Science Databases under CC BY-SA 2.1 JP.; Thalamus; video
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Chapter 3 - Biology & Neuroscience

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3.0 Learning Objectives

3.1 Introduction: The Smart Conduit

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

Steeping some tea...

3.2.1.1 Dendrites Receive Messages

Long Text Description

3.2.1.2 The Soma and Axon Work Together to Send Messages

Long Text Description

Steeping some tea...

Steeping some tea...

Steeping some tea...

Steeping some tea...

charged Potassium (K+) is another player in this process.

Long Text Description

Long Text Description

Access Interactive Timeline 3.1 in a new browser tab.

Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer

a trouble maintaining resting potential

b trouble being stimulated

c trouble shutting down after activation

d trouble maintaining the integrity of the membrane

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Targets placed: 1/1 Undo Delete selected Remove All

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Put the following steps in the right order.

triggering of voltage-sensitive Na channels

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b channels that hold water

c channels that allow ions to come in or leave the neuron

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Match the part to its function.

axon Na channels propagation of the action potential

potassium channels maintenance of the resting potential

speeding up conduction of the electrical

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Multiple answers: Multiple answers are accepted for this question

b changes in shape of the cell

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a I would break open the membrane.

c I would just change the membrane to let everything through.

d I would make electricity happen without charged particles.

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Click on the structure that represents where neuronal activity is typically

Targets placed: 2/2 Undo Delete selected Remove All

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3.2.3 How Neurotransmitters and Receptors Work

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binding of a neurotransmitter to a receptor

influx of positive ions into the cell body

opening of voltage-gated sodium channels on the cell body

opening of potassium channels

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3.2.3.1 Your Brain on Drugs

a a dopamine receptor agonist

b a norepinephrine receptor agonist

c a partial acetylcholine receptor antagonist

d a serotonin receptor antagonist